High reliability of performance of well-trained rowers on a rowing ergometer

A novel measure to quantify technical ability in on-water rowing

This study developed a new measure that quantifies technical ability in on-water rowing by accounting for the effects of an athlete's physiological capabilities and the given environmental conditions. Maximal 2000 m efforts for both ergometer and on-water (n = 340 of each) were collected from 162 national and international athletes (78 women, 84 men) over 16 years. A linear mixed model predicted on-water performance from static ergometer performance (physiological capability), accounting for day of on-water testing (environmental condition effects). On-water delta was the difference between predicted and actual on-water performance. The model revealed significant fixed effects (intercept = 17.70 s, 95% CI = [8.43, 26.97], p < 0.001; ergometer coefficient = 0.87, 95% CI = [0.81, 0.93], p < 0.001), and random effects for year ranged from -15.43 s to 47.98 s (median = -6.29 s). On-water delta ranged from -32.8 s (faster than predicted) to 51.1 s (slower). On-water delta provides a new dependent variable that can be used to quantify technical ability in future investigations. The current data provide contextual on-water delta values from a large sample of high-level athletes, and the outlined modelling approach can be applied to new datasets to provide population-specific quantifications of technical ability.

Effects of acute beetroot juice intake on performance, maximal oxygen uptake, and ventilatory efficiency in well-trained master rowers: a randomized, double-blinded crossover study

BACKGROUND

Beetroot juice (BRJ) intake has been considered a practical nutritional strategy among well-trained athletes. This study aimed to assess the effects of BRJ intake on performance, cardiorespiratory and metabolic variables during a simulated 2000-meter rowing ergometer test in well-trained master rowers.

METHOD

Ten well-trained male master rowers (30-48 years) participated in a randomized, double-blind, crossover design for 3 weeks. In the first week, a researcher explained all the experimental procedures to the participants. In the next two weeks, the participants were tested in 2 rowing ergometer sessions, separated from each other by a 7-day washout period. In both strictly identical sessions, the participants randomly drank BRJ or placebo (PL) 3 hours before the start of the tests. Subsequently, the participants carried out the 2000-meter rowing ergometer tests. Oxygen saturation and blood lactate measurements were performed before starting (pretest) and at the end of the test (posttest). Performance parameters and cardiorespiratory variables were recorded during the rowing ergometer test.

RESULTS

An improvement in time trial performance was observed, with a mean difference of 4 seconds (90% confidence limits ± 3.10; p ≤ 0.05) compared to PL. Relative and absolute maximaloxygenuptake V ˙ O 2 max increased (mean difference of 2.10 mL·kg-1·min-1, 90% confidence limits ± 1.80; mean difference of 0.16 L·min-1 90% confidence limits ± 0.11, respectively; p ≤ 0.05) compared to PL. No ergogenic effect was observed on ventilatory efficiency and blood lactate concentrations after BRJ intake.

CONCLUSION

Acute BRJ intake may improve time trial performance as well as V ˙ O 2 max in well-trained master rowers. However, BRJ does not appear to improve ventilatory efficiency.

Physical and technical attributes associated with on-water rowing performance in junior and elite rowers

On-water rowing performance consists of the integration of physical and technical attributes. This exploratory study aimed to describe key physical and technical variables for elite and junior rowers and examine the associations and predictive capacity of these variables with on-water rowing performance outcomes. Twenty-eight junior (16 females, 16 ± 0.8 years and 12 males, 17 ± 0.7 years) and 24 elite rowers (12 females, 24 ± 2.7 years and 12 males, 27 ± 2.6 years) completed an on-water, single sculling biomechanics assessment combined with a series of physical, strength and power tests. Elite men and women were superior in mean gate force, distance per stroke and recovery distance compared to junior groups as determined by independent t-tests and effect size appraisal (p < 0.017, d > 1.2). Large associations (p < 0.01) were evident between anthropometry, strength and power assessments with the on-water measures of catch angle, mean gate force, recovery distance and boat speed. Differences in ROM and flexibility attributes did not distinguish between elite and junior rowers. Linear discriminant analysis revealed that individual rowers can be appropriately categorised by sex and performance level based on their physical and technical attributes. This battery of testing with world-class athletes represents an excellent level of ecological validity for the assessment of rowers pertinent to on-water performance.

Striking a balance: Exploring attention, attack accuracy and speed in fencing performance

In fencing, it remains unclear whether practice enhances visual-spatial attention allocation. We explored whether this ability is improved in fencers and if it is related to attack speed and accuracy. Twelve novices (<1 year of experience) and 12 trained epee fencers (18 ± 10 years of experience) visited the laboratory twice (familiarization and testing session). They performed a covert orienting of visuospatial attention test (COVAT) on a computer and an epee test, involving 30 trials of 3 shuttles followed by fast attack phases where the fencers quickly hit a target (randomly proposed out of 8). We measured COVAT reaction time, number of successful target hits, and execution time to hit in the fencing test. We found shorter COVAT reaction time for trained fencers (332 ± 24 ms) versus novices (367 ± 32 ms; p < 0.001). The number of hits was greater for trained fencers (22 ± 3) versus novices (16 ± 3; p < 0.001). ANCOVA showed a difference in execution time at the test (823 ± 73 ms vs. 913 ± 141 ms, p = 0.035). A relationship was found between hits and execution time and between execution time and COVAT reaction time for the trained group (r = 0.62, p = 0.03 and r = 0.70, p = 0.01, respectively) but not in the novice group (r = 0.11, p = 0.72 and r = 0.45, p = 0.14, respectively). Mediation analysis showed that the relationship between execution time and number of hits (ADE: p = 0.008) was not mediated by COVAT reaction time (ACME: p = 0.17). These results evidence the importance of visual-spatial attention allocation in fencing and evidence differences between novices and trained fencers with important implications for talent development in the early career stage.

The Reliability of a Single-Trial Measurement of Maximal Accumulated Oxygen Deficit Determined via Perceptually-Regulated Exercise

Purpose: The aim of this study was to evaluate the reliability of a single-trial determination of maximal accumulated oxygen deficit (MAOD) achieved via the aid of perceptually-regulated incremental exercise. Methods: 14 trained male cyclists (age: 45 ± 8 yrs; height: 1.82 ± 0.06 m; mass: 79.7 ± 6.7 kg; V ˙ O 2 max : 4.09 ± 0.57 L·min-1) performed three trials of a submaximal incremental cycling test followed by a test to exhaustion at 116% of predicted V ˙ O 2 max . The intensity for each stage of the incremental test was regulated by participants to elicit perceived exertion levels of 9-15 on the Borg (6-20) scale. Linear regression was used to estimate V ˙ O 2 max at a perceived exertion level of 19. MAOD was calculated from the difference between predicted and actual oxygen demand in the test to exhaustion, reported in oxygen equivalents (O2 eq). A separate incremental test was used to measure V ˙ O 2 max directly. Results: Correlation coefficients between perceived exertion and V ˙ O 2 across trials were strong (r ≥0.99), and there were no between-trial differences in predicted V ˙ O 2 max (4.03 ± 1.04, 3.76 ± 0.53, and 3.69 ± 0.64 L·min-1, respectively; p = .142) or MAOD (2.75 ± 2.28, 2.50 ± 1.53, and 2.93 ± 1.40 L O2 eq, respectively; p = .633). Nevertheless, the coefficients of variation for predicted V ˙ O 2 max (14.2%) and MAOD (142.8%) were poor. Conclusions: The prediction of V ˙ O 2 max from perceptually-regulated exercise displays a level of test-retest reliability which prevents its use as a means of evaluating MAOD reliably in a single-trial.

Contribution of different strength determinants on distinct phases of Olympic rowing performance in adolescent athletes

Aerobic metabolism dominates Olympic rowing, but research on the relative contribution of strength and power demands is limited. This study aimed to identify the contribution of different strength determinants for distinct phases of rowing ergometer performance. The cross-sectional analysis comprised of 14 rowing athletes (4 female, 10 male, age: 18.8 ± 3.0y, 16.9 ± 2.2y). Measurements included anthropometrics, maximal strength of leg press, trunk extension and flexion, mid-thigh pull (MTP) and handgrip strength, VO2max, and a 2000 m time trial, where peak forces at the start, middle and end phase were assessed. Additionally, rate of force development (RFD) was assessed during the isometric leg press and MTP with intervals of 150, 350 ms and 150, 300 ms, respectively. Stepwise regression models for ergometer performance showed that the start phase was mainly explained by maximal trunk extension and RFD 300 ms of MTP (R2 = 0.91, p < 0.001) and the middle section by VO2max, maximal leg press strength and sitting height (R2 = 0.84, p < 0.001). For the end phase, a best fit was observed for trunk flexion, RFD 350 ms of leg press, body height and sex (R2 = 0.97 p < 0.001), whereas absolute VO2max, trunk flexion and sex explained variance over the entire 2000 m time trial (R2 = 0.98, p < 0.001). It appears that for the high acceleration in the start phase, force transmission through maximum strength for trunk extension is essential, while fast power production along the kinetic chain is also relevant. Additionally, the results support that maximal force complements the reliance on VO2max. Further intervention studies are needed to refine training recommendations.

Test-retest reliability of ski-specific aerobic, sprint, and neuromuscular performance tests in highly trained cross-country skiers

PURPOSE

Laboratory tests are commonly performed by cross-country (XC) skiers due to the challenges of obtaining reliable performance indicators on snow. However, only a few studies have reported reliability data for ski-specific test protocols. Therefore, this study examined the test-retest reliability of ski-specific aerobic, sprint, and neuromuscular performance tests.

METHODS

Thirty-nine highly trained XC skiers (26 men and 13 women, age: 22 ± 4 years, V̇O2max : 70.1 ± 4.5 and 58.8 ± 4.4 mL·kg-1 ·min-1 , respectively) performed two test trials within 6 days of a diagonal V̇O2max test, n = 27; skating graded exercise test to assess the second lactate threshold (LT2 ), n = 27; 24-min double poling time trial (24-min DP, n = 25), double poling sprint test (SprintDP1 , n = 27), and 1-min self-paced skating sprint test (Sprint1-min , n = 26) using roller skis on a treadmill, and an upper-body strength test (UB-ST, n = 27) to assess peak power (Ppeak ) with light, medium, and heavy loads. For each test, the coefficient of variation (CV), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), and minimal detectable change (MDC) were calculated.

RESULTS

V̇O2max demonstrated good-to-excellent reliability (CV = 1.4%; ICC = 0.99; MDC = 112 mL·min-1 ), whereas moderate-to-excellent reliability was found for LT2 (CV = 3.1%; ICC = 0.95). Performance during 24-min DP, SprintDP1 , and Sprint1-min showed good-to-excellent reliability (CV = 1.0%-2.3%; ICC = 0.96-0.99). Absolute reliability for UB-ST Ppeak was poor (CV = 4.9%-7.8%), while relative reliability was excellent (ICC = 0.93-0.97) across the loads.

CONCLUSION

In highly trained XC skiers, sport-specific aerobic and sprint performance tests demonstrated high test-retest reliability, while neuromuscular performance for the upper body was less reliable. Using the presented protocols, practitioners can assess within- and between-season changes in relevant performance indicators.

Heart rate variability of elite female rowers in preparation for and during the national selection regattas: a pilot study on the relation to on water performance

Elite athletes require a delicate balance of physiological and psychological stress and recovery-essential for achieving optimal performance. Monitoring heart rate variability (HRV) provides a non-invasive estimation of both physiological and psychological stress levels, offering potentially valuable insights into health, performance, and adaptability. Previous studies, primarily conducted on male participants, have shown an association between HRV and performance in the context of rowing training. However, given the rigorous nature of rowing training, it is crucial to investigate HRV in elite rowers, particularly during the U.S. national selection regattas (NSR).

Purpose

To comprehensively analyze elite female rowers, evaluating acute changes in HRV and subjective psychometrics during the NSR.

Methods

Five elite female rowers (26 ± 2 years, 180 ± 8 cm, 82 ± 8 kg, 19 ± 6%fat) were recruited and tracked prior to and during NSR I and II. Morning HRV measures were completed using photoplethysmography (HRV4training) along with self-reported levels of fatigue, soreness, rating of perceived exertion, mentally energy and physical condition.

Results

Significant decreases were observed in log transformed root-mean square of successive differences (LnRMSSD; p = 0.0014) and fatigue (p = 0.01) from pre-to-during NSR, while mental energy (p = 0.01), physical condition (p = 0.01), and motivation (p = 0.006) significantly increased. These psychometric measures returned to pre-NSR levels, at post-NSR (all p < 0.05), though HRV remained slightly suppressed. NSR on-water performance was not correlated to LnRMSSD or the change in LnRMSSD (p > 0.05).

Discussion

HRV and psychometric measures are sensitive to the stress of elite rowing competition in females. However, HRV was not associated with on-water rowing performance during an elite rowing competition.

A Maximal Rowing-Ergometer Protocol to Predict Maximal Oxygen Uptake in Female Rowers

BACKGROUND

Laboratory assessment of maximal oxygen uptake (V˙O2max) is physically and mentally draining for the athlete and requires expensive laboratory equipment. Indirect measurement of V˙O2max could provide a practical alternative to laboratory testing.

PURPOSE

To examine the relationship between the maximal power output (MPO) in an individualized 7 × 2-minute incremental test (INCR-test) and V˙O2max and to develop a regression equation to predict V˙O2max from MPO in female rowers.

METHODS

Twenty female club and Olympic rowers (development group) performed the INCR-test on a Concept2 rowing ergometer to determine V˙O2max and MPO. A linear regression analysis was used to develop a prediction of V˙O2max from MPO. Cross-validation analysis of the prediction equation was performed using an independent sample of 10 female rowers (validation group).

RESULTS

A high correlation coefficient (r = .94) was found between MPO and V˙O2max. The following prediction equation was developed: V˙O2max (mL·min-1) = 9.58 × MPO (W) + 958. No difference was found between the mean predicted V˙O2max in the INCR-test (3480 mL·min-1) and the measured V˙O2max (3530 mL·min-1). The standard error of estimate was 162 mL·min-1, and the percentage standard error of estimate was 4.6%. The prediction model only including MPO, determined during the INCR-test, explained 89% of the variability in V˙O2max.

CONCLUSION

The INCR-test is a practical and accessible alternative to laboratory testing of V˙O2max.

Pacing Behaviour Development and Acquisition: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The goal-directed decision-making process of effort distribution (i.e. pacing) allows individuals to efficiently use energy resources as well as to manage the impact of fatigue on performance during exercise. Given the shared characteristics between pacing behaviour and other skilled behaviour, it was hypothesized that pacing behaviour would adhere to the same processes associated with skill acquisition and development.

METHODS

PubMed, Web of Science and PsycINFO databases between January 1995 and January 2022 were searched for articles relating to the pacing behaviour of individuals (1) younger than 18 years of age, or (2) repeatedly performing the same exercise task, or (3) with different levels of experience.

RESULTS

The search resulted in 64 articles reporting on the effect of age (n = 33), repeated task exposure (n = 29) or differing levels of experience (n = 13) on pacing behaviour. Empirical evidence identifies the development of pacing behaviour starts during childhood (~ 10 years old) and continues throughout adolescence. This development is characterized by an increasingly better fit to the task demands, encompassing the task characteristics (e.g. duration) and environment factors (e.g. opponents). Gaining task experience leads to an increased capability to attain a predetermined pace and results in pacing behaviour that better fits task demands.

CONCLUSIONS

Similar to skilled behaviour, physical maturation and cognitive development likely drive the development of pacing behaviour. Pacing behaviour follows established processes of skill acquisition, as repeated task execution improves the match between stimuli (e.g. task demands and afferent signals) and actions (i.e. continuing, increasing or decreasing the exerted effort) with the resulting exercise task performance. Furthermore, with increased task experience attentional capacity is freed for secondary tasks (e.g. incorporating opponents) and the goal selection is changed from achieving task completion to optimizing task performance. As the development and acquisition of pacing resemble that of other skills, established concepts in the literature (e.g. intervention-induced variability and augmented feedback) could enrich pacing research and be the basis for practical applications in physical education, healthcare, and sports.

Reliability of electromyography during 2000 m rowing ergometry

Purpose

This study aimed to investigate the reliability of surface electromyography (EMG) assessed at seven muscles during three repeated 2000 m rowing ergometer sessions.

Methods

Twelve male well-trained rowers participated in a repeated measures design, performing three 2000 m rowing ergometer sessions interspersed by 3–7 days (S1, S2, S3). Surface electrodes were attached to the gastrocnemius, biceps femoris, gluteus maximus, erector spinae, vastus medialis, rectus abdominis and latissimus dorsi for EMG analysis.

Results

No differences existed between 2000 m sessions for EMG amplitude for any of the seven muscles (p = 0.146–0.979). Mean coefficient of variation of EMG for 6 of 7 muscles was ‘acceptable’ (12.3–18.6%), although classed as ‘weak’ for gastrocnemius (28.6%). Mean intra-class correlation coefficient values across muscles ranged from ‘moderate’ to ‘very large’ (0.31–0.89). Within-session EMG activation rates of vastus medialis were greater during 0–500 m and 1500–2000 m segments, compared with 500–1000 m and 1000–1500 m (p < 0.05). Values for biceps femoris and gluteus maximus were significantly higher during 1500–2000 m compared to 500–1000 m and 1000–1500 m (p < 0.05). The general pattern was for higher activation rates during 0–500 m and 1500–2000 m compared to 500–1000 m and 1000–1500 m. However, there were no between-sessions differences in EMG for any of the 500 m segments (p > 0.05).

Conclusion

Reliability of EMG values over repeated 2000 m sessions was generally ‘acceptable’. However, EMG was seemingly not sensitive enough to detect potential changes in neural activation between-sessions, with respect to changes in pacing strategy.

Can ten days of heat acclimation training improve temperate-condition rowing performance in national-level rowers?

This study investigated whether heat acclimation (HA) could improve rowing performance in temperate conditions in national-level rowers. Using a parallel-group design, eleven rowers (3 female, 8 male, age: 21±3 years, height: 182.3±6.8cm, mass: 79.2±9.0kg, V˙O2peak: 61.4±5.1ml·kg·min^-1) completed either a HA intervention (HEAT, n = 5) or acted as controls (CON, n = 6). The intervention replaced usual cross-training sessions and consisted of an hour of submaximal cycling or rowing ergometry in either 34±0°C for HEAT or 14±1°C for CON daily over two five-day blocks (10 sessions total), separated by 72h. Participants performed the ‘10+4’ test that consists of 10-min submaximal rowing and a 4-min time-trial (TT) in temperate conditions (20±0°C) before and after the intervention. Heat acclimation following the 10-session intervention was evidenced by large significant (p<0.05) decreases in maximum tympanic temperature (d = -1.68) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) (d = -2.26), and a large significant increase in sweat loss (d = 0.91). Large non-significant (p>0.05) decreases were seen in average tympanic temperature (d = -3.08) and average heart rate (d = -1.53) in HEAT from session 2 to session 10 of the intervention. Furthermore, a large significant increase was seen in plasma volume (d = 3.74), with large significant decreases in haemoglobin concentration (d = -1.78) and hematocrit (d = -12.9). Following the intervention, large non-significant increases in respiratory exchange ratio (d = 0.87) and blood lactate (d = 1.40) as well as a large non-significant decrease in RPE (d = -1.23) were seen in HEAT during the 10-min submaximal rowing. A large significant decrease in peak heart rate (d = -2.27), as well as a large non-significant decrease in relative V˙O2peak (d = -0.90) and large non-significant increases in respiratory exchange ratio (d = 1.18), blood lactate concentration (d = 1.25) and power output (d = 0.96) were seen in HEAT during the 4-min TT. This study suggests that a 10-session HA intervention may elicit HA in national-level rowers, with potential to improve 4-min TT performance in temperate conditions.

Relationship Between Strength and Conditioning Assessments and Rowing Performance in Female Collegiate Athletes

ABSTRACT

Folk, AL, Garcia, CA, Whitney, SH, and Kovacs, SJ. Relationship between strength and conditioning assessments and rowing performance in female collegiate athletes. J Strength Cond Res 36(6): 1618-1621, 2022-The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between strength and conditioning variables and rowing performance, as measured by a 2000 m ergometer time, in female collegiate rowers. Twenty-four female collegiate rowers qualified for this study by completing both types of assessments and a demographic questionnaire. Pearson correlation coefficients (r) were used to determine the association between the total 2000 m ergometer time and each strength and conditioning assessment. The assessments included a 1 repetition maximum (1RM) squat and a 1RM hang clean. After this, all significant correlations were placed in a stepwise linear regression analysis to predict the total 2000 m ergometer time. The 1RM squat and 1RM hang clean correlated with 2000 m ergometer performance (p = 0.034 and p = 0.002, respectively). Only the 1RM squat emerged as a predictor of 2000 m ergometer performance. This study highlights that the 1RM squat may be a way to predict rowing performance and build successful female collegiate rowing teams.

High-Intensity Interval Training and Sprint-Interval Training in National-Level Rowers

Purpose: The effects of two different high-intensity training methods on 2,000 m rowing ergometer performance were examined in a feasibility study of 24 national-level rowers aged 18–27 years (17 males, 2,000 m ergometer time trial 6:21.7 ± 0:14.6 (min:s) and seven females, 2,000 m ergometer 7:20.3 ± 0:12.1. Habitual training for all participants was ~12–16 h per week).

Methods: 16 high-intensity ergometer sessions were completed across two 3-week periods. Participants were allocated into two groups according to baseline 2,000 m time. High-intensity interval session-sprint-interval session (HIIT-SIT) completed eight HIIT (8 × 2.5 min intervals; 95% of 2,000 m wattage) followed by eight SIT (three sets of 7 × 30 s intervals; maximum effort). SIT-HIIT completed eight SIT sessions followed by eight HIIT sessions. Both a 2,000-m time trial and a progressive incremental test finishing with 4 min “all-out” performance were completed before and after each 3-week phase.

Results: Both groups showed similar improvements in 2,000 m time and 4 min “all-out” distance after the first 3 weeks (2,000 m time: HIIT-SIT: −2.0 ± 0.6%, mean ± 90% CL, p = 0.01; SIT-HIIT: −1.5 ± 0.3%, p = 0.01) with no significant difference between groups. HIIT-SIT demonstrated the greatest improvements in submaximal heart rate (HR) during the progressive incremental test with eight sessions of HIIT showing a greater reduction in submaximal HR than eight sessions of SIT. The net improvement of 16 high-intensity sessions on 2,000 m time was −2.5% for HIIT-SIT (−10.6 ± 3.9 s, p = 0.01) and − 2.2% for SIT-HIIT (−9.0 ± 5.7 s, p = 0.01) and for 4 min “all-out” performance was 3.1% for HIIT-SIT (36 ± 25 m, p = 0.01) and 2.8% for SIT-HIIT (33 ± 27 m, p = 0.01).

Conclusion: Eight sessions of high-intensity training can improve 2,000 m ergometer rowing performance in national-level rowers, with a further eight sessions producing minimal additional improvement. The method of high-intensity training appears less important than the dose.

Effects of Moderate- versus Mixed-Intensity Training on VO2peak in Young Well-Trained Rowers

The effects of moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) and a combination of MICT and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on rowing performance and VO₂peak were investigated in young athletes. Seventeen well-trained rowers (aged 15 ± 1.3 years) were randomly allocated to an intervention (IG) (n = 10) and control group (CG) (n = 7). During 8 weeks, both groups took part in the regular rowing training (3×/week MICT, 70–90 min, 65–70% of HRpeak + 2×/week resistance training). The IG completed an additional high-intensity interval training twice weekly (2 × 4 × 2 min at ≈95% of HRpeak, 60 s rest). Instead of the HIIT, the CG completed two more MICT sessions (70–90 min, 65–70% of HRpeak). Before and after the intervention, a 2000 m time trial and an exercise test were performed. The IG showed a significant improvement (p = 0.001) regarding the absolute rowing time in the graded exercise test. Furthermore, the intervention group showed a significant increase in relative VO₂peak (p = 0.023), a significant increase in absolute VO₂peak (p = 0.036), and a significant improvement in the 2000 m time trail (p = 0.003). No significant changes could be detected in the CG. The interaction effects were not significant. A mixed-intensity training, including HIIT, was beneficial on rowing performance and VO₂peak in highly trained athletes.

A Maximal Rowing Ergometer Protocol to Predict Maximal Oxygen Uptake

PURPOSE

To examine the relationship between the maximal power output (MPO) in an individualized 7 × 2-minute incremental (INCR) test, average power in a 2k (W2k) rowing ergometer test, and maximal oxygen uptake (V˙O2max) and to develop a regression equation to predict V˙O2max.

METHODS

A total of 34 male club rowers (age 18-30 y) performed a 2k and an INCR test in a Concept2 rowing ergometer to determine and compare MPO, W2k, and V˙O2max.

RESULTS

No significant difference was found between V˙O2max measured during INCR or 2k test (P = .73). A very high correlation coefficient (r = .96) was found between MPO and V˙O2max and between W2k and V˙O2max (r = .93). Linear regression analyses were developed for predicting V˙O2max from MPO: (1) V˙O2max (mL·min-1) = 11.49 × MPO + 810 and V˙O2max from W2k: (2) V˙O2max = 10.96 × W2k + 1168. Cross-validation analyses were performed using an independent sample of 14 rowers. There was no difference between the mean predicted V˙O2max in the INCR test (4.41 L·min-1) or the 2k test (4.39 L·min-1) and the observed V˙O2max (4.40 L·min-1). Technical error of measurement was 3.1% and 3.6%, standard error of estimate was 0.136 and 0.157 mL·min-1, and validation coefficients (r) were .95 and .94 using Equation (1) and (2), respectively.

CONCLUSION

A prediction model only including MPO or W2k explains 88% to 90% of the variability in V˙O2max and is suggested for practical use in male club rowers.

Seasonal Changes in Anthropometric, Physiological, Nutritional, and Performance Factors in Collegiate Rowers

Iguchi J, Kuzuhara, K, Katai, K, Hojo, T, Fujisawa, Y, Kimura, M, Yanagida, Y, and Yamada, Y. Seasonal changes in anthropometric, physiological, nutritional, and performance factors in collegiate rowers. J Strength Cond Res 34(11): 3225-3231, 2020-Well-controlled seasonal distribution of training intensity seems to be an important variable for endurance athletes' success as competitors and for avoidance of overtraining. The aim of this study was to examine the interrelationships of training distribution, body composition, energy intake/expenditure, and rowing ergometer performance throughout the 2012-2013 season. In this study of 15 collegiate male rowers, most of whom started rowing during their time at the university, we divided the 2012-2013 season (total 37 weeks) into 3 phases (off-season, December to mid-March, 16 weeks; pre-season, late March-April, 5 weeks; and in-season, May-August, 16 weeks) and analyzed the transition of 2,000-m rowing ergometer time, training intensity/volume, body composition (body mass and body fat), and energy intake/expenditure in each phase. There were significant main effects of the training time by the intensities; 2,000-m rowing ergometer time; energy expenditure; and protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake across the seasons (p < 0.05). Two findings were particularly important. First, on-water high-intensity training, especially for inexperienced rowers, may contribute to improvement of 2,000-m rowing ergometer performance. Second, higher intake of carbohydrate, and to a lesser degree, protein, is necessary for optimal training adaptation (e.g., increase of muscle glycogen content), and results in better 2,000-m performance on the rowing ergometer. Also, those findings may be beneficial to the coaches who are interested in designing the well-controlled seasonal training program, which is especially intended to improve the 2,000-m rowing ergometer performance as well as avoidance of overtraining.

The mechanical rower: Construction, validity, and reliability of a test rig for wind braked rowing ergometers

Wind braked rowing ergometers are used worldwide for training and testing of rowers, but data on validity and reliability of the calculated mechanical power output are scarce. Studies published so far are based on data generated by human rowers, inevitably adding biological variability without any option to clamp particular variables like stroke structure or force. To this end, we developed a test rig for rowing ergometers aiming to generate valid and reliable stroke structures (i.e. force-displacement curves). Briefly, the rig consists out of a frame connected to the ergometer. The handlebar of the rowing ergometer is attached to a sledge that can be displaced on a linear drive by a motor that is controlled by torque curves which are derived from elite rowers. A load cell between handlebar and chain and an incremental linear transducer allow criterion measures of force and distance of displacement to calculate mechanical power output. To evaluate the validity of the machine generated force-displacement curves, three different stroke structures were compared to the respective human reference curves. To evaluate reliability, series of 50 consecutive strokes were performed for 10 times. Validity of the curves was indicated by small differences in stroke-force, -distance, and -work (≤ |-7.8|%) between machine generated and human generated curves. Mean power output of the test series was 445 ± 1 W with a coefficient of variation of 0.53% between series. Hence, the test rig allows to generate valid and reliable rowing strokes on wind braked rowing ergometers.

Canoeing Motion Tracking and Analysis via Multi-Sensors Fusion

Coaches and athletes are constantly seeking novel training methodologies in an attempt to improve athletic performance. This paper proposes a method of rowing sport capture and analysis based on Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs). A canoeist’s motion was collected by multiple miniature inertial sensor nodes. The gradient descent method was used to fuse data and obtain the canoeist’s attitude information after sensor calibration, and then the motions of canoeist’s actions were reconstructed. Stroke quality was performed based on the estimated joint angles. Machine learning algorithm was used as the classification method to divide the stroke cycle into different phases, including propulsion-phase and recovery-phase, a quantitative kinematic analysis was carried out. Experiments conducted in this paper demonstrated that our method possesses the capacity to reveal the similarities and differences between novice and coach, the whole process of canoeist’s motions can be analyzed with satisfactory accuracy validated by videography method. It can provide quantitative data for coaches or athletes, which can be used to improve the skills of rowers.

The Effects of Caffeine Ingestion on Measures of Rowing Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

The purpose of this paper was to conduct a systematic review and a meta-analysis of studies examining the acute effects of caffeine ingestion on measures of rowing performance. Crossover and placebo-controlled experiments that investigated the effects of caffeine ingestion on measures of rowing performance were included. The PEDro checklist was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. Seven studies of good and excellent methodological quality were included. None of the included studies examined on-water rowing. The majority of studies that were included in the meta-analysis used a 2000m rowing distance with only one using 1000m distance. Results of the main meta-analysis indicated that caffeine enhances performance on a rowing ergometer compared to placebo with a mean difference of -4.1 s (95% confidence interval (CI): -6.4, -1.8 s). These values remained consistent in the analysis in which the study that used a 1000m distance was excluded (mean difference: -4.3 s; 95% CI: -6.9, -1.8 s). We also found a significant increase in mean power (mean difference: 5.7 W; 95% CI: 2.1, 9.3 W) and minute ventilation (mean difference: 3.4 L/min; 95% CI: 1.7, 5.1 L/min) following caffeine ingestion. No significant differences between caffeine and placebo were found for the rating of perceived exertion, oxygen consumption, respiratory exchange ratio, and heart rate. This meta-analysis found that acute caffeine ingestion improves 2000m rowing ergometer performance by ~4 s. Our results support the use of caffeine pre-exercise as an ergogenic aid for rowing performance.

The Impact of Preconditioning Strategies Designed to Improve 2000-m Rowing Ergometer Performance in Trained Rowers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

PURPOSE

The 2000-m rowing-ergometer test is the most common measure of rowing performance. Because athletes use different intervention strategies for enhancing performance, investigating the effect of preconditioning strategies on the 2000-m test is of great relevance. This study evaluated the effects of different preconditioning strategies on 2000-m rowing-ergometer performance in trained rowers.

METHODS

A search of electronic databases (PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science) identified 27 effects of different preconditioning strategies from 17 studies. Outcomes were calculated as percentage differences between control and experimental interventions, and data were presented as mean ± 90% confidence interval. Performance data were converted to the same metrics, that is, mean power. Meta-regression analyses were conducted to assess whether performance level or caffeine dose could affect the percentage change.

RESULTS

The overall beneficial effect on 2000-m mean power was 2.1% (90% confidence limit [CL] ±0.6%). Training status affected the percentage change with interventions, with a -1.1% (90% CL ±1.2%) possible small decrease for 1.0-W·kg-1 increment in performance baseline. Caffeine consumption most likely improves performance, with superior effect in higher doses (≥6 mg·kg-1). Sodium bicarbonate and beta-alanine consumption resulted in likely (2.6% [90% CL ±1.5%]) and very likely (1.4% [90% CL ±1.2%]) performance improvements, respectively. However, some preconditioning strategies such as heat acclimation, rehydration, and creatine resulted in small to moderate enhancements in 2000-m performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Supplementation of caffeine and beta-alanine is a popular and effective strategy to improve 2000-m ergometer performance in trained rowers. Additional research is warranted to confirm the benefit of other strategies to 2000-m rowing-ergometer performance.

The impact of a familiarization session on the magnitude and stability of active and passive pelvic floor muscle forces measured through intravaginal dynamometry

AIMS

The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of task familiarization on (1) the magnitude and (2) the repeatability of active and passive properties of the female pelvic floor muscles (PFMs) measured using automated intra-vaginal dynamometry.

METHODS

Women attended three laboratory sessions at one-week intervals. After receiving initial task instruction and feedback at the start of the first session, standardized instructions were given while women performed maximal effort voluntary contractions of their PFMs with the dynamometer arms open at two different diameters and kept their PFMs relaxed while the dynamometer arms opened to 40 mm at two speeds. Outcomes included baseline force, peak force, relative peak forces (N), rate of force development (N/s) and stiffness. Between session effects were tested for all outcomes using one-way ANOVAs. Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) and minimal detectable change values were computed within each session and between sessions 1 and 2 and sessions 2 and 3.

RESULTS

Twenty nulliparous women (mean age = 35 ± 15 years) participated. No differences in the mean values were found across the three visits for any outcomes. Within sessions, neither ICC nor minimal detectable change differed among sessions and between-session ICC values were not different between visits 1 and 2 and visits 2 and 3.

CONCLUSIONS

There is no evidence of a familiarization effect over a two-week period on the amplitude nor repeatability of dynamometric measures of active or passive PFM properties recorded from nulliparous women.

Impact of ischaemia-reperfusion cycles during ischaemic preconditioning on 2000-m rowing ergometer performance

PURPOSE

Although ischaemic preconditioning (IPC), induced by cycles of transient limb ischaemia and reperfusion, seems to improve exercise performance, the optimal duration of ischaemia-reperfusion cycles is not established. The present study investigated the effect of ischaemia-reperfusion duration within each IPC cycle on performance in a 2000-m rowing ergometer test.

METHODS

After incremental and familiarization tests, 16 trained rowers (mean ± SD: age, 24 ± 11 years; weight, 74.1 ± 5.9 kg; [Formula: see text] peak, 67.2 ± 7.4 mL·kg^-1·min^-1) were randomly submitted to a 2000-m rowing test preceded by intermittent bilateral cuff inflation of the lower limbs with three cycles of ischaemia-reperfusion, lasting 5 min (IPC-5) or 10 min (IPC-10) at 220 or 20 mmHg (control). Power output, [Formula: see text], heart rate, blood lactate concentration, pH, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), and near-infrared spectroscopy-derived measurements of the vastus lateralis muscle were continuously recorded.

RESULTS

No differences among treatments were found in the 2000-m test (control: 424 ± 17; IPC-5: 425 ± 16; IPC-10: 424 ± 17 s; P = 0.772). IPC-10 reduced the tissue saturation index and oxy-haemoglobin concentration during exercise compared with control. The power output during the last 100-m segment was significantly lower with IPC-10. The IPC treatments increased the heart rate over the first 500 m and decreased the pH after exercise. No alterations were observed in [Formula: see text], blood lactate, or RPE among the trials.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, IPC does not improve the 2000-m rowing ergometer performance of trained athletes regardless of the length of ischaemia-reperfusion cycles.

Intra-Subject Variability of 5 km Time Trial Performance Completed by Competitive Trained Runners

Time-trials represent an ecologically valid approach to assessment of endurance performance. Such information is useful in the application of testing protocols and estimation of sample sizes required for research/magnitude based inference methods. The present study aimed to investigate the intra-subject variability of 5 km time-trial running performance in trained runners. Six competitive trained male runners (age = 33.8 ± 10.1 years; stature = 1.78 ± 0.01 m; body mass = 69.0 ± 10.4 kg, V.O_2max = 62.6 ± 11.0 ml·kg·min^-1) completed an incremental exercise test to volitional exhaustion followed by 5 x 5 km time-trials (including a familiarisation trial), individually spaced by 48 hours. The time taken to complete each trial, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion and speed were all assessed. Intra-subject absolute standard error of measurement and the coefficient of variance were calculated for time-trial variables in addition to the intra-class correlation coefficient for time taken to complete the time-trial. For the primary measure time, results showed a coefficient of variation score across all participants of 1.5 ± 0.59% with an intra-class correlation coefficient score of 0.990. Heart rate, rating of perceived exertion and speed data showed a variance range between 0.8 and 3.05%. It was concluded that when compared with related research, there was observed low intra-subject variability in trained runners over a 5 km distance. This supports the use of this protocol for 5 km time-trial performance for assessment of nutritional strategies, ergogenic aids or training interventions on endurance running performance.

Elite status maintained: a 12-year physiological and performance follow-up of two Olympic champion rowers

This case study reports the results of a 12-year (2005-2016) follow-up study of two Olympic champion rowers. The rowers were prospective athletes at the junior level when the study began, and we monitored their relevant physiological and performance data annually. Our findings indicated that their V̇O_2max gradually increased up to about 22 years of age and leveled off at a value of approximately 7 l·min^-1 with minimal fluctuations thereafter. However, the variables that directly influence the V̇O_2max changed. There was an age-related decline in maximal heart rate of about 0.5 beats·year^-1, while oxygen pulse, which serves as an indirect measure of stroke volume, correspondingly increased by about 1 ml O₂·beat^-1 per year, allowing the athletes to maintain exceptional V̇O_2max values. Maximal minute power of the studied rowers, derived each year from their ramp-wise tests, closely resembled the mean power output sustained during the 2000-m all-out tests on a rowing ergometer. A 12-year improvement of 28% and 33% occurred for the mean power output sustained over 2000 and 6000-m on a rowing ergometer, respectively. The findings contribute to the body of knowledge on athletes representing the true elites of their respective sports.

Effect of New Zealand Blackcurrant Extract on Repeated Cycling Time Trial Performance

New Zealand blackcurrant (NZBC) extract increased 16.1 km cycling time trial performance. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of NZBC extract on 2 × 4 km time trial performance. Ten male cyclists (age: 30 ± 12 years, body mass: 74 ± 9 kg, height: 179 ± 7 cm, body fat: 11 ± 3%, V˙O_2max: 55 ± 7 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹, mean ± SD) volunteered. Participants were familiarized with the time trials. Participants consumed capsulated NZBC extract (300 mg·day⁻¹ CurraNZ™; containing 105 mg anthocyanin) or placebo for seven days (double blind, randomised, cross-over design, wash-out at least seven days) before 2 × 4 km time trials (10 min active self-paced recovery between trials) (SRM ergometer, SRM International, Germany). Heart rate was recorded and blood lactate sampled immediately after each trial and 8 min into recovery between the trials. Times over comparable one km distances in each 4 km time trial were similar. No effect was observed for the time to complete the first (placebo: 380 ± 28 s, NZBC: 377 ± 27 s) and second 4 km of cycling (placebo: 391 ± 32 s, NZBC: 387 ± 30 s), within both groups the second 4 km times slower by 11 ± 8 s and 11 ± 9 s for placebo and NZBC, respectively. However, the total time of the two 4 km cycling trials was 0.82% faster with NZBC extract (placebo: 771 ± 60 s, NZBC 764 ± 56 s, p = 0.034) with seven participants having faster total times. There was no effect of NZBC on heart rate and lactate values at identical time points. New Zealand blackcurrant extract seems to be beneficial in repeated short-distance cycling time trials for overall performance.

The single-bout forearm critical force test: a new method to establish forearm aerobic metabolic exercise intensity and capacity

No non-invasive test exists for forearm exercise that allows identification of power-time relationship parameters (W', critical power) and thereby identification of the heavy-severe exercise intensity boundary and scaling of aerobic metabolic exercise intensity. The aim of this study was to develop a maximal effort handgrip exercise test to estimate forearm critical force (fCF; force analog of power) and establish its repeatability and validity. Ten healthy males (20-43 years) completed two maximal effort rhythmic handgrip exercise tests (repeated maximal voluntary contractions (MVC); 1 s contraction-2 s relaxation for 600 s) on separate days. Exercise intensity was quantified via peak contraction force and contraction impulse. There was no systematic difference between test 1 and 2 for fCF(peak) force (p = 0.11) or fCF(impulse) (p = 0.76). Typical error was small for both fCF(peak force) (15.3 N, 5.5%) and fCF(impulse) (15.7 N ⋅ s, 6.8%), and test re-test correlations were strong (fCF(peak force), r = 0.91, ICC = 0.94, p<0.01; fCF(impulse), r = 0.92, ICC = 0.95, p<0.01). Seven of ten subjects also completed time-to-exhaustion tests (TTE) at target contraction force equal to 10%fCF(peak force). TTE predicted by W' showed good agreement with actual TTE during the TTE tests (r = 0.97, ICC = 0.97, P<0.01; typical error 0.98 min, 12%; regression fit slope = 0.99 and y intercept not different from 0, p = 0.31). MVC did not predict fCF(peak force) (p = 0.37), fCF(impulse) (p = 0.49) or W' (p = 0.15). In conclusion, the poor relationship between MVC and fCF or W' illustrates the serious limitation of MVC in identifying metabolism-based exercise intensity zones. The maximal effort handgrip exercise test provides repeatable and valid estimates of fCF and should be used to normalize forearm aerobic metabolic exercise intensity instead of MVC.

The effects of elapsed time after warm-up on subsequent exercise performance in a cold environment

Athletes often compete in cold environments and may face delays because of weather or race logistics between performance of a warm-up and the start of the race. This study sought to determine, (a) whether a delay after warm-up affects subsequent time trial (TT) performance and (b) if exposure to a cold environment has an additive effect. We hypothesized that after a warm-up, 30 minutes of rest in a cold environment would negatively affect subsequent rowing and running performance. In a temperate (temp; 24° C) or cold (cold; 5° C) environment, 5 rowers (33 ± 10 years; 83 ± 12 kg) and 5 runners (23 ± 2 years; 65 ± 8 kg) performed a 15-minute standardized warm-up followed by a 5- or 30-minute rest and then performed a 2-km rowing or 2.4 km running TT. The 5-minute rest following warm-up in the temperate environment (5Temp) served as the control trial to which the other experimental trials (5Cold; 30Temp; and 30Cold) were compared. Heart rate, lactate, and esophageal (Tes) and skin (Tsk) temperatures were measured throughout. Postrest and post-TT, Tes, and Tsk were lowest in the 30Cold trials. The greatest decrement in TT performance vs. 5Temp occurred in 30Cold (-4.0%; difference of 20 seconds). This difference is considered to have practical importance, as it was greater than the reported day-to-day variation for events of this type. We conclude that longer elapsed time following warm-up, combined with cold air exposure, results in potentially important reductions in exercise performance. Athletes should consider the appropriate timing of warm-up. In addition, performance may be preserved by maintaining skin and core temperatures following a warm-up, via clothing or other means.

The effect of including a series of isometric conditioning contractions to the rowing warm-up on 1,000-m rowing ergometer time trial performance

Rowing requires strength, power, and strength-endurance for optimal performance. A rowing-based warm-up could be enhanced by exploiting the postactivation potentiation (PAP) phenomenon, acutely enhancing power output at the beginning of a race where it is needed most. Minimal research has investigated the effects of PAP on events of longer duration (i.e. 1,000-m rowing). The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of PAP on 1,000-m rowing ergometer performance through the use of 2 different warm-up procedures: (a) a rowing warm-up combined with a series of isometric conditioning contractions, known as the potentiated warm-up (PW), and (b) a rowing warm-up only (NW). The isometric conditioning contractions in the PW were performed by "pulling" an immovable handle on the rowing ergometer, consisting of 5 sets of 5 seconds (2 seconds at submaximal intensity, and 3 seconds at maximal intensity), with a 15-second recovery between sets. The 1,000-m rowing ergometer time trial was performed after each warm-up condition, whereby mean power output, mean stroke rate, and split time were assessed every 100 m. Ten Australian national level rowers served as the subjects and performed both conditions in a counterbalanced order on separate days. The PW reduced 1,000-m time by 0.8% (p > 0.05). The PW improved mean power output by 6.6% (p < 0.01) and mean stroke rate by 5.2% (p < 0.01) over the first 500 m; resulting in a reduction of 500-m time by 1.9% (p < 0.01), compared with the NW. It appears that the inclusion of isometric conditioning contractions to the rowing warm-up enhance short-term rowing ergometer performance (especially at the start of a race) to a greater extent than a rowing warm-up alone.

Factors That Affect Selection of Elite Women’s Sculling Crews

Purpose:

There is no common theory on criteria to appropriately select crew rowers in pursuit of small performance gains. The purpose of this study was to establish whether anthropometry, rowing ergometry, or lower body strength were suitable criteria to identify differences between selected and nonselected sculling crews.

Method:

Twelve elite women performed a 2000-m ergometer time trial and a 5-repetition leg-press dynamometer test, were anthropometrically profiled, and participated in on-water national crew seat-racing trials. Log-transformed data were analyzed to compare percent (± SD) and standardized differences in group means (ES; ±90% confidence interval [CI]) between selected and nonselected oarswomen, with adjustments for body mass where appropriate.

Results:

Selected crew boats were 4.60% ± 0.02% faster and won by an average margin of 13.5 ± 0.7 s over 1500 m. There were no differences between crews on average in height, arm span, seated height, body mass, or 8-site skinfold sum (body fat). Difference in 2000-m ergometer times were also trivial (ES = 0.2, 90%CI = −0.6 to 1.1, P = .63); however, selected crews had moderately greater leg-press strength (ES = 1.1, 90%CI = 0.3−1.9, P = .03).

Conclusion:

Selected oarswomen with comparable anthropometry and 2000-m ergometer ability had greater lower body strength. Coaches of elite oarswomen might consider leg strength as part of crew-selection criteria, given acceptable on-water boatmanship and attainment of 2000-m ergometer benchmarks.

Consistency of Pacing and Metabolic Responses During 2000-m Rowing Ergometry

Purpose:

This study investigated the pacing strategy adopted and the consistency of performance and related physiological parameters across three 2000-m rowing-ergometer tests.

Methods:

Fourteen male well-trained rowers took part in the study. Each participant performed three 2000-m rowing-ergometer tests interspersed by 3–7 d. Throughout the trials, respiratory exchange and heart rate were recorded and power output and stroke rate were analyzed over each 500 m of the test. At the completion of the trial, assessments of blood lactate and rating of perceived exertion were measured.

Results:

Ergometer performance was unchanged across the 3 trials; however, pacing strategy changed from trial 1, which featured a higher starting power output and more progressive decrease in power, to trials 2 and 3, which were characterized by a more conservative start and an end spurt with increased power output during the final 500 m. Mean typical error (TE; %) across the three 2000-m trials was 2.4%, and variability was low to moderate for all assessed physiological variables (TE range = 1.4−5.1%) with the exception of peak lactate (TE = 11.5%).

Conclusions:

Performance and physiological responses during 2000-m rowing ergometry were found to be consistent over 3 trials. The variations observed in pacing strategy between trial 1 and trials 2 and 3 suggest that a habituation trial is required before an intervention study and that participants move from a positive to a reverse-J-shaped strategy, which may partly explain conflicting reports in the pacing strategy exhibited during 2000-m rowing-ergometer trials.

Is three-dimensional anthropometric analysis as good as traditional anthropometric analysis in predicting junior rowing performance?

With the use of three-dimensional whole body scanning technology, this study compared the 'traditional' anthropometric model [one-dimensional (1D) measurements] to a 'new' model [1D, two-dimensional (2D), and three-dimensional (3D) measurements] to determine: (1) which model predicted more of the variance in self-reported best 2000-m ergometry rowing performance; and (2) what were the best anthropometric predictors of ergometry performance, for junior rowers competing at the 2007 and 2008 Australian Rowing Championships. Each rower (257 females, 16.3 ± 1.4 years and 243 males, 16.6 ± 1.5 years) completed a performance and demographic questionnaire, had their mass, standing and sitting height physically measured and were landmarked and scanned using the Vitus Smart® 3D whole body scanner. Absolute and proportional anthropometric measurements were extracted from the scan files. Partial least squares regression analysis, with anthropometric measurements and age as predictor variables and self-reported best 2000-m ergometer time as the response variable, was used to first compare the two models and then to determine the best performance predictors. The variance explained by each model was similar for both male [76.1% (new) vs. 73.5% (traditional)] and female [72.3% (new) vs. 68.6% (traditional)] rowers. Overall, absolute rather than proportional measurements, and 2D and 3D rather than 1D measurements, were the best predictors of rowing ergometry performance, with whole body volume and surface area, standing height, mass and leg length the strongest individual predictors.

Reliability and Effect of Sodium Bicarbonate: Buffering and 2000-m Rowing Performance

Purpose:

The aim of this study was to determine the effect and reliability of acute and chronic sodium bicarbonate ingestion for 2000-m rowing ergometer performance (watts) and blood bicarbonate concentration [HCO3−].

Methods:

In a crossover study, 7 well-trained rowers performed paired 2000-m rowing ergometer trials under 3 double-blinded conditions: (1) 0.3 grams per kilogram of body mass (g/kg BM) acute bicarbonate; (2) 0.5 g/kg BM daily chronic bicarbonate for 3 d; and (3) calcium carbonate placebo, in semi-counterbalanced order. For 2000-m performance and [HCO3−], we examined differences in effects between conditions via pairwise comparisons, with differences interpreted in relation to the likelihood of exceeding smallest worthwhile change thresholds for each variable. We also calculated the within-subject variation (percent typical error).

Results:

There were only trivial differences in 2000-m performance between placebo (277 ± 60 W), acute bicarbonate (280 ± 65 W) and chronic bicarbonate (282 ± 65 W); however, [HCO3−] was substantially greater after acute bicarbonate, than with chronic loading and placebo. Typical error for 2000-m mean power was 2.1% (90% confidence interval 1.4 to 4.0%) for acute bicarbonate, 3.6% (2.5 to 7.0%) for chronic bicarbonate, and 1.6% (1.1 to 3.0%) for placebo. Postsupplementation [HCO3−] typical error was 7.3% (5.0 to 14.5%) for acute bicarbonate, 2.9% (2.0 to 5.7%) for chronic bicarbonate and 6.0% (1.4 to 11.9%) for placebo.

Conclusion:

Performance in 2000-m rowing ergometer trials may not substantially improve after acute or chronic bicarbonate loading. However, performances will be reliable with both acute and chronic bicarbonate loading protocols.

Anthropometry, strength and benchmarks for development: a basis for junior rowers' selection?

The aims of this study were to establish whether anthropometry, muscle strength and endurance accounted for differences between junior and senior elite rowing ergometer performance, and to determine annual development rates for juniors associated with training. Twenty-six junior (8 females, age 18.0 ± 0.3 years and 18 males, age 17.9 ± 0.2 years) and 30 senior (12 females, 23.7 ± 3.0 years and 18 males, 24.0 ± 3.9 years) heavyweight rowers, were assessed anthropometrically, performed a 2000-m ergometer time-trial, and completed various muscular strength and endurance tests. There were no anthropometrical differences between males; however after controlling for body-fat and standing-height, senior females were of greater body-mass (70.5 ± 4.6 kg and 77.2 ± 5.9 kg, P = 0.01) and sitting-height (89.8 ± 2.2 cm and 92.2 ± 6.1 cm, P = 0.04) than juniors. Moderate to very large standardised differences in all strength and endurance tests were observed between juniors and seniors (effect size (ES) range 0.9-1.9). Greater development rates (5.0% to 6.0%) and adjusted 2000-m performance was associated with upper-body strength (males) and endurance (females). In conclusion, after identification of desirable anthropometry, the 2000-m ergometer potential of juniors may be accounted for by upper-body strength and endurance.

Performance score variation between days at Australian national and Olympic women's artistic gymnastics competition

We determined the inter-day variability in elite-standard women's artistic gymnastics competition scores. National (50 gymnasts for up to three days) and Olympic (24 gymnasts for up to five days) competition scores published in the public domain ('Giant poster pull-out', 2010 ; Gymnastics Australia, 2008 ) were evaluated using three statistical measures. Analyses of the inter-day differences in the mean scores as a percentage (MDiff%), coefficient of variation percentages for the mean score across both days (CV%), and Pearson correlation coefficients for the inter-day score (r) were interpreted using thresholds from trivial to large. National-class gymnasts' two-day performance variation was trivial for vault, small for floor and beam, and moderate for bars. When senior gymnasts competed for a third day the performance variation increased to moderate for vault. Across five days of Olympic competition there were trivial (e.g. CV%: vault = 0.8) to small (e.g. CV%: bars = 2.0) variations in performances between days on all apparatus. Olympians' performance score consistency is superior to senior, national-class competitors. The performance score consistency required for gymnasts who aspire to participate at the Olympics as a top-24 competitor is better than 3%.

Does extensive on-water rowing increase muscular strength and endurance?

The purpose of this study was to compare changes in aerobic condition, strength, and muscular endurance following 8 weeks of endurance rowing alone or in combination with weight-training. Twenty-two elite rowers were assigned to (1) rowing (n = 10, 250-270 km · week⁻¹) or (2) rowing (n = 12, 190-210 km · week⁻¹) plus four weight-training sessions each week. Pre and post mean and standardized effect-size (ES) differences in aerobic condition (watts at 4 mmol · L⁻¹) and strength (isometric pull, N), prone bench-pull (6-repetition maximum, 6-RM), 5- and 30-repetition leg-press and 60-repetition seated-arm-pull (J, performed on a dynamometer) normalized by body mass and log-transformed were analysed, after adjusting for gender. The standardized differences between groups were trivial for aerobic condition (ES [±90% CI] = 0.15; ±0.28, P = 0.37) and prone bench-pull (ES = 0.27; ±0.33, P = 0.18), although a moderate positive benefit in favour of rowing only was observed for the seated-arm-pull (ES = 0.42; ±0.4, P = 0.08). Only the weight-training group improved isometric pull (12.4 ± 8.9%, P < 0.01), 5-repetition (4.0 ± 5.7%, P < 0.01) and 30-repetition (2.4 ± 5.4%, P < 0.01) leg-press. In conclusion, while gains in aerobic condition and upper-body strength were comparable to extensive endurance rowing, weight-training led to moderately greater lower-body muscular-endurance and strength gains.

Effect of gender and stroke rate on joint power characteristics of the upper extremity during simulated rowing

Males typically have greater upper body strength than do females, which is likely to impact on the rowing techniques adopted by each sex. The aim of this study was to quantify energy contributions and compare the joint power production of upper extremity joints between the sexes. Seven males and eight females performed 60 s trials at five different stroke rates. External forces were measured at the handle and stretcher, while kinematics were recorded by motion analysis. Joint moments were derived by inverse dynamic calculations, followed by the calculation of joint powers and gross mechanical energy expenditure. Male rowers expended more total external energy per stroke and made a larger percentage contribution of angular shoulder energy to their total external energy expenditure. As stroke rate increased, the contribution from elbow and angular shoulder energy contributions decreased for both males and females. Female rowers decreased their angular shoulder contribution at a slower rate than did males as stroke rate increased. The overall percentage of work done on the stretcher was higher for male rowers, and this difference further increased at higher stroke rates. The results of this study suggest that specific upper body conditioning may be particularly important for female rowers.

Are There Useful Physiological or Psychological Markers for Monitoring Overload Training in Elite Rowers?

There is a need for markers that would help determine when an athlete’s training load is either insufficient or excessive. In this study we examined the relationship between changes in performance and changes in physiological and psychological markers during and following a period of overload training in 10 female and 10 male elite rowers. Change in performance during a 4-wk overload was determined with a weekly 30-min time-trial on a rowing ergometer, whereas an incremental test provided change in lactate-threshold power between the beginning of the study and following a 1-wk taper after the overload. Various psychometric, steroid-hormone, muscle-damage, and inflammatory markers were assayed throughout the overload. Plots of change in performance versus the 4-wk change in each marker were examined for evidence of an inverted-U relationship that would characterize undertraining and excessive training. Linear modeling was also used to estimate the effect of changes in the marker on changes in performance. There was a suggestion of an inverted U only for performance in the incremental test versus some inflammatory markers, due to the relative underperformance of one rower. There were some clear linear relationships between changes in markers and changes in performance, but relationships were inconsistent within classes of markers. For some markers, changes considered to predict excessive training (eg, creatine kinase, several proinflammatory cytokines) had small to large positive linear relationships with performance. In conclusion, some of the markers investigated in this study may be useful for adjusting the training load in individual elite rowers.

The effect of ergometer design on rowing stroke mechanics

The effect of rowing ergometer design upon power delivery and coordination patterns of the rowing stroke was analyzed for 14 elite rowers. Rowers were tested in three ergometer conditions: the fixed stretcher Concept2c ergometer, the Concept2c ergometer mounted on sliding rails, and the sliding stretcher RowPerfect ergometer. Ergometers were instrumented to measure the external force generated at the handle and the foot stretcher and a nine-segment inverse dynamics model used to calculate joint and overall power delivery. Peak power generation and absorption at the knee joint was significantly greater, and total power delivered to the ergometer delayed on the fixed stretcher ergometer when compared to the sliding stretcher ergometers. No differences were found in the mechanical energy delivered to the handle of the three ergometers; however, greater joint mechanical energy production of the lower limb reduced mechanical efficiency when rowing the Concept2c fixed ergometer. The fixed foot stretcher on the Concept2c fixed ergometer acts to increase the inertial forces that the rower must overcome at the catch, increasing the moment and power output at the knee, and affecting the coordination pattern during the recovery phase.

The use of Neuro Emotional Technique with competitive rowers: A case series

INTRODUCTION

Power has been shown to consistently predict rowing performance, yet traditional methods to improve power may negatively impact performance when coupled with endurance training. Neuro Emotional Technique (NET) has been found to reduce stress and anxiety, which are also known to impair performance. The aim of this prospective case series was to describe how NET was used with competitive rowers, and to report any changes in average power output following the intervention.

CLINICAL FEATURES

Seven elite rowers were tested using the Max Power Test, one week before and one week after a session of NET. Five of athletes performed better following the NET intervention, while two athletes performed worse.

DISCUSSION

Many factors may have contributed to the changes in power output that these athletes experienced. Since this study was a case series and only a small sample was used, it lacked a comparison group. Therefore, no inferences or generalizations can be made. The changes seen may not be directly attributed to the NET intervention, but may the result of other factors, such as learning, normal training effects, or assessment bias. The primary limitations of this study include its qualitative design (i.e. a case report), and the appropriateness / usefulness of its primary outcome measure, the Max Power Test.

CONCLUSION

This case series demonstrates one plausible use of NET with athletes, however, a randomized, controlled trial is needed to determine its effectiveness before causality can be inferred.