Secular trends in growth among urban Brazilian children of European descent

Body height and age at menarche of girls from eastern Poland in the period of political transformation

Biological state of a group of people or particular individuals in various phases of ontogenesis should be treated as a positive health measure. The aim of the study was to assess the directions of changes in body height and age at menarche of girls from eastern Poland in the years 1986-2016. The data regarding 30784 students aged 10-16 living in towns and villages of the eastern parts of such regions as Podkarpackie, Lubelskie, Podlaskie, Warminsko-mazurskie and, to a slight extent, Mazowieckie were used in the study. Body height was measured and information concerning the place of living and age at menarche (yes-no) was gathered during interviews. Acceleration of body height and age at menarche was observed in girls from the east of Poland in the period of political transformation and after European Union (EU) accession, while the level of secular trends was connected with the pace of changes in the environment. Biological effects of the EU preservation of Polish agriculture and particular care of the eastern provinces of Poland reduced developmental differences between these provinces and other regions of Poland. Moreover, in the analysed period of three decades (1986-2016), the disappearance of differences in body height and age at menarche between the inhabitants of rural and urban areas was noted, which indicates larger positive socio-economic changes in the countryside. In turn, greater body height was noted in non-menstruating girls compared to their menstruating counterparts. However, in subsequent observations, smaller differences between these groups were observed.

Is the secular trend in height delaying overweight rise among adolescents? The Brazilian case

OBJECTIVE

To explore if the secular trend in height is contributing to delay overweight rise among Brazilian adolescents.

DESIGN

Changes in BMI mean over time were fitted using linear regression including as independent variables survey year, height, survey-specific income quintiles, age and an interaction term of height × survey year. Overweight was defined as BMI≥25·0 kg/m2. Changes in overweight prevalence over time were fitted using Poisson regression.

SETTING

Four national household surveys: 1974/5, 1989, 2002/3 and 2008/9.

SUBJECTS

Brazilian adolescents.

RESULTS

Mean values of height and BMI increased over the period, for both sexes and in all age ranges, except for girls aged 14-19 years from 1989 to 2002/3. The highest average increment and mean rate of height were between 1989 and 2002/3 and in 10-15-year-olds. The annual increment of height decreased from 2002/3 to 2008/9 in parallel with the increment in BMI rate. After fitting the regression model, the height × survey year interaction and per capita income were strong vectors to increase BMI mean. Changes in increment rate of height played a protective role against overweight in the last two periods for both sexes, mainly for girls. The period from 1989 to 2002/3 was the strongest vector associated with overweight in boys and the association decreased to the next period, from 2002/3 to 2008/9.

CONCLUSIONS

BMI and height of adolescents have increased in a wavering and alternate way throughout four decades in Brazil. The rate of height increment has played a protective role against overweight in adolescents.

Secular trend in the maturation of permanent teeth in a sample of Turkish children over the past 30 years

This study was performed to evaluate the influence of secular trends on dental maturation among Turkish children over the past 30 years. Orthopantomograms of 757 (385 boys, 372 girls) Turkish children born in the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s were evaluated. Three groups were formed based on decade with five subgroups by age from 9 to 13 years old for each gender. The number of samples in each age group and gender were matched. The mandibular left seven permanent teeth were evaluated based on formation stage to determine the overall dental maturity score. The groups were compared based on decade and gender. The Bonferroni-corrected Mann-Whitney U test and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used for statistical evaluation. Among 11-, 12-, and 13-year-olds born in the 2000s, girls exhibited significantly more mature dentition than did boys (p<0.01, p<0.05, and p<0.05, respectively). Twelve-year-old girls born in the 1990s and 2000s exhibited significantly more mature dentition than did girls born in the 1980s (p<0.01). Girls generally exhibited more mature dentition than boys. No significant positive secular trends in dental maturity were observed from the 1980s through the 2000s. Dental maturation among Turkish children was not affected by a secular trend.

Differences in motor performance between children and adolescents in Mozambique and Portugal: impact of allometric scaling

BACKGROUND

Children from developed and developing countries have different anthropometric characteristics which may affect their motor performance (MP).

AIM

To use the allometric approach to model the relationship between body size and MP in youth from two countries differing in socio-economic status-Portugal and Mozambique.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

A total of 2946 subjects, 1280 Mozambicans (688 girls) and 1666 Portuguese (826 girls), aged 10-15 years were sampled. Height and weight were measured and the reciprocal ponderal index (RPI) was computed. MP included handgrip strength, 1-mile run/walk, curl-ups and standing long jump tests. A multiplicative allometric model was adopted to adjust for body size differences across countries.

RESULTS

Differences in MP between Mozambican and Portuguese children exist, invariably favouring the latter. The allometric models used to adjust MP for differences in body size identified the optimal body shape to be either the RPI or even more linear, i.e. approximately (height/mass(0.25)). Having adjusted the MP variables for differences in body size, the differences between Mozambican and Portuguese children were invariably reduced and, in the case of grip strength, reversed.

CONCLUSION

These results reinforce the notion that significant differences exist in MP across countries, even after adjusting for differences in body size.

Secular trends in body height and body mass in 19-year-old Polish men based on six national surveys from 1965 to 2010

OBJECTIVES

The aim was to determine whether an intergenerational trend toward increased stature is slowing down, and whether body weight has recently increased among young men in Poland, as it has in Western European countries.

METHODS

Data were taken from six national surveys of 19-year-old Polish male conscripts from cohorts 1965, 1976, 1986, 1995, 2001, and 2010.

RESULTS

The mean stature of this population increased throughout the last 45 years from 170.5 cm in 1965 to 178.3 in 2010. However, the average gain in stature per decade declined from 2.4 cm in the period 1965 to 1976 to 0.8 cm per decade in 1995 to 2001, but increased to 1.0 cm in the last period. The average of body weight increased from 63.2 kg in 1965 to 73.1 in 2010 and body mass index (BMI) rose from 21.73 to 22.94 in the same period. The tempo of increase varied in different periods; between 1965 and 1986 an insignificant increase was observed (of circa 0.12); in 1986 to 1995 there was no increase, whereas the period of 2001 to 2010 witnessed a significant increase (of circa 0.76).

CONCLUSIONS

The trend of body size and stature increase within the Polish population, although decelerating, remained positive and steady during the last 45 years. No significant impact of the past half-century's socioeconomic crises was observed in these measures of growth. We concluded that during the economic crises some effective mechanism protecting the living conditions of the children and youth were operating within the population.

Secular trends in growth and nutritional status of Mozambican school-aged children and adolescents

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to examine secular changes in growth and nutritional status of Mozambican children and adolescents between 1992, 1999 and 2012.

METHODS

3374 subjects (1600 boys, 1774 girls), distributed across the three time points (523 subjects in 1992; 1565 in 1999; and 1286 in 2012), were studied. Height and weight were measured, BMI was computed, and WHO cut-points were used to define nutritional status. ANCOVA models were used to compare height, weight and BMI across study years; chi-square was used to determine differences in the nutritional status prevalence across the years.

RESULTS

Significant differences for boys were found for height and weight (p<0.05) across the three time points, where those from 2012 were the heaviest, but those in 1999 were the tallest, and for BMI the highest value was observed in 2012 (1992<2012, 1999<2012). Among girls, those from 1999 were the tallest (1992<1999, 1999>2012), and those from 2012 had the highest BMI (1999<2012). In general, similar patterns were observed when mean values were analyzed by age. A positive trend was observed for overweight and obesity prevalences, whereas a negative trend emerged for wasting, stunting-wasting (in boys), and normal-weight (in girls); no clear trend was evident for stunting.

CONCLUSION

Significant positive changes in growth and nutritional status were observed among Mozambican youth from 1992 to 2012, which are associated with economic, social and cultural transitional processes, expressing a dual burden in this population, with reduction in malnourished youth in association with an increase in the prevalence of overweight and obesity.

Secular trends in body composition for children and young adults: the Fels Longitudinal Study

OBJECTIVES

To determine secular trends by birth decade in body mass index (BMI), waist circumference/height (W/Ht), percent body fat (PBF), and fat-free mass adjusted for height squared (FFM/Ht(2) ) in children and adolescents aged 8-18 years.

METHODS

Serial data were analyzed from 628 boys and 591 girls aged 8-18 years who participated in the Fels Longitudinal Study. Subjects were stratified by birth decade from 1960 to 1999. Means and standard deviations were computed for all measurements by birth decade, age, and sex. A repeated-measures analysis of variance was used data to ascertain secular trends separately for boys and girls.

RESULTS

Boys and girls born in the 1990s had significantly higher mean BMI, W/Ht, and PBF than did children born in previous decades. Mean FFM/Ht(2) was significantly smaller in boys born in the 1990s than boys of the same age born in earlier decades. No secular trend was noted in FFM/Ht(2) in girls by decade of birth.

CONCLUSION

Our analysis of serial data collected over 4 decades confirms the secular trend in childhood BMI previously observed in successive cross-sectional studies. Our analysis discloses significant positive secular trends in W/Ht and PBF in both boys and girls and a significant negative secular trend in FFM/Ht(2) in boys over the last 4 decades of the 20th century. The secular changes presage increases in the prevalence of conditions associated with childhood and adolescent obesity-such as hypertension, glucose intolerance, and dyslipidemia-that may appear as early as the second decade of life.

[Spanish growth studies: the current situation, their effectiveness and recommendations for their use]

The child growth assessment is useful not only for the follow up of children's health but also for social purposes, as an indicator of the equity advances in the world. In Spain there has been a long tradition in carrying out growth studies. During the last decade five Spanish research groups have conducted studies among the population of Andalucía, Barcelona, Bilbao, Madrid and Zaragoza. They have combined their data and have produced the "Transversal Spanish Studies 2008 and 2010" and the "Longitudinal Spanish Study 1978/2000". These studies have showed that in Spain the regional differences on growth have disappeared, and that this has had a secular trend in the last decades. The Spanish adult height has approached to other European and American countries, still below some Centre and North European countries. There are some differences between the Spanish growth studies and the multicentric World Health Organization (WHO) growth study. This is due, among other reasons, to the different criteria that are used for the sample selection. In Spain the studies are based on the "population" criteria, whereas the WHO study is based on the "socioeconomic" and "nutritional" criteria. Currently for the Spanish population is appropriate to use, as standard reference, the Spanish multicentric studies, which are the transversal as well as the longitudinal studies. Due to the recent secular trend, it would be convenient to carry out, in the future, prospective transversal growth studies, methodologically homogeneous, representatives of the different Spanish regions, and preferably made every ten to fifteen years.

Secular trends in height and weight for healthy Han children aged 0-7 years in China, 1975-2005

OBJECTIVES

To report the secular growth changes of Chinese children aged 0-7 years between 1975 and 2005.

METHODS

Height and weight measurements obtained from four consecutive national surveys were used to analyze the secular trends. Urban-rural difference and regional difference in growth were compared, respectively.

RESULTS

A rapid positive secular trend was observed in China over the last three decades, increased by 5.3 and 5.0 cm in height for urban boys and girls at age 6-7 years, respectively. Urban-rural height difference has continuously reduced, but weight difference has gradually widened after 3-years old which results from the excessive weight increase of urban children, 2.68 kg for rural boys aged 6-7 years but 3.26 kg for urban during the 30 years. Clear regional differences in growth are not narrowing over time. Generally, the growth level in eastern China is higher than central-western, successively higher than southern.

CONCLUSIONS

The rapid positive secular trends will still continue with the rapid socio-economic development in China. Urban-rural height difference will further narrow. Currently no sufficient evidence indicates that growth difference in inter-city has reduced. Weight increases rapidly for urban children, which does not match with height.

Trends in weights, heights, BMI and comparison of their differences in urban and rural areas for Iranian children and adolescents 2-18-year-old between 1990-1991 and 1999

BACKGROUND

Secular trends in height and weight are interesting because in middle- and low-income countries they are a marker for changes in population health. The present study aims to evaluate the secular trend in height and weight and body mass index (BMI) of Iranian children and adolescents aged 2-18 years old between 1990-1991 and 1999 and compare the magnitude of urban-rural differences during this period for the first time in an Asian country.

METHODS

Data from two national health surveys in 1990-1991 and 1999, of 22,349 and 25,196 weight and height measures of Iranian children and adolescents were used to study the trend and compare its difference in urban and rural children. Logarithmic transformation of weight, height and BMI was modelled as a polynomial in age for urban and rural boys and girls in each survey separately. The trend in urban and rural growth indexes (weight, height and BMI) and also the comparisons of urban-rural differences between two national surveys were tested in logarithmic scale using a weighted form of Z statistic for comparison of two means adjusted for age groups.

RESULTS

Urban and rural boys and girls became taller and heavier (P≤ 0.02) with no change of BMI (P > 0.05) during the period. There was not any significant difference between the magnitudes of urban-rural difference between two surveys (P≥ 0.61).

CONCLUSION

Although generally positive weight and height trend was observed among urban and rural residents, the magnitude of their differences was not changed.

Secular growth changes in stature and weight for Chinese Mongolian youth, 1964-2005

BACKGROUND

A secular growth trend has been demonstrated in China during the past half century. However, few studies have involved minority ethnicity.

AIM

This study demonstrates secular changes in stature and weight for Chinese Mongolians from 1964 to 2005, and analyses the correlations with environmental factors, revealing inequalities within populations.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Data were gathered from 7- to 18-year-old students in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of China, both from local records in 1964 and from the 1985, 1991, 1995, 2000 and 2005 cycles of the Chinese National Survey on Students' Constitution and Health.

RESULTS

During the past 41 years, the average rates of stature increments for 7- to 17- year-olds are 1.9 and 2.0 cm per decade, of weight are 2.2 and 1.5 kg per decade and of BMI are 0.5 and 0.3 kg/m(2) per decade, for males and females, respectively. The overall increments of stature in 18-year-old males and females from 1985 to 2005 are 2.3 and 2.1 cm, respectively. The rate of change of stature is stronger in the first three decades, while that of weight and BMI are greater in the last decade. Evidence strongly suggests that changes may have occurred since the late 1970s.

CONCLUSION

The positive growth changes of Chinese Mongolian people are closely related to urbanization, socio-economic progress and living improvements.

Secular trends in skeletal maturity in South Africa: 1962-2001

BACKGROUND

Secular trends are usually monitored through changes in size and earlier maturation. Skeletal maturity has rarely been used as a biological indicator of secular trend.

AIM

To observe secular changes in the skeletal maturity of urban South African adolescents between 1962 and 2001.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Data from the Pretoria National Nutrition Survey were compared with a cross-sectional survey of children from the Johannesburg-Soweto based Birth to Twenty birth cohort study. Adolescents aged 9-11 years from each survey were included in the analysis. Skeletal maturity was assessed using the Greulich-Pyle technique. Height, weight, triceps and subscapular skinfolds were also measured.

RESULTS

The skeletal maturity of white males and females in 2001 was in advance of the 1962 cohort by an average of 3.4 months and 2.0 months, respectively. Black males and females in 2001 were significantly in advance of the 1962 cohort by an average of 9.7 months and 15.8 months, respectively (p<0.01).

CONCLUSION

Significant secular increases in the skeletal maturity of urban black South African children occurred between 1962 and 2001. Non-significant increases were seen in white children. The significant secular increases were concordant with increases in stature and adiposity during this period. The increase in skeletal maturity may reflect the removal of growth constraint, particularly in black children.

Longitudinal pubertal growth according to age at pubertal growth spurt onset: data from a Spanish study including 458 children (223 boys and 235 girls)

BACKGROUND

Age at pubertal growth spurt (PGS) onset varies and is sex-dependent. We present anthropometric pubertal growth data for five 1-year interval age maturity groups: very early, early, intermediate, late and very late.

METHODS

Longitudinal growth study of 458 healthy children (223 boys, 235 girls). Ages at PGS onset and at adult height attainment, total pubertal growth (TPG), and peak height velocity (PHV) were evaluated. PGS begins between the ages of 10 and 15 in boys and 8 and 13 in girls; children were allocated to the corresponding 1-year interval age maturity group.

RESULTS

For each sex, the earlier the start of PGS onset, the higher were PHV and TPG gain. However, adult heights were similar among the five pubertal maturity groups. Height SDS values for mean values of the very early, early, late and very late maturity groups calculated according to data from the five pubertal maturity groups taken together as a single group differed from zero in both sexes, mainly during the pubertal years for the very early (> +1) and very late (> -1) maturers. These differences disappeared at adult height.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data might contribute to better clinical evaluation of pubertal growth according to individual pubertal maturity tempo.

Secular growth changes in body height and weight in children and adolescents in Shandong, China between 1939 and 2000

BACKGROUND

There is strong evidence of a positive secular trend in physical growth in most of the world during the last century. However, no studies on this trend have been reported in Shandong Province, China.

AIM

The study assessed the secular trend in body height and weight in Shandong Province during the past few decades and the association of socio-economic status with the intensity of the trend.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The results of height and weight in 7-18-year-old boys and girls obtained in nine subsequent surveys (1939, 1956, 1962, 1972, 1979, 1985, 1991, 1995, and 2000) were included in this analysis. The differences of mean values between surveys and the increments per decade were compared. Socio-economic indicators were collected and analysed.

RESULTS

In 18-year-old groups, mean height increased from 164.9 to 172.6 cm for boys and from 155.9 to 160.6 cm for girls, corresponding to 1.75 and 1.07 cm per decade, respectively, and the increments of weight were 7.5 kg for boys and 0.3 kg for girls, corresponding to 1.70 and 0.07 kg per decade, respectively, between 1956 and 2000. The biggest changes of physical growth were in 13-year-old boys and 11-year-old girls.

CONCLUSION

Positive secular trends occurred in 7-18-year-old children and adolescents in Shandong Province, China during 1939-2000, which may reflect the secular changes in socio-economic status.

Growth patterns and secular trends over four decades in the dynamics of height growth of Indian boys and girls in Sri Aurobindo Ashram: A cohort study

BACKGROUND

Growth parameters are widely used in the assessment of health, nutrition and physical characteristics of a population; however, there still exist uncertainties regarding ethnic variation and the influence of physical activity on growth. Due to the paucity of longitudinal data, the dynamics of the adolescent growth spurt have not been satisfactorily examined in most populations.

AIM

The main purpose of this longitudinal study is to present the secular trends in the dynamics of height growth over four decades. In the process, this paper also aims to establish current norms for some biological parameters of growth and to address issues concerning ethnic variation and the effect of childhood physical activity on growth.

METHODOLOGY

Three hundred and one boys and 235 girls of Indian origin who had been enrolled in the Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education (SAICE) by age 6 and remained for at least 3 uninterrupted years were divided into four birth cohort periods. Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses were carried out to derive distance, velocity and acceleration curves.

RESULTS

No significant differences were found between ethnic groups in any of the growth parameters. Over the 40-year span of this study, SAICE children prove to be taller than their Indian peers. A significant positive secular trend was seen in the height attained at all velocity turning points over the first two decades. Most pre-pubertal growth parameters in these children resemble those from developed nations.

CONCLUSIONS

Children from most parts of India have similar genetic growth potential. After a significant positive secular trend in height attained over the first 20 years, the adult height has now plateaued. The significant difference in post-pubertal stature between the current generation and those of European origin indicates a genetic difference. Regular and graded physical activities have a salutary effect on growth. The data provide norms for healthy, active Indian child growing up in a satisfactory environment.

Spanish growth studies 2008. New anthropometric standards

Cross-sectional and longitudinal growth studies have recently been conducted in Spain. These studies have allowed neonatal anthropometry in premature and term neonates and postnatal growth in children and adolescents to be evaluated. Moreover, a longitudinal study that allows pubertal growth to be evaluated for distinct groups according to maturation has also been published. Between 1999 and 2002, birth weight and vertex-heel length were evaluated in 9,362 newborns (4,884 boys and 4,478 girls), with a gestational age of 26-42 weeks. An increase in these values compared with previous Spanish studies (1987-1992) and sexual dimorphism were observed. Between 2000 and 2004, height, weight and body mass index (BMI) were evaluated in 32,064 individuals (16,607 males, 15,457 females) aged 0-24 years. An increasing secular trend was observed compared with data obtained 20 years previously. Increases in BMI exceeded those in height for BMI values above the 50th percentile. A longitudinal growth study of 458 healthy individuals (223 boys, 235 girls) born between 1978 and 1982 yielded pubertal growth and maturity standards for each of the five pubertal maturity groups. In addition, data on skinfolds, bone mass and intellectual development from birth to adulthood were also provided. Adult height in both studies was similar to that reported by European and American studies, but was lower than that reported for German, Swedish and Dutch populations. In males, BMI was higher than in other European populations and was close to that of the US population. In females, BMI was similar to that in European populations and was lower than that in the US population.

Greek young men grow taller

AIM

To examine whether a secular trend for greater height is still observed in young Greek men.

METHOD

Height and weight of 3982 Greek conscripts, aged 18-26 years, were measured and correlated with the level of education and place of residence. Our data were collected from May 2006 to May 2007 from pre-selected army camps all over Greece. The data were compared with those of a similar study performed in 1990.

RESULTS

Mean height (+/-SD) of the conscripts was 178.06 (+/-7.05) cm. From 1990 until 2006, mean height increased from 175.7 cm to 178.06 cm (p < 0.001), corresponding to 1.47 cm/decade. Height was positively correlated with the place of residence (p = 0.007) and the level of education (p < 0.001) of the conscripts.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data show a further increase in the stature of young Greek men in the last 16 years. It appears that the male Greek population has still not exhausted its growth potential.

Secular trends in height and weight among children and adolescents of the Seychelles, 1956-2006

BACKGROUND

Height of individuals has long been considered as a significant index of nutrition and health of a population; still, there is little information regarding the trends of height and weight among developing or transitional countries. We assessed the secular trends in height and weight in children of the Seychelles, a rapidly developing island state in the Indian Ocean (African region).

METHODS

Height and weight were measured in all students of all schools in four selected school grades (kindergarten, 4th, 7th and 10th grades) for the periods 1998-9 (6391 children) and 2005-6 (8582 children). Data for 1956-7 was extracted from a previously published report.

RESULTS

At age 15.5 years, boys/girls were on average 10/13 cm taller and 15/9 kg heavier in 2005-6 than in 1956-7. Height increased in boys/girls by 1.62/0.93 cm/decade between 1956-7 and 1998-9 and by 1.14/1.82 cm/decade between 1998-9 and 2005-6. For weight, the linear increase in boys/girls was 1.38/1.10 kg/decade between 1956-7 and 1998-9 and 2.21/2.50 kg/decade between 1998-9 and 2005-6. Overall, the relative increase in weight between 1956-7 and 2005-6 was 5-fold higher than the relative increase in height.

CONCLUSION

Height and weight increased markedly over time in children aged <16 years in the Seychelles, consistent with large changes in socio-economic and nutritional indicators in the considered 50-year interval. The markedly steeper increase in weight than height over time is consistent with an epidemic of overweight and obesity.

Sex-specific differences of craniofacial traits in Croatia: the impact of environment in a small geographic area

BACKGROUND

Craniometric variation in humans reflects different genetic and environmental influences. Long-term climatic adaptation is less likely to show an impact on size and shape variation in a small local area than at the global level.

AIM

The aim of this work was to assess the contribution of the particular environmental factors to body height and craniofacial variability in a small geographic area of Croatia.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

A total of 632 subjects, aged 18-21, participated in the survey. Body height, head length, head breadth, head height, head circumference, cephalic index, morphological face height, face breadth, and facial index were analysed regarding geographic, climatic and dietary conditions in different regions of the country, and correlated with the specific climatic variables (cumulative multiyear sunshine duration, cumulative multiyear average precipitation, multiyear average air temperatures) and calcium concentrations in drinking water. Significant differences between groups classified according to geographic, climatic or dietary affiliation, and the impact of the environmental predictors on the variation in the investigated traits were assessed using multiple forward stepwise regression analyses.

RESULTS

Higher body height measures in both sexes were significantly correlated with Mediterranean diet type. Mediterranean diet type also contributed to higher head length and head circumference measures in females. Cephalic index values correlated to geographic regions in both sexes, showing an increase from southern to eastern Croatia. In the same direction, head length significantly decreased in males and head breadth increased in females. Mediterranean climate was associated with higher and narrower faces in females. The analysis of the particular climatic variables did not reveal a significant influence on body height in either sex. Concurrently, climatic features influenced all craniofacial traits in females and only head length and facial index in males. Mediterranean climate, characterized by higher average sunshine duration, higher average precipitation and higher average air temperatures, was associated with longer, higher and narrower skulls, higher head circumference, lower cephalic index, and higher and narrower faces (lower facial index). Calcium concentrations in drinking water did not correlate significantly with any dependent variable.

CONCLUSION

A significant effect of environmental factors on body height and craniofacial variability was found in Croatian young adult population. This effect was more pronounced in females, revealing sex-specific craniofacial differentiation. However, the impact of environment was low and may explain only 1.0-7.32% variation of the investigated traits.

Diferenças no crescimento e na composição corporal entre escolares de origem germânica e brasileira

OBJETIVO: Analisar possíveis diferenças no crescimento e na composição corporal de crianças de cinco a dez anos de idade de origem étnica germânica e brasileira dos municípios de Marechal Cândido Rondon e de Foz do Iguaçu, Paraná. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal, realizado nos anos de 2002 e 2003. Foram avaliadas 2.673 crianças, das quais 1.352 eram meninas, em 16 escolas públicas e particulares. Avaliou-se peso, estatura e as dobras cutâneas tricipital e subescapular. Obteve-se a medida derivada do índice de massa corpórea (IMC) e da soma das dobras tricipital e subescapular (TR+SE). Utilizou-se estatística descritiva e ANOVA para a comparação entre gênero e idade. O nível de significância foi p<0,05. RESULTADOS: Os escolares apresentaram valores de peso corporal e estatura próximos ao percentil 50, comparados com estudos de referência nacional e internacional. Quando comparados com os dados do Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), divulgados em 2000, eram obesos 10,9% dos escolares de etnia brasileira, 8,8% dos meninos germânicos e 6,6% das escolares germânicas. Nas dobras cutâneas, as meninas das duas etnias apresentaram valores superiores em relação aos meninos. Os valores de escore Z entre escola pública e particular apresentaram diferenças no peso corporal, estatura e IMC para as crianças germânicas. No entanto, quando analisadas crianças brasileiras e germânicas em escolas particulares, estas diferenças ocorreram apenas para o IMC. CONCLUSÕES: Nas escolas públicas, as crianças germânicas são maiores quando comparadas às brasileiras; no entanto, nas escolas particulares, esta diferença desaparece, podendo sugerir que o ambiente exerce maior influência do que a origem étnica.

Was there an urban height penalty in Spain, 1840-1913?

We explore whether there was an urban height penalty in Spain during the period of early industrialization from 1840 to 1913, using data from Spain's Southeastern coast and from Castile-Leon. Our results indicate that in the Mediterranean Coast of Southeastern Spain urban heights were well above rural ones for most of the period considered. In Castile-Leon, however, urban and rural heights were about the same until 1870 but urban heights were intermittently above rural ones thereafter. Hence, in Spain urban heights were not always below rural ones in stark contrast to the pattern obtained in other parts of Europe and North America.

Secular change of craniofacial measures in Croatian younger adults

A secular change of body height and neurocranial variables was registered in the Croatian population during the last century. We investigated the continuity of this process, and introduced facial measurements into the study. The results cover a 13-year period, from the birth of the subjects in 1974-1986, with a gap in the period from 1977-1981. The subjects were first-year students of the University of Rijeka School of Medicine, aged 19-21 years. Secular changes were evaluated by analysis of variance and multivariate regression analysis. A statistically significant decrease was found in head breadth, and an increase in morphological face height values, in both sexes. A significant increase of head circumference was observed in female students. The height and length of the head in both sexes displayed a slight but insignificant increase, while face breadth revealed no notable change during the investigated period. The results allow an assumption of a trend of cranial vault and face shape remodeling in our younger adult population toward a narrower vault and more elongated face, consistent with ongoing dolichocephalization. The correlation analysis revealed a low to moderate relationship of vertical and longitudinal craniofacial measures and body height, while partial correlation analysis showed facial height changes in our sample to be independent of cranial breadth changes.

The secular trends in height and weight of Turkish school children during 1993-2003

BACKGROUND

Secular changes in growth and development can be considered as the changing pattern of somatic development of children in a particular population from one generation to another. Developing countries, which have many changes in socio-economical conditions, reveal various trends in growth. The aims of this study were to analyse growth trends in weight and height of Turkish children from a school in Ankara over the period 1993-2003 with 10-year time interval, and to determine the relation between secular trends.

METHODS

Anthropometric measurements of 1214 children and adolescents (611 boys and 603 girls) aged between 7 and 15 years from Ankara, Turkey, obtained cross sectionally in 2003 were compared with measurements of 867 school children (451 boys and 416 girls) from a previous study which had been obtained in the same primary school in 1993. For 7-15 years of age the increments of weight and height were determined, and analysed statistically.

RESULTS

In 2003 survey boys and girls were taller and heavier than their peers from previous study in all age groups. For all cohorts in boys from 7 to 15 years, weight increments between 2.7 and 6.3 kg/decade and height increments between 1.7 and 5.5 cm/decade were demonstrated. For girls in the same cohorts, weight increments between 2.8 and 6.5 kg/decade and height increments between 1.8 and 5.7 cm/decade were indicated. Both weight and height increments suggest an upward displacement of growth curves in this interval of 10 years.

CONCLUSION

A significant secular increase in weight and height measurements were found in 7-15-year-old boys and girls in Ankara. These secular increases can be explained with improvements in social and health indicators that reflect the overall health status of the population. The secular increases in growth of Turkish school children may reveal updates of growth standards.