1
|
Grabowski KL, Phillips EM, Gaynor KM. Limited spatiotemporal niche partitioning among mesocarnivores in Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique. Ecol Evol 2024; 14:e10965. [PMID: 38371865 PMCID: PMC10869889 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Competition drives community composition and structure in many ecosystems. Spatial and temporal niche partitioning, in which competing species divide the environment in space or time, are mechanisms that may allow for coexistence among ecologically similar species. Such division of resources may be especially important for carnivores in African savannas, which support diverse carnivore assemblages. We used camera traps to explore patterns of spatial and temporal niche partitioning among four mesocarnivore species in Mozambique's Gorongosa National Park: large-spotted genet (Genetta maculata), African civet (Civettictis civetta), honey badger (Mellivora capensis) and marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosus). We applied a multispecies occupancy model to evaluate spatial partitioning among mesocarnivores and to quantify the environmental factors that affect species-specific habitat use, including relative lion (Panthera leo) activity. We also analyzed the temporal activity overlap of the four focal species. We identified species-specific habitat covariates that influenced detection probabilities but found no evidence of spatial or temporal partitioning among mesocarnivores in the study system. Indeed, we found some evidence for spatial co-occurrence between two of our focal species: African civet and marsh mongoose. There may be limited competition among mesocarnivores in this system, perhaps due to niche and diet differentiation among these species and an abundance of resources. While we found limited evidence that lion activity impacts mesocarnivores, ongoing monitoring of intraguild interactions is vital as apex predator populations recover in the system. This study adds to a growing understanding of African mesocarnivore ecology and highlights the importance of understanding these dynamics for effective multispecies conservation and restoration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn L. Grabowski
- School of Geography and the EnvironmentUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
- Department of BiologyMcGill UniversityMontréalQuébecCanada
| | - Erin M. Phillips
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyPrinceton UniversityPrincetonNew JerseyUSA
| | - Kaitlyn M. Gaynor
- Department of Zoology and BotanyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
de Almeida AB, Magioli M, Gheler-Costa C, Verdade LM, Marques TS, de Cássia Gilli de Lima L, Püttker T. Trophic niche overlap among Neotropical carnivores in a silvicultural landscape. MAMMALIA 2023. [DOI: 10.1515/mammalia-2022-0073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
To enable long-term coexistence, species need to differentiate at least one of the three main dimensions of the ecological niche (temporal, spatial, or trophic dimension). Here, we investigated whether mammalian predators (Chrysocyon brachyurus, Cerdocyon thous, Lycalopex vetulus, and Puma concolor) follow the prediction of trophic niche partitioning, which is expected when partitioning of food resources represents an important mechanism for coexistence. We predicted low niche overlap in general and low between P. concolor and the other species. We analyzed 207 fecal samples collected at a landscape composed of forest remnants immersed in Eucalyptus plantations. Food items (animals and plants) were identified using exoskeletons, feathers, scales, teeth, hair, and seeds. We calculated the frequency and percentage of occurrence of food items, niche breadth, and niche overlap between pairs of species. Prey size was similar among all predators, consuming mainly small-sized prey (<1 kg). However, niche breadth was larger for smaller carnivores compared to larger ones. No species pair showed significantly lower niche overlap than expected by chance. Our study provided detailed information on trophic resource use of sympatric carnivores, showing that trophic niche partitioning seems not to be crucial for the coexistence of carnivores in the study area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Beatriz de Almeida
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Evolução, Universidade Federal de São Paulo , Diadema , SP 05508-900 , Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Interunidades em Ecologia Aplicada , Escola Superior de Agricultura , Luiz de Queiroz , Universidade de São Paulo , Piracicaba , SP , Brazil
| | - Marcelo Magioli
- Instituto Pró-Carnívoros , Atibaia , SP , Brazil
- Centro Nacional de Pesquisa e Conservação de Mamíferos Carnívoros (CENAP), Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade (ICMBio) , Atibaia , SP , Brazil
| | - Carla Gheler-Costa
- Ecologia Aplicada: Pesquisa, Ensino e Serviços Ambientais , Vale do Igapó , Bauru , SP , Brazil
| | | | - Thiago Simon Marques
- Laboratório de Ecologia Aplicada, Núcleo de Estudos Ambientais (NEAS), Universidade de Sorocaba , Sorocaba , SP , Brazil
| | | | - Thomas Püttker
- Departamento de Ciências Ambientais , Universidade Federal de São Paulo , Diadema , SP , Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Phillips EM, Pringle RM. Ecology: How mesopredators run with the big dogs. Curr Biol 2023; 33:R197-R199. [PMID: 36917945 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/14/2023]
Abstract
Food webs are indispensable maps of community organization, but most are crudely drawn - an inconvenient truth that ecologists must confront. A new DNA metabarcoding study quantifies predator-prey interactions and ecological-network structure with long-overdue precision, supplying insight into how large and small carnivores coexist.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erin M Phillips
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Robert M Pringle
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Habitat productivity and anthropogenic development drive rangewide variation in striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) abundance. Glob Ecol Conserv 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2022.e02300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
|
5
|
Intraguild Competition between Endangered Kit Foxes and a Novel Predator in a Novel Environment. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12202727. [PMID: 36290113 PMCID: PMC9597803 DOI: 10.3390/ani12202727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
A population of endangered San Joaquin kit foxes inhabits the urban environment in the city of Bakersfield, California, United States. This population is considered important for the conservation and recovery of this species. In this novel environment, kit foxes encounter a novel competitor, that being non-native red foxes. We examined exploitative and interference competition between these two species. Based on scat analysis, both species consumed similar foods and dietary overlap was high. Red foxes also were found to usurp kit fox dens. Direct mortality to kit foxes from red foxes appears to be rare. Kit foxes and red foxes also appear to overlap spatially, although we found evidence of temporal partitioning of shared space. Based on binary logistic regression modeling, habitat attributes in grid cells used by the two species generally were similar, consistent with the spatial overlap. However, differences in specific attributes indicated that kit foxes are more likely to use areas with smaller open spaces and more human activity compared to red foxes. Competition from red foxes may be mitigated by several factors. Critical resources such as food and dens may be sufficiently abundant such that they are not a limiting factor. Some degree of spatial segregation and temporal partitioning of shared space may reduce interference competition. These factors may facilitate coexistence, and consequently, red foxes do not currently appear to constitute a significant competitive risk to this important population of endangered San Joaquin kit foxes.
Collapse
|
6
|
Shrotriya S, Reshamwala HS, Lyngdoh S, Jhala YV, Habib B. Feeding Patterns of Three Widespread Carnivores—The Wolf, Snow Leopard, and Red Fox—in the Trans-Himalayan Landscape of India. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.815996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Trans-Himalayan landscape is an extreme cold desert with limited diversity and a low density of wild prey. The landscape has three widespread carnivores—the wolf Canis lupus chanco, snow leopard Panthera uncia, and red fox Vulpes vulpes—competing for similar prey. We studied predation patterns, dietary competition, and niche segregation of three sympatric carnivores in the Indian Trans-Himalayas. The Himalayan or wooly wolf is one of the oldest lineages and has adapted to extreme cold. We further studied the prey selection of the wolf in the high-altitude environment. We collected 1,600 carnivore scats (wolf = 542, snow leopard = 31, and red fox = 1,027), and additional data on 573 snow leopard scats from literature was used in the analyses. We found that livestock was a major contributor to the wolf (56.46%) and snow leopard diet (30.01%). The wolf consumed blue sheep (8.26%) and ibex (3.13%), whereas the snow leopard subsisted on blue sheep (30.79%) and ibex (17.15%), relatively more frequently. The red fox preyed upon small species like pika and marmots (18.85 %); however, livestock carrions (16.49%), fruits and seeds (15.05%), and human-derived material (11.89%) were also consumed frequently. The dietary niche of three carnivore species highly overlapped (Pianka's index = 0.503, simulated mean = 0.419, p = 0.15) due to livestock. The carnivores segregated their diet in prey items originating from the wild. We tested a relationship between carnivore diet variations and prey/predator functional traits using RLQ ordination. Predator morphology traits like body size, weight, and habitat preference significantly affected the prey selection (p < 0.05). The wolf and snow leopard avoided the competition through habitat selection, while the red fox coexisted by exploiting a broader niche. The wolf showed site-specific variation in prey preferences albeit no prey selection at the landscape level (G2 = 6.79, df = 12, p = 0.87). The wolf preferred wild prey over domestic species at the wild prey rich site. The carnivores in this pastoralist landscape have adapted to exploit livestock resources despite facing persecution. Therefore, managing livestock and simultaneously restoring wild prey is crucial for the conservation of the carnivore guild in the Trans-Himalayan ecosystem.
Collapse
|
7
|
The Ricker Competition Model of Two Species: Dynamic Modes and Phase Multistability. MATHEMATICS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/math10071076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
The model of two species competing for a resource proposed by R. May and A.P. Shapiro has not yet been fully explored. We study its dynamic modes. The model reveals complex dynamics: multistable in-phase and out-of-phase cycles, and their bifurcations occur. The multistable out-of-phase dynamic modes can bifurcate via the Neimark–Sacker scenario. A value variation of interspecific competition coefficients changes the number of in-phase and out-of-phase modes. We have suggested an approach to identify the bifurcation (period-doubling, pitchfork, or saddle-node bifurcations) due to which in-phase and out-of-phase periodic points appear. With strong interspecific competition, the population’s survival depends on its growth rate. However, with a specific initial condition, a species with a lower birth rate can displace its competitor with a higher one. With weak interspecific competition and sufficiently high population growth rates, the species coexist. At the same time, the observed dynamic mode or the oscillation phase can change due to altering of the initial condition values. The influence of external factors can be considered as an initial condition modification, leading to dynamics shift due to the coexistence of several stable attractors.
Collapse
|
8
|
Marneweck CJ, Forehand CR, Waggy CD, Harris SN, Katzner TE, Jachowski DS. Nocturnal light-specific temporal partitioning facilitates coexistence for a small mesopredator, the eastern spotted skunk. J ETHOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10164-021-00743-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|
9
|
Christison BE, Gaidies F, Pineda-Munoz S, Evans AR, Gilbert MA, Fraser D. Dietary niches of creodonts and carnivorans of the late Eocene Cypress Hills Formation. J Mammal 2022; 103:2-17. [PMID: 35087328 PMCID: PMC8789764 DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyab123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Modern North American carnivorous mammal assemblages consist of species from a single clade: the Carnivora. Carnivorans once coexisted with members of other meat-eating clades, including the creodonts (Hyaenodontida and Oxyaenida). Creodonts, however, went extinct in North America during the late Eocene and early Oligocene, potentially due to niche overlap and resource competition with contemporary carnivorans. In this study, we employ a community ecology approach to understand whether the dietary niches of coexisting creodonts and carnivorans overlapped during the late Eocene (Chadronian North American Land Mammal Age), a time when creodonts were dwindling and carnivorans were diversifying. We quantify niche overlap based on inferences of diet from carnassial tooth shape estimated using Orientation Patch Count, Dirichlet's Normal Surface Energy, and linear dental measurements as well as from body mass for all species in the Calf Creek Local Fauna of Cypress Hills, Saskatchewan (Treaty 4 land). Although creodonts and carnivorans shared characteristics of their carnassial tooth shape, suggesting similar chewing mechanics and feeding habits, we find that marked differences in body size likely facilitated niche partitioning, at least between the largest creodonts and carnivorans. Calculations of prey focus masses and prey mass spectra indicate that only the smallest creodont may have experienced significant competition for prey with the coeval carnivorans. We suggest that the ultimate extinction of creodonts from North America during the late Eocene and Oligocene was unlikely to have been driven by factors related to niche overlap with carnivorans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Fred Gaidies
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Silvia Pineda-Munoz
- Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
- Department of Paleobiology, Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Alistair R Evans
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Geosciences, Museums Victoria, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Marisa A Gilbert
- Palaeobiology, Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Danielle Fraser
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Paleobiology, Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
- Palaeobiology, Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Fowler NL, Petroelje TR, Kautz TM, Svoboda NJ, Duquette JF, Kellner KF, Beyer DE, Belant JL. Variable effects of wolves on niche breadth and density of intraguild competitors. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e8542. [PMID: 35154647 PMCID: PMC8829107 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The parallel niche release hypothesis (PNR) indicates that reduced competition with dominant competitors results in greater density and niche breadth of subordinate competitors and which may support an adaptive advantage.We assessed support for the PNR by evaluating relationships between variation in niche breadth and intra- and interspecific density (an index of competition) of wolves (Canis lupus) coyotes (C. latrans), and bobcats (Lynx rufus).We estimated population density (wolf track surveys, coyote howl surveys, and bobcat hair snare surveys) and variability in space use (50% core autocorrelated kernel density home range estimators), temporal activity (hourly and overnight speed), and dietary (isotopic δ13C and δ15N) niche breadth of each species across three areas of varying wolf density in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, USA, 2010-2019.Densities of wolves and coyotes were inversely related, and increased variability in space use, temporal activity, and dietary niche breadth of coyotes was associated with increased coyote density and decreased wolf density supporting the PNR. Variability in space use and temporal activity of wolves and dietary niche breadth of bobcats also increased with increased intraspecific density supporting the PNR.Through demonstrating decreased competition between wolves and coyotes and increased coyote niche breadth and density, our study provides multidimensional support for the PNR. Knowledge of the relationship between niche breadth and population density can inform our understanding of the role of competition in shaping the realized niche of species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas L. Fowler
- Global Wildlife Conservation CenterCollege of Environmental Science and ForestryState University of New YorkSyracuseNew YorkUSA
- Alaska Department of Fish and Game, KodiakKodiakAlaskaUSA
| | - Tyler R. Petroelje
- Global Wildlife Conservation CenterCollege of Environmental Science and ForestryState University of New YorkSyracuseNew YorkUSA
| | - Todd M. Kautz
- Global Wildlife Conservation CenterCollege of Environmental Science and ForestryState University of New YorkSyracuseNew YorkUSA
| | | | - Jared F. Duquette
- Division of Wildlife ResourcesIllinois Department of Natural ResourcesChampaignIllinoisUSA
| | - Kenneth F. Kellner
- Global Wildlife Conservation CenterCollege of Environmental Science and ForestryState University of New YorkSyracuseNew YorkUSA
| | - Dean E. Beyer
- Wildlife DivisionMichigan Department of Natural ResourcesMarquetteMichiganUSA
| | - Jerrold L. Belant
- Global Wildlife Conservation CenterCollege of Environmental Science and ForestryState University of New YorkSyracuseNew YorkUSA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Vissia S, van Langevelde F. The effect of body size on co‐occurrence patterns within an African carnivore guild. WILDLIFE BIOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/wlb3.01004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sander Vissia
- Wildlife Ecology and Conservation Group, Wageningen Univ. Wageningen the Netherlands
| | - Frank van Langevelde
- Wildlife Ecology and Conservation Group, Wageningen Univ. Wageningen the Netherlands
- School of Life Sciences, Westville Campus, Univ. of KwaZulu‐Natal Durban South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
OUP accepted manuscript. J Mammal 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyac003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
|
13
|
OUP accepted manuscript. J Mammal 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyac038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
|
14
|
Rodriguez Curras M, Donadío E, Middleton AD, Pauli JN. Perceived risk structures the space use of competing carnivores. Behav Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arab104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Competition structures ecological communities. In carnivorans, competitive interactions are disproportionately costly to subordinate carnivores who must account for the risk of interspecific killing when foraging. Accordingly, missed opportunity costs for meso-carnivores imposed by risk can benefit the smallest-bodied competitors. However, the extent to which the risk perpetuates into spatial partitioning in hierarchically structured communities remains unknown. To determine how risk-avoidance behaviors shape the space-use of carnivore communities, we studied a simple community of carnivores in northern Patagonia, Argentina: pumas (Puma concolor; an apex carnivore), culpeo foxes (Lycalopex culpaeus; a meso-carnivore), and chilla foxes (Lycalopex griseus; a small carnivore). We used multi-species occupancy models to quantify the space use within the carnivore community and giving-up densities to understand the behaviors that structure space use. Notably, we applied an analytical framework that tests whether the actual or perceived risk of predation most strongly influences the space use of subordinate carnivores although accounting for their foraging and vigilance behaviors. We found that there was a dominance hierarchy from the apex carnivore through the meso-carnivore to the subordinate small carnivore, which was reflected in space. Although both meso- and small carnivores exhibited similar predator avoidance behavioral responses to apex carnivores, the habitat associations of apex carnivores only altered meso-carnivore space use. The biases in risk management we observed for meso-carnivores likely translates into stable co-existence of this community of competing carnivores. We believe our analytical framework can be extended to other communities to quantify the spatial-behavioral tradeoffs of risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mauriel Rodriguez Curras
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Forest and Wildlife Ecology, 1630 Linden Dr., Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Emiliano Donadío
- INIBIOMA, CONICET-Universidad Nacional Comahue, 8400 Bariloche, Argentina
| | - Arthur D Middleton
- University of California-Berkeley, Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, 130 Mulford Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Jonathan N Pauli
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Forest and Wildlife Ecology, 1630 Linden Dr., Madison, WI 53706, USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Small rodent cycles influence interactions among predators in a boreal forest ecosystem. MAMMAL RES 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13364-021-00590-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
AbstractCyclic fluctuations of prey have profound effects on the functioning of ecosystems, for example, by changing the dynamics, behavior, and intraguild interactions of predators. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of rodent cyclic fluctuations in the interspecific interactions of a guild of small- and medium-sized predators: red fox (Vulpes vulpes), pine marten (Martes martes), and weasels (Mustela erminea and Mustela nivalis) in the boreal ecosystem. We analyzed eight years (2007–2014) of snow tracking data from southeastern Norway using structural equation models to assess hypothesized networks of causal relationships. Our results show that fluctuations in rodent abundance alter the strength of predator’s interactions, as well as the effect of determinant environmental variables. Pine marten and weasel abundances were positively associated with rodent population growth rate, but not red fox abundance. All predators were positively associated with each other; however, the association between red fox and the other predators weakened when rodents increased. Rodent fluctuations had variable effects on the habitat use of the predators. The presence of agricultural land was important for all predators, but this importance weakened for the mustelids as rodent abundance increased. We discuss the shifting role of interference and exploitative competition as possible mechanisms behind these patterns. Overall, we highlight the importance of accounting for the dynamics of prey resources when studying interspecific interactions among predators. Additionally, we demonstrate the importance of monitoring the predator populations in order to anticipate undesirable outcomes such as increased generalist predator abundances to the detriment of specialists.
Collapse
|
16
|
Sévêque A, Gentle LK, Vicente López‐Bao J, Yarnell RW, Uzal A. Impact of human disturbance on temporal partitioning within carnivore communities. Mamm Rev 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/mam.12265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Sévêque
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences Nottingham Trent University Southwell NottinghamshireNG25 0QFUK
| | - Louise K. Gentle
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences Nottingham Trent University Southwell NottinghamshireNG25 0QFUK
| | | | - Richard W. Yarnell
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences Nottingham Trent University Southwell NottinghamshireNG25 0QFUK
| | - Antonio Uzal
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences Nottingham Trent University Southwell NottinghamshireNG25 0QFUK
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Lélias ML, Lemasson A, Lodé T. Social organization of otters in relation to their ecology. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Otter species are known to fluctuate intraspecifically from a solitary lifestyle to group-living arrangements. By examining what is known about habitat use and foraging style in otters of 13 different species, based on 93 studied sites, we assessed (1) the relationship between social habits and preferred habitats, (2) the relationship between species and prey preferences, and (3) the effect of predator avoidance on their social organization in order to assess the socio-ecological factors influencing otters. Females remain the core of their social stability. We show the major influence of habitats and feeding strategies (i.e. socio-ecology) of otters. The different species of solitary otters most often inhabit linear environments, such as freshwater ecosystems or wave-exposed marine coasts, and their habitat is often subject to disturbances that fragment their functional continuity. Social otters are more often found in extensive habitats with high plant cover, regular food resources and in areas with large predators compared to solitary species. The maintenance of regular resources and the fact that the main trophic resources are replenished rapidly might be determining factors driving sociality. Group-living and bachelor congregations among otters can also respond to pressure from large predators. This suggests that foraging, habitat use and the presence of large predators may be the drivers of sociality in otters. We conclude that most otters have a greater social potential than previously assumed, which is confirmed by their various vocalizations recently described.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Alban Lemasson
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) – UMR 6552, Rennes, France
| | - Thierry Lodé
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) – UMR 6552, Rennes, France
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Successful neighbour: Interactions of the generalist carnivore red fox with dogs, wolves and humans for continued survival in dynamic anthropogenic landscapes. Glob Ecol Conserv 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
|
19
|
Durán-Antonio J, González-Romero A, Sosa VJ. Activity overlap of carnivores, their potential wild prey, and temporal segregation, with livestock in a Biosphere Reserve in the Chihuahuan Desert. J Mammal 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyaa120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Daily activity is an important aspect of animal behavior and depends both on nutritional and reproductive demands. It also can be modified by—among other factors—interspecific competition, the need to minimize the risk of predation, and human disturbance, such as the presence of cattle. We studied the activity patterns and degree of overlap among carnivores, their potential wild prey, and livestock, in a Biosphere Reserve in the Chihuahuan Desert. There was no temporal segregation among the carnivores. Carnivores synchronized their activity with that of their main prey, the black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus). In contrast, we did observe temporal segregation between the puma (Puma concolor), coyote (Canis latrans), and bobcat (Lynx rufus), with mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). There was little activity overlap between predators and livestock (Bos taurus, Equus caballus). However, to avoid conflict resulting from livestock predation we suggest increasing and improving surveillance, and that calves and females close to calving be sheltered. More studies on the multi-niche interactions of livestock and their wild predators are needed to understand daily activity overlap in different seasons, and to better understand the mechanisms of coexistence in protected areas in order to make sound management recommendations to cattle growers and park rangers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Durán-Antonio
- Red de Biología y Conservación de Vertebrados, Instituto de Ecología, A.C., Carretera Antigua a Coatepec, Col. El Haya, Xalapa, Veracruz, México
| | - Alberto González-Romero
- Red de Biología y Conservación de Vertebrados, Instituto de Ecología, A.C., Carretera Antigua a Coatepec, Col. El Haya, Xalapa, Veracruz, México
| | - Vinicio J Sosa
- Red de Ecología Funcional, Instituto de Ecología, A.C., Carretera Antigua a Coatepec, Col. El Haya, Xalapa, Veracruz, México
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Shankar A, Salaria N, Sanil R, Chackaravarthy SD, Shameer TT. Spatio-Temporal Association of Fishing Cats with the Mammalian Assemblages in the East Godavari Mangrove Delta, India. MAMMAL STUDY 2020. [DOI: 10.3106/ms2020-0015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anant Shankar
- Divisional Forest Office (Wildlife), Forest Circle Office Complex, Opp Arts College, Nehru nagar, Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh, India, 533103
| | - Nandani Salaria
- Divisional Forest Office, Madhava Nagar, Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh, India, 53303
| | - Raveendranathanpillai Sanil
- Molecular Biodiversity Lab, Department of Zoology and Wildlife Biology, Government Arts College, Udhagamandalam - 643002, The Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, India
| | | | - Thekke Thumbath Shameer
- Molecular Biodiversity Lab, Department of Zoology and Wildlife Biology, Government Arts College, Udhagamandalam - 643002, The Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, India
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Chiapero F, Ferrari HR, Prieto MV, García Capocasa MC, Busso JM. Multivariate Analyses of the Activity Pattern and Behavior of the Lesser Anteater on Open and Closed Days at Córdoba Zoo, Argentina. J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2020; 24:83-97. [PMID: 32723195 DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2020.1799214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The human factor is one of the major determinants of animal welfare in zoos. Assessing changes in activity patterns, behavior and space use due to human presence might help understanding visitors' influence on these animal welfare indicators. In Córdoba (Argentina), we assessed the activity pattern and behavior of Tamandua tetradactyla (lesser anteaters; n = 5) during natural light/dark phases and the animals' use of space. We analyzed responses of lesser anteaters to humans in days open to the public (Sundays and Tuesdays) and days closed to the public (Mondays), collecting data at 5-minute intervals during 12 days, for each animal. Data were analyzed at two temporal scales: a 24 h period and visiting hours. Multivariate analyses showed no differences in activity pattern, behavior and space use among days, exhibiting a consistent response of each individual over the studied days. Principal Component Analysis showed differences between female and male behaviors. Based on these results, the visitor effect on these lesser anteaters would appear to be neutral, indicating that the presence of visitors is at most, a minor concern in the housing and management of these individuals in Córdoba Zoo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Florencia Chiapero
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas (IIBYT), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales (FCEFyN)-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC) , Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Héctor Ricardo Ferrari
- Cátedra de Bienestar Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de Buenos Aires , Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Valentina Prieto
- Carrera de Veterinaria, Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Católica de Córdoba , Córdoba, Argentina
| | | | - Juan Manuel Busso
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas (IIBYT), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales (FCEFyN)-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC) , Córdoba, Argentina.,FCEFyN-UNC , Córdoba, Argentina.,Laboratorio de Técnicas No Invasivas, CONICET-Jardín Zoológico Córdoba , Córdoba, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Sévêque A, Gentle LK, López-Bao JV, Yarnell RW, Uzal A. Human disturbance has contrasting effects on niche partitioning within carnivore communities. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 95:1689-1705. [PMID: 32666614 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Among species, coexistence is driven partly by the partitioning of available resources. The mechanisms of coexistence and competition among species have been a central topic within community ecology, with particular focus on mammalian carnivore community research. However, despite growing concern regarding the impact of humans on the behaviour of species, very little is known about the effect of humans on species interactions. The aim of this review is to establish a comprehensive framework for the impacts of human disturbance on three dimensions (spatial, temporal and trophic) of niche partitioning within carnivore communities and subsequent effects on both intraguild competition and community structure. We conducted a systematic review of the literature on carnivore niche partitioning (246 studies) and extracted 46 reported effects of human disturbance. We found evidence that human disturbance impacts resource partitioning, either positively or negatively, in all three niche dimensions. The repercussions of such variations are highly heterogeneous and differ according to both the type of human disturbance and how the landscape and/or availability of resources are affected. We propose a theoretical framework of the three main outcomes for the impacts of human disturbance on intraguild competition and carnivore community structure: (i) human disturbance impedes niche partitioning, increasing intraguild competition and reducing the richness and diversity of the community; (ii) human disturbance unbalances niche partitioning and intraguild competition, affecting community stability; and (iii) human disturbance facilitates niche partitioning, decreasing intraguild competition and enriching the community. We call for better integration of the impact of humans on carnivore communities in future research on interspecific competition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Sévêque
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Nottinghamshire, NG25 0QF, UK
| | - Louise K Gentle
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Nottinghamshire, NG25 0QF, UK
| | - José V López-Bao
- Research Unit of Biodiversity (UO/CSIC/PA), Oviedo University, Mieres, 33600, Spain
| | - Richard W Yarnell
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Nottinghamshire, NG25 0QF, UK
| | - Antonio Uzal
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Nottinghamshire, NG25 0QF, UK
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Federico V, Allainé D, Gaillard JM, Cohas A. Evolutionary Pathways to Communal and Cooperative Breeding in Carnivores. Am Nat 2020; 195:1037-1055. [PMID: 32469664 DOI: 10.1086/708639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
In animal societies, individuals can cooperate in a variety of tasks, including rearing young. Such cooperation is observed in complex social systems, including communal and cooperative breeding. In mammals, both these social systems are characterized by delayed dispersal and alloparenting, whereas only cooperative breeding involves reproductive suppression. While the evolution of communal breeding has been linked to direct fitness benefits of alloparenting, the direct fitness cost of reproductive suppression has led to the hypothesis that the evolution of cooperative breeding is driven by indirect fitness benefits accrued through raising the offspring of related individuals. To decipher between the evolutionary scenarios leading to communal and cooperative breeding in carnivores, we investigated the coevolution among delayed dispersal, reproductive suppression, and alloparenting. We reconstructed ancestral states and transition rates between these traits. We found that cooperative breeding and communal breeding evolved along separate pathways, with delayed dispersal as the first step for both. The three traits coevolved, enhancing and stabilizing one another, which resulted in cooperative social systems as opposed to intermediate configurations being stable. These findings promote the key role of coevolution among traits to stabilize cooperative social systems and highlight the specificities of evolutionary patterns of sociality in carnivores.
Collapse
|
24
|
Pérez-Irineo G, Mandujano S, López-Tello E. Skunks and gray foxes in a tropical dry region: casual or positive interactions? MAMMALIA 2020. [DOI: 10.1515/mammalia-2019-0034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that skunks present negative interactions with foxes. However, recently published observations have demonstrated that southern spotted skunk (Spilogale angustifrons) individuals follow gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve (TCBR) in Mexico. In this paper, we reported the same interaction in other locations in the TCBR and evaluated whether this interaction is casual or statistically positive. In this analysis, we included data pertaining to three skunk species (S. angustifrons, Conepatus leuconotus, and Mephitis macroura) and U. cinereoargenteus. We sampled 172 sites using camera traps from 2011 to 2018 for a total effort of 49,764 trap-days. The four studied species were nocturnal; the overlap coefficient between foxes and skunks varied from 0.70 to 0.83. Of the 32 consecutive records between S. angustifrons and U. cinereoargenteus, 11 showed that individuals of this skunk species closely followed U. cinereoargenteus and that these encounters were not random (time interval <1 min). We did not find evidence of a behavioral association of U. cinereoargenteus with C. leuconotus and M. macroura.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Pérez-Irineo
- Red de Biología y Conservación de Vertebrados , Instituto de Ecología A.C. , Xalapa , Ver. , Mexico
| | - Salvador Mandujano
- Red de Biología y Conservación de Vertebrados , Instituto de Ecología A.C. , Xalapa , Ver. , Mexico
| | - Eva López-Tello
- Programa de Posgrado, Instituto de Neuroetología , Universidad Veracruzana , Xalapa , Ver. , Mexico
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
The bears from Dmanisi and the first dispersal of early Homo out of Africa. Sci Rep 2019; 9:17752. [PMID: 31780699 PMCID: PMC6882906 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54138-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
We report on the taxonomy and paleodiet of the bear population that inhabited the emblematic palaeoanthropological Early Pleistocene (1.8 Ma) site of Dmanisi (Georgia), based on a dual approach combining morphometrics and microwear of upper and lower teeth. Given that the teeth of Ursus etruscus Cuvier, 1823 from Dmanisi show considerable size variability, their systematic position has been debated. However, a comparative study of the coefficients of variation for tooth size measurements in several modern bear species shows that the variability in tooth size of the ursid population from Dmanisi could result from sexual dimorphism. The analysis of tooth microwear indicates that these bears inhabited a mixed environment of open plain with forest patches, where they had a browsing diet with a substantial contribution of meat and/or fish. Comparative tooth morphometric analyses of modern ursids and fossil U. etruscus indicate that this extinct species had an omnivorous behavior similar to that of extant brown bears. The ecological interactions of the Dmanisi bears with other members of the large mammals community, including the first hominins that dispersed out of Africa, are discussed in the light of this new evidence.
Collapse
|
26
|
Eriksson CE, Moriarty KM, Linnell MA, Levi T. Biotic factors influencing the unexpected distribution of a Humboldt marten (Martes caurina humboldtensis) population in a young coastal forest. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0214653. [PMID: 31042737 PMCID: PMC6493723 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Pacific martens (Martes caurina) are often associated with mature forests with complex structure for denning, resting, and efficient hunting. Nonetheless, a small isolated population of the Humboldt subspecies of Pacific martens (Martes caurina humboldtensis) occupies a narrow strip of young, coastal forest (< 70 years old) but not inland mature forest in the central Oregon Coast Range. We examined factors contributing to this unexpected distribution of martens by 1) analyzing marten diets using DNA metabarcoding to assess 90 scats, 2) using camera traps to assess differences in the relative abundances of prey, competitors, and predators across a coastal to inland gradient of vegetation types, and 3) quantifying differences in extent of fruit-producing shrubs and vegetation structure within vegetation types. Diets of martens were diverse (12, 10, and 3 species of birds, mammals, and amphibians respectively), and most fall and winter scats contained fruit. Voles, mice, and varied thrushes (Ixoreus naevius) were dominant prey items. Voles, mice, and most birds, but not varied thrushes, were more commonly observed in the coastal shrub-dominated forest than in inland forest. The coastal shrub-dominated forest had the highest diversity of vertebrates and potential prey overall. Bobcats (Lynx rufus), a key potential predator, were more commonly detected in inland forest. Of potential competitors, western spotted skunks (Spilogale gracilis) were more commonly detected in inland forest, with gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) and raccoons (Procyon lotor) detected almost exclusively in coastal forests. Vegetation in coastal forests appears to provide, at least seasonally, more prey and fruit, and more overhead shrub cover compared with inland forest. Remaining plausible hypotheses for the restricted distribution of marten to coastal forests include increased prey, fruit, and overhead cover, and reduced predation risk from bobcats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte E. Eriksson
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States of America
| | - Katie M. Moriarty
- Pacific Northwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Olympia, WA, United States of America
| | - Mark A. Linnell
- Department of Forest Engineering, Resources, and Management, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States of America
| | - Taal Levi
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Temporal coexistence in a carnivore assemblage from central Mexico: temporal-domain dependence. MAMMAL RES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s13364-019-00415-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
28
|
Böhmer C, Fabre AC, Herbin M, Peigné S, Herrel A. Anatomical Basis of Differences in Locomotor Behavior in Martens: AComparison of the Forelimb Musculature Between Two Sympatric Species ofMartes. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 301:449-472. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.23742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Revised: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christine Böhmer
- UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHN, Bâtiment d'Anatomie Comparée, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; 55 rue Buffon, Paris, 75005 France
| | - Anne-Claire Fabre
- UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHN, Bâtiment d'Anatomie Comparée, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; 55 rue Buffon, Paris, 75005 France
| | - Marc Herbin
- UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHN, Bâtiment d'Anatomie Comparée, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; 55 rue Buffon, Paris, 75005 France
| | - Stéphane Peigné
- UMR 7207 CR 2P, MNHN/CNRS/UPMC, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CP38; 8 rue Buffon, Paris, 75005 France
| | - Anthony Herrel
- UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHN, Bâtiment d'Anatomie Comparée, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; 55 rue Buffon, Paris, 75005 France
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Competition and coexistence in a small carnivore guild. Oecologia 2017; 184:873-884. [PMID: 28733835 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-017-3916-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The potential for strong competition among small sympatric carnivores results in a need for coexistence strategies whereby competitors partition along spatial, temporal and dietary axes as a means to reduce ecological overlaps. We determined spatial and temporal partitioning patterns of a guild of small African carnivores: the African wildcat Felis silvestris lybica, grey mongoose Galerella pulverulenta, small-spotted genet Genetta genetta, striped polecat Ictonyx striatus, and the yellow mongoose Cynictis penicillata. We quantified the degree of spatial and temporal co-occurrence of the small carnivores using camera trap data over a year-long period. Carnivores separated into two temporal groups: nocturnal species (wildcat, polecat and genet) and diurnal species (mongooses). In addition, carnivores within the same temporal group had strong patterns of reduced spatial co-occurrence. The smaller bodied carnivores showed lower co-occurrence with the larger bodied African wildcat than expected by chance, supporting the idea of dominant competitor avoidance. Thus, small carnivores likely minimise competitive interactions through spatio-temporal habitat partitioning.
Collapse
|
30
|
Behrendorff L, Belonje G, Allen BL. Intraspecific killing behaviour of canids: how dingoes kill dingoes. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2017.1316522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Linda Behrendorff
- School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland 4343, Australia
- Department of National Parks, Sport and Racing, Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, Fraser Island, Queensland 4581, Australia
| | - Grant Belonje
- Fraser Coast Veterinary Services, Maryborough, Queensland 4650, Australia
| | - Benjamin L. Allen
- Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, The University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Queensland 4350, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Staying safe from top predators: patterns of co-occurrence and inter-predator interactions. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-017-2271-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
|
32
|
Cruz J, Sarmento P, White PCL. Influence of exotic forest plantations on occupancy and co-occurrence patterns in a Mediterranean carnivore guild. J Mammal 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyv109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|
33
|
Garvey PM, Glen AS, Pech RP. Foraging Ermine Avoid Risk: behavioural responses of a mesopredator to its interspecific competitors in a mammalian guild. Biol Invasions 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-014-0833-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
|
34
|
|
35
|
Meiri S, Kadison AE, Novosolov M, Pafilis P, Foufopoulos J, Itescu Y, Raia P, Pincheira-Donoso D. The number of competitor species is unlinked to sexual dimorphism. J Anim Ecol 2014; 83:1302-12. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2013] [Accepted: 05/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shai Meiri
- Department of Zoology; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv 6997801 Israel
| | - Amy E. Kadison
- Department of Zoology; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv 6997801 Israel
| | - Maria Novosolov
- Department of Zoology; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv 6997801 Israel
| | - Panayiotis Pafilis
- Section of Zoology and Marine Biology; Department of Biology; University of Athens; Panepistimioupolis, Ilissia Athens 157-84 Greece
| | - Johannes Foufopoulos
- School of Natural Resources and Environment; University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Yuval Itescu
- Department of Zoology; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv 6997801 Israel
| | - Pasquale Raia
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, dell'Ambiente e delle Risorse; Università Federico II; L.go San Marcellino 10 Naples 80138 Italy
| | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Black A, Draud M, Richter M, Itzkowitz M. Are conspecific and heterospecific opponents assessed similarly? A test in two species of territorial damselfish (Pomacentridae). Behav Processes 2014; 106:107-10. [PMID: 24792817 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2014.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Revised: 04/18/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Aggression is often a crucial component to interference interspecific competition and yet there are few studies that examine fight behavior when the opponents are different species. To examine conspecific and heterospecific aggression, we used two species of Caribbean damselfish, the dusky (Stegastes adustus) and the longfin (S. diencaeous) with each one serving as the heterospecific opponent to the other species. Our study was confined to whether or not each species measures the body length of the other species as if it were a conspecific intruder. Body length plays an important role in fight outcome in many species of fish and we presumed that both the dusky and the longfin would use it when assessing opponents. Both the dusky and the longfin damselfish were then presented with two individuals that were either greatly different or minimally different in size. When presented with individuals that differed greatly in size, both species spent more time attacking the larger individual, irrespective of species. However, when the size difference was small, the focal dusky and the longfin responded differently; the dusky showed no preference in either conspecific or heterospecific pairs while the longfin continued to show a bias toward the slightly larger individual. Thus, while we were surprised by the species differences, both the dusky and the longfin were internally consistent in how they treated conspecific and heterospecific opponents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Black
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA.
| | - Matthew Draud
- Biology Department, Armstrong Atlantic State University, Savannah, GA 31419, USA.
| | - M Richter
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA.
| | - M Itzkowitz
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Stankowich T, Haverkamp PJ, Caro T. ECOLOGICAL DRIVERS OF ANTIPREDATOR DEFENSES IN CARNIVORES. Evolution 2014; 68:1415-25. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.12356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Accepted: 12/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Theodore Stankowich
- Department of Biological Sciences; California State University; 1250 Bellflower Blvd. Long Beach California 90840
| | - Paul J. Haverkamp
- Center for Spatial Technologies and Remote Sensing; University of California; One Shields Avenue Davis California 95616
| | - Tim Caro
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology; Center for Population Biology; University of California; One Shields Avenue Davis California 95616
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Bischof R, Ali H, Kabir M, Hameed S, Nawaz MA. Being the underdog: an elusive small carnivore uses space with prey and time without enemies. J Zool (1987) 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R. Bischof
- Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management Norwegian University of Life Sciences Ås Norway
| | - H. Ali
- Snow Leopard Foundation Islamabad Pakistan
| | - M. Kabir
- Snow Leopard Foundation Islamabad Pakistan
- Pakistan Museum of Natural History Islamabad Pakistan
| | - S. Hameed
- Snow Leopard Foundation Islamabad Pakistan
- Department of Animal Sciences Quaid‐i‐Azam University Islamabad Pakistan
| | - M. A. Nawaz
- Snow Leopard Foundation Islamabad Pakistan
- Department of Animal Sciences Quaid‐i‐Azam University Islamabad Pakistan
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Intraguild Predation and Interspecific Killing as Structuring Forces of Carnivoran Communities in South America. J MAMM EVOL 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s10914-013-9251-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
40
|
The Structure of the Mammalian Predator Guild in the Santa Cruz Formation (Late Early Miocene). J MAMM EVOL 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s10914-013-9243-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
41
|
Lovari S, Ventimiglia M, Minder I. Food habits of two leopard species, competition, climate change and upper treeline: a way to the decrease of an endangered species? ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2013.806362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
42
|
Gehrt SD, Wilson EC, Brown JL, Anchor C. Population ecology of free-roaming cats and interference competition by coyotes in urban parks. PLoS One 2013; 8:e75718. [PMID: 24058699 PMCID: PMC3772906 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0075718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2013] [Accepted: 08/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Free-roaming cats are a common element of urban landscapes worldwide, often causing controversy regarding their impacts on ecological systems and public health. We monitored cats within natural habitat fragments in the Chicago metropolitan area to characterize population demographics, disease prevalence, movement patterns and habitat selection, in addition to assessing the possible influence of coyotes on cats. The population was dominated by adults of both sexes, and 24% of adults were in reproductive condition. Annual survival rate was relatively high (S=0.70, SE=0.10), with vehicles and predation the primary causes of death. Size of annual home range varied by sex, but not reproductive status or body weight. We observed partitioning of the landscape by cats and coyotes, with little interspecific overlap between core areas of activity. Coyotes selected for natural habitats whereas cats selected for developed areas such as residences. Free-roaming cats were in better condition than we predicted, but their use of natural habitat fragments, and presumably their ecological impact, appeared to be limited by coyotes through intraguild competition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stanley D. Gehrt
- School of Environment and Natural Resources, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
- Max McGraw Wildlife Foundation, Dundee, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Evan C. Wilson
- School of Environment and Natural Resources, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Justin L. Brown
- Max McGraw Wildlife Foundation, Dundee, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Chris Anchor
- Forest Preserve District of Cook, County, Elgin, Illinois, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Lourenço R, Penteriani V, Rabaça JE, Korpimäki E. Lethal interactions among vertebrate top predators: a review of concepts, assumptions and terminology. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2013; 89:270-83. [PMID: 23980715 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2013] [Revised: 06/24/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Lethal interactions among large vertebrate predators have long interested researchers because of ecological and conservation issues. Research focusing on lethal interactions among vertebrate top predators has used several terms with a broad sense, and also introduced new terminology. We analysed the published literature with reference to the main underlying concepts and the use of terminology and its ecological context. The most frequently used terms in the literature were 'predation', 'intraguild predation', 'interference competition', and 'interspecific killing'. Most studies presented evidence of the killing of the victim (77%), but information regarding its consumption was not given in 48% of cases. More than half of the analysed studies (56%) had no solid information on the degree of competition between interacting species. By reviewing definitions and their underlying assumptions, we demonstrate that lethal interactions among large vertebrate predators could be designated using four terms-'predation', 'intraguild predation', 'interspecific competitive killing', and 'superpredation'-without the need to employ additional terminology that may increase confusion and misuse. For a correct framework of these lethal interactions it is critical to assess if the kill is consumed, if the victim is indeed a competitor of the killer, and if the prey is a high-order predator. However, these elements of the framework are simultaneously the most common constraints to studies of lethal interactions, since they often require a great effort to obtain. The proper use of terms and concepts is fundamental to understanding the causes behind lethal interactions and, ultimately, what is actually happening in these complex interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Lourenço
- Department of Biology, LabOr - Laboratory of Ornithology, Instituto de Ciências Agrárias e Ambientais Mediterrânicas, Universidade de Évora-Núcleo da Mitra, Ap. 94, Évora, 7002-554, Portugal
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Helgen KM, Pinto CM, Kays R, Helgen LE, Tsuchiya MTN, Quinn A, Wilson DE, Maldonado JE. Taxonomic revision of the olingos (Bassaricyon), with description of a new species, the Olinguito. Zookeys 2013; 324:1-83. [PMID: 24003317 PMCID: PMC3760134 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.324.5827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2013] [Accepted: 08/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We present the first comprehensive taxonomic revision and review the biology of the olingos, the endemic Neotropical procyonid genus Bassaricyon, based on most specimens available in museums, and with data derived from anatomy, morphometrics, mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, field observations, and geographic range modeling. Species of Bassaricyon are primarily forest-living, arboreal, nocturnal, frugivorous, and solitary, and have one young at a time. We demonstrate that four olingo species can be recognized, including a Central American species (Bassaricyon gabbii), lowland species with eastern, cis-Andean (Bassaricyon alleni) and western, trans-Andean (Bassaricyon medius) distributions, and a species endemic to cloud forests in the Andes. The oldest evolutionary divergence in the genus is between this last species, endemic to the Andes of Colombia and Ecuador, and all other species, which occur in lower elevation habitats. Surprisingly, this Andean endemic species, which we call the Olinguito, has never been previously described; it represents a new species in the order Carnivora and is the smallest living member of the family Procyonidae. We report on the biology of this new species based on information from museum specimens, niche modeling, and fieldwork in western Ecuador, and describe four Olinguito subspecies based on morphological distinctions across different regions of the Northern Andes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kristofer M. Helgen
- Division of Mammals, National Museum of Natural History, NHB 390, MRC 108, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
| | - C. Miguel Pinto
- Centro de Investigación en Enfermedades Infecciosas, Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Av. 12 de Octubre y Roca, Quito, Ecuador
- Department of Mammalogy, and Sackler Institute for Comparative Genomics, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, NY 10024, USA
- The Graduate Center, City University of New York, 365 Fifth Ave., New York, NY, 10016 USA
- Department of Biological Sciences and the Museum, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409-3131, USA
| | - Roland Kays
- North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, 11 West Jones Street, Raleigh, NC, 27601, USA
- Fisheries, Wildlife & Conservation Program, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa Ancón, Republic of Panamá
| | - Lauren E. Helgen
- Division of Mammals, National Museum of Natural History, NHB 390, MRC 108, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
| | - Mirian T. N. Tsuchiya
- Division of Mammals, National Museum of Natural History, NHB 390, MRC 108, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
- Department of Environmental Science & Policy, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, 22030 USA
- Center for Conservation and Evolutionary Genetics, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC 20008, USA
| | - Aleta Quinn
- Division of Mammals, National Museum of Natural History, NHB 390, MRC 108, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
- Department of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
| | - Don E. Wilson
- Division of Mammals, National Museum of Natural History, NHB 390, MRC 108, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
| | - Jesús E. Maldonado
- Division of Mammals, National Museum of Natural History, NHB 390, MRC 108, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
- Center for Conservation and Evolutionary Genetics, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC 20008, USA
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Walzer A, Schausberger P. Phenotypic plasticity in anti-intraguild predator strategies: mite larvae adjust their behaviours according to vulnerability and predation risk. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2013; 60:95-115. [PMID: 23104106 PMCID: PMC3616216 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-012-9624-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 09/27/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Interspecific threat-sensitivity allows prey to maximize the net benefit of antipredator strategies by adjusting the type and intensity of their response to the level of predation risk. This is well documented for classical prey-predator interactions but less so for intraguild predation (IGP). We examined threat-sensitivity in antipredator behaviour of larvae in a predatory mite guild sharing spider mites as prey. The guild consisted of the highly vulnerable intraguild (IG) prey and weak IG predator Phytoseiulus persimilis, the moderately vulnerable IG prey and moderate IG predator Neoseiulus californicus and the little vulnerable IG prey and strong IG predator Amblyseius andersoni. We videotaped the behaviour of the IG prey larvae of the three species in presence of either a low- or a high-risk IG predator female or predator absence and analysed time, distance, path shape and interaction parameters of predators and prey. The least vulnerable IG prey A. andersoni was insensitive to differing IGP risks but the moderately vulnerable IG prey N. californicus and the highly vulnerable IG prey P. persimilis responded in a threat-sensitive manner. Predator presence triggered threat-sensitive behavioural changes in one out of ten measured traits in N. californicus larvae but in four traits in P. persimilis larvae. Low-risk IG predator presence induced a typical escape response in P. persimilis larvae, whereas they reduced their activity in the high-risk IG predator presence. We argue that interspecific threat-sensitivity may promote co-existence of IG predators and IG prey and should be common in predator guilds with long co-evolutionary history.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Walzer
- Group of Arthropod Ecology and Behavior, Division of Plant Protection, Department of Crop Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Peter Jordanstrasse 82, 1190, Vienna, Austria.
| | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
|
47
|
Ross S, Munkhtsog B, Harris S. Determinants of mesocarnivore range use: relative effects of prey and habitat properties on Pallas's cat home-range size. J Mammal 2012. [DOI: 10.1644/11-mamm-a-060.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
|
48
|
Brook LA, Johnson CN, Ritchie EG. Effects of predator control on behaviour of an apex predator and indirect consequences for mesopredator suppression. J Appl Ecol 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02207.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leila A. Brook
- School of Marine and Tropical Biology; James Cook University; Townsville; QLD; 4811; Australia
| | | | - Euan G. Ritchie
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences; Deakin University; Burwood; VIC; 3125; Australia
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Gerber BD, Karpanty SM, Randrianantenaina J. Activity patterns of carnivores in the rain forests of Madagascar: implications for species coexistence. J Mammal 2012. [DOI: 10.1644/11-mamm-a-265.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
|
50
|
Ngoprasert D, Lynam AJ, Sukmasuang R, Tantipisanuh N, Chutipong W, Steinmetz R, Jenks KE, Gale GA, Grassman LI, Kitamura S, Howard J, Cutter P, Cutter P, Leimgruber P, Songsasen N, Reed DH. Occurrence of Three Felids across a Network of Protected Areas in Thailand: Prey, Intraguild, and Habitat Associations. Biotropica 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2012.00878.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dusit Ngoprasert
- Conservation Ecology Program; King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi; Bangkhuntien; Bangkok; 10140; Thailand
| | - Antony J. Lynam
- Wildlife Conservation Society; Global Conservation Program; 2300 Southern Boulevard; Bronx; NY; 10540; U.S.A
| | - Ronglarp Sukmasuang
- Department of Forest Biology; Faculty of Forestry; Kasetsart University; Bangkok; 10900; Thailand
| | - Naruemon Tantipisanuh
- Conservation Ecology Program; King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi; Bangkhuntien; Bangkok; 10140; Thailand
| | - Wanlop Chutipong
- Conservation Ecology Program; King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi; Bangkhuntien; Bangkok; 10140; Thailand
| | - Robert Steinmetz
- World Wide Fund for Nature-Thailand; 2549/45 Paholyothin Road; Ladyao, Jatujak, Bangkok 10900; Thailand
| | - Kate E. Jenks
- Organismic and Evolutionary Biology; Wildlife and Fisheries Conservation; University of Massachusetts; Amherst; MA; 01003; U.S.A
| | - George A. Gale
- Conservation Ecology Program; King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi; Bangkhuntien; Bangkok; 10140; Thailand
| | - Lon I. Grassman
- Feline Research Center; Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute; Texas A&M University-Kingsville; MSC 218, 700 University Blvd; Kingsville; TX; 78363; U.S.A
| | - Shumpei Kitamura
- The Museum of Nature and Human Activities; Yayoigaoka 6; Sanda; Hyogo; 669-1546; Japan
| | - JoGayle Howard
- Center for Species Survival; Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute; Front Royal; VA; 22630; U.S.A
| | - Passanan Cutter
- Conservation Biology Program; University of Minnesota; 187 McNeal Hall, 1985 Buford Avenue; St. Paul; MN; 55108; U.S.A
| | - Peter Cutter
- World Wide Fund for Nature-Thailand; 2549/45 Paholyothin Road; Ladyao, Jatujak, Bangkok 10900; Thailand
| | - Peter Leimgruber
- Center for Species Survival; Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute; Front Royal; VA; 22630; U.S.A
| | - Nucharin Songsasen
- Center for Species Survival; Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute; Front Royal; VA; 22630; U.S.A
| | - David H. Reed
- Department of Biology; University of Louisville; Louisville; KY; 40292; U.S.A
| |
Collapse
|