Natural vegetation biomass and the dimension of forest quality in tropical agricultural landscapes

Forest cover has been a pivotal indicator of biological conservation and carrying capacity for wildlife in forest ecoregions. Such a relationship underpins policies focused on the extension of protected lands. Here, we estimate aboveground biomass (AGB) as a proxy for habitat quality in seminatural rural patches and provide a comparison with approaches that only consider forest cover. We hypothesize that recommendations for biological conservation in agricultural landscapes are substantially improved if habitat quality is also taken into account, and thus consider the possibility of forest quality being modulated by land-use amount, type, and age. We assessed AGB in a densely farmed Brazilian region using a straightforward approach designed to be affordable at large scales, focusing on two expanding and contrasting land uses: sugarcane, and eucalyptus plantations. At a detailed scale, we confirmed through field surveys and AGB estimation using 3D-multispectral imagery (i.e., AGB = 0.842 × vegetation heightNDVI+1) that AGB variation could be predicted with forest degradation classes that are visually distinguishable with high-resolution images: 9.33 t ha-1 (90% predictive intervals [PI] = [3.23, 26.97]) in regenerating fields (RF), 31.12 t ha-1 (90% PI = [10.77, 89.90]) in pioneer woods (PW), and 149.04 t ha-1 (90% PI = [51.59, 430.58]) in dense forests (DF). Applying these values to land units sampled across the study region, we found an average land use of 88.5%, together with 11.5% of land set aside for conservation, which reduced AGB to less than 4.2% of its potential (averages of 5.85 t ha-1 in sugarcane-dominated areas and 6.56 t ha-1 in eucalyptus-dominated areas, with secondary forests averaging 149.04 t ha-1). This imbalance between forest cover and AGB resulted from forest quality decay, which was similarly severe among land-use types, ages, and extensions. Therefore, the shortage of trophic resources is likely more critical to wildlife than spatial limitations in vastly deforested tropical ecoregions, where AGB and carbon sinks can be more than doubled just by restoring forests in lands currently spared by agriculture.

Trophic niche overlap among Neotropical carnivores in a silvicultural landscape

To enable long-term coexistence, species need to differentiate at least one of the three main dimensions of the ecological niche (temporal, spatial, or trophic dimension). Here, we investigated whether mammalian predators (Chrysocyon brachyurus, Cerdocyon thous, Lycalopex vetulus, and Puma concolor) follow the prediction of trophic niche partitioning, which is expected when partitioning of food resources represents an important mechanism for coexistence. We predicted low niche overlap in general and low between P. concolor and the other species. We analyzed 207 fecal samples collected at a landscape composed of forest remnants immersed in Eucalyptus plantations. Food items (animals and plants) were identified using exoskeletons, feathers, scales, teeth, hair, and seeds. We calculated the frequency and percentage of occurrence of food items, niche breadth, and niche overlap between pairs of species. Prey size was similar among all predators, consuming mainly small-sized prey (<1 kg). However, niche breadth was larger for smaller carnivores compared to larger ones. No species pair showed significantly lower niche overlap than expected by chance. Our study provided detailed information on trophic resource use of sympatric carnivores, showing that trophic niche partitioning seems not to be crucial for the coexistence of carnivores in the study area.

Capture methods of Caiman latirostris Daudin, 1802 (Crocodylia, Alligatoridae) in northern Uruguay, with notes of defensive and feeding behaviours

Caiman latirostris is a Neotropical crocodilian for which there is scarce natural history information in regard to other species, as also about survey methods used by field researchers. In this work we report the capture methodology implemented during population monitoring in northern Uruguay and some observations about defensive and feeding behaviours. We found the use of a metallic clamp as very useful for capturing juveniles and subadult individuals (< 120 cm total length) in vegetated habitats, while a wire snare was used for adults. Regardless locomotor escape, we provide a reappraisal of defensive behaviours in the presence of humans, with particular comments on tonic immobility. In addition, we suggest an apparent case of carcass consumption (scavenging) for the species, a presumedly common behaviour but sometimes hard to observe in wild crocodilians.

NEOTROPICAL CARNIVORES: a data set on carnivore distribution in the Neotropics

Mammalian carnivores are considered a key group in maintaining ecological health and can indicate potential ecological integrity in landscapes where they occur. Carnivores also hold high conservation value and their habitat requirements can guide management and conservation plans. The order Carnivora has 84 species from 8 families in the Neotropical region: Canidae; Felidae; Mephitidae; Mustelidae; Otariidae; Phocidae; Procyonidae; and Ursidae. Herein, we include published and unpublished data on native terrestrial Neotropical carnivores (Canidae; Felidae; Mephitidae; Mustelidae; Procyonidae; and Ursidae). NEOTROPICAL CARNIVORES is a publicly available data set that includes 99,605 data entries from 35,511 unique georeferenced coordinates. Detection/non-detection and quantitative data were obtained from 1818 to 2018 by researchers, governmental agencies, non-governmental organizations, and private consultants. Data were collected using several methods including camera trapping, museum collections, roadkill, line transect, and opportunistic records. Literature (peer-reviewed and grey literature) from Portuguese, Spanish and English were incorporated in this compilation. Most of the data set consists of detection data entries (n = 79,343; 79.7%) but also includes non-detection data (n = 20,262; 20.3%). Of those, 43.3% also include count data (n = 43,151). The information available in NEOTROPICAL CARNIVORES will contribute to macroecological, ecological, and conservation questions in multiple spatio-temporal perspectives. As carnivores play key roles in trophic interactions, a better understanding of their distribution and habitat requirements are essential to establish conservation management plans and safeguard the future ecological health of Neotropical ecosystems. Our data paper, combined with other large-scale data sets, has great potential to clarify species distribution and related ecological processes within the Neotropics. There are no copyright restrictions and no restriction for using data from this data paper, as long as the data paper is cited as the source of the information used. We also request that users inform us of how they intend to use the data.

Non-invasive hair sampling of Neotropical otters

Abstract: Sampling wild animal populations using non-invasive techniques is advised when dealing with threatened species. Hair samples provide ecological information like species and individual identification. However, hair trapping is scarcely used in otters, due to their aquatic habits. Most studies are with captive individuals, so there is the need to test non-invasive hair trapping methods in otters in the wild. The aim of this study was to develop a simple and cost-effective method to collect hair from otter species in a non-invasive way. The study was carried out in the Paranapanema River, São Paulo State, Brazil, with the Neotropical otter (Lontra longicaudis Olfers, 1818), a protected species. Hair traps (wooden sticks and tree roots with adhesive tape or wax bands) were set during six nights on river banks, otter trails and scent-marking sites. Traps were baited with otter fresh spraints from other river locations. From the 23 traps, 10 (43.7%) were successful in collecting otter hairs, mostly guard-hair. The sticks were much more efficient than the roots at capturing otter hair (70.6.% vs. 0%) as well as adhesive tape when compared to wax (71.4% vs. 0%). Method simplicity and efficiency suggest that it can be a cost-effective way for collecting otter hairs without the need for capturing individuals. This method can be used for: assessment of local otter distribution; collecting otter hair samples for sex and individual identification (by molecular analysis), trophic ecology (by isotopic analyses), ecotoxicology (by contamination analysis) or behaviour ecology (by hormonal and stress levels analysis). More trapping campaigns should be implemented to further test the method's efficiency.

Confidencialidade e sigilo profissional em estudos sobre caça

No Brasil informações sobre atividades ligadas à caça ilegal dificilmente são levantadas em função da falta de um mecanismo legal de confidencialidade e sigilo profissional que assegure ao pesquisador os princípios do direito. Sem isso, tal coleta de dados é passível de ser considerada crime ou cumplicidade criminosa, podendo o pesquisador sofrer as mesmas penalidades legais que os próprios caçadores. Este procedimento é questionável do ponto de vista filosófico, legal e técnico. A sustentabilidade biológica da caça, legal ou ilegal, só poderá ser avaliada por meio de pesquisas sobre o tema, envolvendo coleta de dados. A fim de mudar tal cenário, é necessário que biólogos tenham o direito ao sigilo profissional e à confidencialidade em pesquisas sobre a caça no Brasil. Advogados, médicos e sociólogos já contam com tais precedentes legais em situações análogas.

Principais conclusões do workshop conjunto dos programas FAPESP BIOTA-BIOEN-mudanças climáticas: ciência e políticas públicas para uma economia mais verde, no contexto da RIO+20

Este Ponto de Vista resume as conclusões de um Workshop conjunto, organizado pelos três Programas da FAPESP na Área Ambiental - BIOTA (O Instituto Virtual da Biodiversidade) - BIOEN (Pesquisa em Bioenergia) - Mudanças Climáticas, para discutir a contribuição da comunidade científica para a RIO+20, a Conferência das Nações Unidas para o Desenvolvimento Sustentável. O grupo de pesquisadores brasileiros reunidos pela FAPESP no início de março de 2012 levantou as seguintes preocupações: a) o número reduzido de oportunidades para a comunidade científica interagir com Conferências como a RIO+20; b) as graves deficiências do ZeroDraft, documento produzido pela Divisão das Nações Unidas para o Desenvolvimento Sustentável para a RIO +20; c) o fato do foco de pesquisa dos três Programas de Pesquisa Ambiental da FAPESP - biodiversidade, bioenergia e mudanças climáticas - não estarem na pauta das discussões da RIO+20; d) que pouca ênfase é dada aos oceanos na Agenda da Conferência; e) em relação aos mecanismos de mercado associados com a transição para uma economia mais verde, a necessidade de enfatizar a redução de subsídios perversos e a promoção de incentivos econômicos para atividades ou processos de mitigação e/ou seqüestro de carbono; f) a necessidade de estimular o desenvolvimento e a consolidação da pesquisa na área de avaliação e valoração de serviços ambientais, no Brasil. Os participantes do Workshop reconheceram a necessidade de aprofundar o conhecimento sobre as convenções, tratados e acordos internacionais assinados e ratificados pelo Brasil, bem como as instituições internacionais, programas e iniciativas que promovem a participação da comunidade científica no debate de políticas ambientais globais. Finalmente, do ponto de vista dos três programas da FAPESP dois pontos foram destacados: a) que é imperativo aprofundar o conhecimento científico em cada uma das três áreas focais - biodiversidade, bioenergia e mudanças climáticas - porque é necessário aumentar a massa crítica de pesquisadores e do conhecimento para participar das discussões internacionais nessas áreas estratégicas; b) também é imperativo apoiar e promover projetos de pesquisa que integrem as áreas focais dos três programas, estimulando a constituição de equipes inter e transdisciplinares. Esta é uma tendência mundial na área das mudanças ambientais globais, e os participantes dos três programas sentem que podem dar uma contribuição significativa para o avanço do conhecimento, para o debate internacional e para a efetiva solução dos problemas.

Heavy metal contamination in Phrynops geoffroanus (Schweigger, 1812) (Testudines: Chelidae) in a River Basin, São Paulo, Brazil

The Piracicaba River basin is considered the most disturbed river basin in the state of São Paulo. Considerable amounts of agricultural residues are seasonally drained into the river, and the region is also highly urbanized and industrialized with an incipient sewage treatment system. The presence of heavy metals has been previously reported for the water and riverbed in Piracicaba river basin. In this study we evaluated 13 heavy metals in the blood of 37 Geoffroy's side-necked turtles, Phrynops geoffroanus, from Piracicaba River and Piracicamirim Creek, one of its tributaries. Blood levels of As, Co, Cr, Se and Pb varied among sites, whereas Sn varied between males and females. However, no obvious pathology was detected. Serum level of Cu (2,194 ng g(-1)) and Pb (1,150 ng g(-1)) found in this study are the highest ever described for any reptile; however, no clinical symptoms have been detected in the present study. There is no information about the time scale of such contamination, which could be currently subclinical and yet lead to a breakdown in the population reproductive success in a few years. Based on the present study, legal enforcement is urged in order to locate and extirpate heavy metal sources in the Piracicaba River basin. In addition, monitoring should include humans and commercial fish consumed in local markets.

Microestruturas de pêlos de pequenos mamíferos não-voadores: chave para identificação de espécies de agroecossistemas do estado de São Paulo, Brasil

Características microestruturais dos pêlos vêm sendo usadas para identificação de espécies em pesquisas taxonômicas, ecológicas, paleontológicas, arqueológicas e forenses. Este estudo tem como objetivo a descrição da estrutura dos pêlos de algumas espécies de pequenos mamíferos não-voadores comumente encontrados em agroecossistemas do Estado de São Paulo. Os pêlos foram coletados do dorso de espécimes previamente identificados coletados em áreas de agricultura (canavial), pastagens, silvicultura (plantio de eucalipto) e fragmentos de vegetação nativa (floresta semidecídua e cerrado). O microscópio óptico apresentou limitações para a descrição do formato e borda das escamas, os quais foram descritos através do uso de microscópio eletrônico de varredura. Uma chave de identificação dicotômica é apresentada para 11 espécies de pequenos mamíferos não-voadores (sete roedores e quatro marsupiais).

Primeiro registro de larvas de Chironomus inquinatus Correia, Trivinho-Strixino & Michailova (Diptera, Chironomidae) vivendo no casco do cágado Phrynops geoffroanus Schweigger (Testudines, Chelidae) na região Neotropical

Neste estudo reportamos pela primeira vez a ocorrência de larvas de Chironomus inquinatus Correia, Trivinho-Strixino & Michailova vivendo no casco do cágado Phrynops geoffroanus Schweigger, possivelmente em função da intensa acumulação de sedimento, em um rio poluído da região Neotropical.

Capybaras in an anthropogenic habitat in Southeastern Brazil

Capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) are widely distributed in the Neotropics, living in both natural and anthropogenic habitats. In the present study, we monitored the fluctuating capybara population at the Campus "Luiz de Queiroz", University of São Paulo, in Piracicaba, Southeastern Brazil from 1998 to 2000. To assess population fluctuation and growth rates, we used an abundance index based on direct weekly daylight counts. Population monitoring was carried out in an anthropogenic wetland associated with an agroecosystem. The observers bias was established as directly related to their distance from the animals. The capybara population density and biomass in the anthropogenic wetland in question were found to be significantly higher than in pristine habitats. The species seems to present a seasonal pattern of fluctuation, with a peak in late spring (Oct to Dec). Unlike young capybaras, adults and juveniles present similar seasonal fluctuation patterns. In this anthropogenic wetland, the carrying capacity may be as high as 195 individuals/Km2. At a conservative exploitation rate (17%) in anthropogenic wetlands of Southeastern Brazil, capybara productivity may reach approximately 630 Kg/Km2/year.

Detectability of capybaras in forested habitats

Direct count has been commonly used as an abundance index to estimate wildlife population size. However, systematic errors in sample-based estimators are common in sampling animal populations. At this study we aimed to estimate capybara's observability, through a detectability index in forested habitats. Sampling surveys of capybaras population was obtained by direct count (abundance index) and also by complete count (census). The average detectability index of capybaras in forested habitats was 0.63 ± 0.32 for a single observer. The variability in the detectability index among habitats was due to the presence of more or less dense vegetation. This information might be useful for management purposes of the species in the agroecosystems of southeastern Brazil where species is widespread and overabundant.

Relationship between body mass and body length in capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris)

As a part of a management program we captured 39 capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) in an agroecosystem at the east central region of the State of São Paulo, Brazil from March 2001 to May 2002. Average adult male body mass was 54.1 ± 8.05 kg, and average adult female body mass was 62.0 ± 12.03 kg. Average juvenile male body mass was 23.0 ± 8.28 kg, and average juvenile female body mass was 26.7 ± 5.86 kg. Males and females presented a significant variation in the allometric relation between body mass and body length. Body mass and body length had a high correlation for both adult males and adult females. These results from capybaras in agroecosystem might be relevant for further management programs.

Microgeographic variation in Caiman latirostris

In theory, geographic scale is related to genetic variation at the population level, whereas microgeographic scale may reveal intra-population structure such as social groups and families. In the present work, both levels of genetic variation in the broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris) were evaluated in small wetlands associated with the Piracicaba River and some of its tributaries in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Genetic variation was determined using microsatellite DNA markers originally developed for the American alligator (Alligator mississipiensis) and previously tested in pedigreed captive broad-snouted caimans. Using these markers, we were able to detect variability among individuals from different sites, even those within a small geographic distance. Genetic results suggest that the groups sampled at each site are composed predominantly of related individuals. A possible combination of high mortality and low natality rates results in a low number of successfully dispersed individuals per generation. Future studies using a recently constructed Caiman latirostris microsatellite library (Zucoloto et al., 2002) might help us to understand metapopulation processes that may be occurring within this species.

Microsatellite DNA library for Caiman latirostris

New genetic markers were characterized for the broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris) by constructing libraries enriched for microsatellite DNA. Construction and characterization of these libraries are described in the present study. One microsatellite marker was developed from a (ACC-TGG)(n)enriched microsatellite DNA library, and 12 microsatellite markers were developed from a (AC-TG)(n)enriched microsatellite DNA library. These markers were tested in wild-caught animals, and these tests resulted in ten new polymorphic microsatellites for C. latirostris.

Allometry of reproduction in broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris)

In the present study regression equations are established between broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris) captive reproductive females snout-vent length (SVL) and body mass (BM) and the following clutch characteristics: egg mass, egg "length" (maximal diameter), egg "width" (minimal diameter), hatchling BM, hatchling SVL, clutch size (number of eggs), clutch mass and relative clutch mass (clutch mass/female BM). Female body-length presented a positive correlation with egg mass, egg length, egg width, hatchling BM and hatchling SVL. No clear correlation was found between female SVL and clutch size. Female BM showed a significantly positive correlation with egg mass, egg-length, egg-width, hatchling BM, hatchling SVL and clutch mass. A highly significant negative correlation was found between female BM and the relative clutch mass. No clear correlation was found between female BM and clutch size.

Regression equations between body and head measurements in the broad-snouted Caiman (Caiman latirostris)

In the present study, regression equations between body and head length measurements for the broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris) are presented. Age and sex are discussed as sources of variation for allometric models. Four body-length, fourteen head-length, and ten ratio variables were taken from wild and captive animals. With the exception of body mass, log-transformation did not improve the regression equations. Besides helping to estimate body-size from head dimensions, the regression equations stressed skull shape changes during the ontogenetic process. All age-dependent variables are also size-dependent (and consequently dependent on growth rate), which is possibly related to the difficulty in predicting age of crocodilians based on single variable growth curves. Sexual dimorphism was detected in the allometric growth of cranium but not in the mandible, which may be evolutionarily related to the visual recognition of gender when individuals exhibit only the top of their heads above the surface of the water, a usual crocodilian behavior.

The influence of hunting pressure on the social behavior of vertebrates

The study of the influence of human hunting pressure on the social behavior of vertebrates requires a large background on both the hunting pressure and the social behavior of the species. Literature about this subject is relatively scarce. Most of the papers are restricted to shifts in demography, and are generally "species-specific". However, human hunting pressure can not only affect demography but also some factors of the social behavior of a species such as parental care, territoriality, reproductive behavior, group-size, fraying behavior, mating system, and intraspecific competition. The presence of hunters in the area can lead the animals to move out of their original home-rangers. This can breakup the social structure and can cause long-term effects on the demography of hunted as well as nearby populations, amplifying the impact of hunting. On the other hand, harvest can be compensated in territorial species by "surplus population" of non-territorial individuals. Moreover, alternatively, an increase in the reproductive activity, as a response to hunting pressure, can compensate its effects in some species. Understanding the implications of hunting pressure in the social behavior of vertebrates might be decisive to the establishment of wildlife management and conservation programs. Manipulative experiments might help us to model such complex interactions. The occurrence of qualitative and quantitative changes in vertebrate social behavior directly or indirectly related to human hunting pressure is reviewed and analyzed in this paper.