Consumption of Red/Processed Meat and Colorectal Carcinoma: Possible Mechanisms Underlying the Significant Association

Deciphering the impact of dietary habits and behavioral patterns on colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a malignant tumor that originates from the epithelial cells of the colon and rectum. Global epidemiological data shows that in 2020, the incidence and mortality rate of CRC ranked third and second, respectively, posing a serious threat to people's health and lives. The factors influencing CRC are numerous and can be broadly categorized as modifiable and non-modifiable based on whether they can be managed or intervened upon. Non-modifiable factors include age, gender, family history, among others. Among the modifiable factors, dietary habits and behavioral practices are the main intervention measures that people can take to prevent CRC. Numerous studies indicate that a high intake of red and processed meats, fats, as well as habits such as smoking, alcohol consumption, and prolonged sitting, increase the risk of developing CRC. Conversely, consuming ample vegetables, fruits, high dietary fiber, and engaging in moderate regular exercise may reduce the risk of CRC. This article primarily discusses the impact of dietary habits and behavioral practices on the occurrence and development of CRC, along with possible mechanisms, laying the foundation and providing direction for the prevention and control of CRC occurrence and development.

Global, regional, and national burden of early-onset colorectal cancer and projection to 2050: An analysis based on the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021

OBJECTIVES

Early-onset colorectal cancer (EO-CRC) is becoming increasingly concerning due to its impact on individuals under 50 years old. We explored the burden of EO-CRC to provide information for planning effective management and prevention strategies.

STUDY DESIGN

We conducted secondary analyses to assess the burden of EO-CRC using data from GBD 2021.

METHODS

The incidence, prevalence, deaths, disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and their rates across 204 countries and territories were obtained from GBD 2021 database. The estimated annual percentage change (EAPC) calculation was used to assess temporal trends in these metrics. Additionally, we reported the proportion of DALYs attributable to risk factors and projected future disease burden till 2050.

RESULTS

The global number of new EO-CRC cases increased from 107,310 in 1990 to 211,890 in 2021. Both age-standardized incidence rate (ASIR) and prevalence rate (ASPR) of EO-CRC showed overall increases over the study period (ASIR: EAPC = 0.96 (0.9-1.02), ASPR: EAPC = 1.5 (1.44-1.55)). However, a decline in ASIR and ASPR was observed in 2020 and 2021. Males consistently showed higher EO-CRC indicators compared to females. Furthermore, projections indicated that deaths and DALYs cases are likely to fluctuate but generally increase by 2050, reaching 85,602 and 4,283,093, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The global impact of EO-CRC has increased significantly from 1990 to 2021, revealing notable variations across SDI regions, countries, age groups, and sexes. Besides, deaths and DALYs are predicted to rise by 2050. These results highlight the importance of implementing measures to address the growing burden of EO-CRC globally.

Meat products in human nutrition and health - About hazards and risks

Meat processing has a long history and involves a wide and ever-increasing range of chemical and physical processes, resulting in a heterogeneous food category with a wide variability in nutritional value. Despite the known benefits of meat consumption, observational epidemiological studies have shown associations between consumption of red and processed meat - but not white meat - and several non-communicable diseases, with higher relative risks for processed meat compared to unprocessed red meat. This has led global and regional nutrition and health organisations to recommend reducing consumption of unprocessed red meat and avoiding processed meat. A plethora of potentially implicated hazardous compounds present in meat or formed during processing or gastrointestinal digestion have been reported in the literature. However, our mechanistic understanding of the impact of meat consumption on human health is still very incomplete and is complicated by the simultaneous occurrence of multiple hazards and interactions with other food compounds and host factors. This narrative review briefly discusses hazards, risks and their assessment in the context of dietary guidelines. It is argued that more mechanistic studies of the interactive effects of meat products with other foods and food compounds in different dietary contexts are needed to refine and increase the evidence base for dietary guidelines. Importantly, the great diversity in the composition and degree of processing of processed meats should be better understood in terms of their impact on human health in order to develop a more nuanced approach to dietary guidelines for this food category.

Gut microbiota in colorectal cancer: From pathogenesis to clinic

Colorectal cancer is the third most common type of cancer, with a significant burden on healthcare and social systems. Its incidence is constantly rising, due to the spread of unhealthy lifestyle, i.e. Western diet. Increasing evidence suggests that westernization-driven microbiome alterations may play a critical role in colorectal tumorigenesis. The current screening strategies for this neoplasm, mainly fecal immunochemical tests, are burdened by unsatisfactory accuracy. Novel, non-invasive biomarkers are rising as the new frontier of colorectal cancer screening, and the microbiome-based ones are showing positive and optimistic results. This Review describes our current knowledge on the role of gut microbiota in colorectal cancer, from its pathogenetic action to its clinical potential as diagnostic biomarker.

Predictors of Meat Reduction: The Case of Slovenia

Health, environmental, and animal advocacy organisations emphasise reducing or eliminating high meat consumption due to its adverse effects on health, sustainability, climate change, and animal welfare. Increasingly, people are deciding to reduce their meat consumption frequency. Our study aimed to examine predictors of meat reduction among Slovenian consumers, focusing on gender, age, partner and children status, size of residential settlement, socioeconomic status, and political orientation. We conducted a survey using non-probability sampling. We examined demographic, socioeconomic, and political predictors of individuals' self-assessed intent to reduce meat consumption in the month following the survey. Additionally, we analysed respondents' meat reduction during the three years prior. A correlation analysis revealed that higher age and education levels were significantly positively correlated with meat reduction patterns. An ordinal logistic regression analysis indicated that age was the only significant predictor of meat reduction intentions and past behaviour. Our findings suggest that middle-aged and elderly individuals are more likely than younger adults to report meat reduction behaviours. Future public health interventions should tailor approaches to different age groups, and, in particular, target younger individuals. Educational campaigns should highlight the health and environmental benefits of reducing meat and animal product consumption, particularly in primary and secondary schools.

The Role of Fresh Beef Intake and Mediterranean Diet Adherence during Pregnancy in Maternal and Infant Health Outcomes

Beef is an excellent source of nutrients important for maternal health and fetal development. It is also true that the Mediterranean diet is beneficial for the health of both the mother and offspring; however, the relative value of fresh beef intake within Mediterranean diet patterns during pregnancy is unknown. The objective of this project was two-fold: (1) assess the relationship between beef intake and nutrient intake in a pregnant population; (2) assess the relationship between maternal beef consumption among varying degrees of Mediterranean diet adherence with maternal risk of anemia and infant health outcomes. This is a secondary analysis of an existing cohort of pregnant women (n = 1076) who participated in one of two completed clinical trials examining the effect of a docosahexaenoic acid supplementation on birth and offspring outcomes. Women were enrolled between 12 and 20 weeks of gestation and were followed throughout their pregnancies to collect maternal and infant characteristics, food frequency questionnaires [providing beef intake and Mediterranean diet (MedD) adherence], and supplement intake. Women with the highest fresh beef intake had the highest intake of many micronutrients that are commonly deficient among pregnant women. Fresh beef intake alone was not related to any maternal or infant outcomes. There was a reduced risk of anemia among women with medium to high MedD quality and higher fresh beef intake. Women in the medium MedD group had 31% lower odds of anemia, and women in the high MedD group had 38% lower odds of anemia with every one-ounce increase in fresh beef intake, suggesting that diet quality indices may be misrepresenting the role of fresh beef within a healthy diet. These findings show that beef intake increases micronutrient intake and may be protective against maternal anemia when consumed within a healthy Mediterranean diet pattern.

Risk factors of colorectal cancer: the comparison of selected nutritional behaviors of medical and non-medical students

BACKGROUND

The aim of the study was to compare the diet of medical and non-medical students in relation to colorectal cancer risk factors.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study included 239 students of various universities in Bialystok, Poland. Respondents were divided into four groups: students of dietetics at the Medical University (SD), students of other fields of study at the Medical University (SMUB), students of the University of Technology (SBUT) and students of the University of Bialystok (SUB). The research tool was an anonymous questionnaire in an electronic form, designed by the authors of this paper.

RESULTS

Overweight was the least common among students of dietetics. Products that may increase the risk of developing colorectal cancer were most frequently consumed by students of non-medical universities. Everyday consumption of processed meat products was declared by 2.08% of SD, 24.00% of SMUB, 16.13% of SBUT and 25.93% of SUB. Red meat was consumed several times a week or every day by 25% of SD, 25.33% of SMUB, 48.39% of SBUT and 35.19% of SUB. Fast-food meals consumption once or several times a week was confirmed by 4.17% of SD, 18.67% of SMUB, 27.42% of SBUT and 38.89% of SUB.

CONCLUSION

The study conducted shows that students expose themselves to colorectal cancer risk factors through their diet.

Young-onset colorectal cancer

In the past decades the incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC) in people under the age of 50 years has increased, which is referred to as early-onset CRC or young-onset CRC (YO-CRC). YO-CRC is expected to account for 11% of colon cancers and 23% of rectal cancers by 2030. This trend is observed in different parts of the world and in both men and women. In 20% of patients with YO-CRC, a hereditary cancer syndrome is found as the underlying cause; however, in the majority of patients no genetic predisposition is present. Beginning in the 1950s, major changes in lifestyle such as antibiotic use, low physical activity and obesity have affected the gut microbiome and may be an important factor in YO-CRC development. Owing to a lack of screening, patients with YO-CRC are often diagnosed with advanced-stage disease. Long-term treatment-related complications should be taken into account in these younger patients, making the more traditional sequential approaches of drug therapy not always the most appropriate option. To better understand the underlying mechanism and define relationships between environmental factors and YO-CRC development, long-term prospective studies are needed with lifestyle data collected from childhood.

Total, red and processed meat consumption and human health: an umbrella review of observational studies

Meat consumption has represented an important evolutionary step for humans. However, modern patterns of consumption, including excess intake, type of meat and cooking method have been the focus of attention as a potential cause of rise in non-communicable diseases. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between total, red and processed meat with health outcomes and to assess the level of evidence by performing a systematic search of meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies. Convincing evidence of the association between increased risk of (i) colorectal adenoma, lung cancer, CHD and stroke, (ii) colorectal adenoma, ovarian, prostate, renal and stomach cancers, CHD and stroke and (iii) colon and bladder cancer was found for excess intake of total, red and processed meat, respectively. Possible negative associations with other health outcomes have been reported. Excess meat consumption may be detrimental to health, with a major impact on cardiometabolic and cancer risk.

Healthy lifestyle and the risk of conventional adenomas and serrated polyps: Findings from a large colonoscopy screening population

Evidence on the link between healthy lifestyle and colorectal cancer (CRC) precursors is limited. Our study aimed to examine and compare the associations of healthy lifestyle with CRC precursors in adenoma (AD)-carcinoma and serrated pathways. A total of 24 480 participants including 6309 ADs, 1343 serrated polyps (SPs), and 16 828 polyp-free controls were included. A healthy lifestyle score (HLS) was constructed based on five lifestyle factors including cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking, physical activity, diet and body weight, and categorized into least, slightly, moderately and most healthy. Multivariable logistic regressions were used to estimate odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). Inverse dose-response associations between the HLS and risk of ADs were observed (OR per 1 score increment for ADs: 0.82 [95% CI 0.79-0.84]; for SPs: 0.73 [95% CI 0.69-0.78]), and the association with SPs was more evident than with ADs (OR 0.90, 95% CI 0.85-0.96). Compared to participants with the least healthy lifestyle, those with the most healthy lifestyle had 47% lower risk of ADs (OR 0.53, 95% CI 0.47-0.59) and 70% lower risk of SPs (OR 0.30, 95% CI 0.23-0.39), respectively. These inverse associations were consistent across lesion stage and anatomic subsite and not modified by any stratification factors. The risk advancement periods for the most vs the least healthy lifestyle were -9.49 years for ADs and -20.69 years for SPs. Our findings help confirm the preventive role of healthy lifestyle in colorectal carcinogenesis.

Nutritional Management of Thyroiditis of Hashimoto

Since the thyroid gland is one of the organs most affected by autoimmune processes, many patients with thyroiditis of Hashimoto (TH) seek medical advice on lifestyle variance and dietary modifications to improve and maintain their hyroid function. In this review, we aim to present and discuss some challenges associated with the nutritional management of TH, focusing on environmental and dietary deficits, inflammatory and toxic nutrients, cyanotoxins, etc. We discuss the relationships among different diets, chronic inflammation, and microbiota, and their impact on the development and exacerbation of TH in detail. We share some novel insights into the role of vitamin D and melatonin for preserving thyroid function during chronic inflammation in autoimmune predisposed subjects. A comprehensive overview is provided on anti-inflammatory nutrients and ecological diets, including foods for cleansing and detoxification, which represent strategies to prevent relapses and achieve overall improvement of life quality. In conclusion, data from biomedical and clinical studies provide evidence that an appropriate dietary and lighting regimen could significantly improve the function of the thyroid gland and reduce the reactivity of autoantibodies in TH. Compliance with nutritional guidelines may help TH patients to reduce the need for medicines.

Exploring the Inflammatory Pathogenesis of Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers worldwide. Traditionally, mechanisms of colorectal cancer formation have focused on genetic alterations including chromosomal damage and microsatellite instability. In recent years, there has been a growing body of evidence supporting the role of inflammation in colorectal cancer formation. Multiple cytokines, immune cells such T cells and macrophages, and other immune mediators have been identified in pathways leading to the initiation, growth, and metastasis of colorectal cancer. Outside the previously explored mechanisms and pathways leading to colorectal cancer, initiatives have been shifted to further study the role of inflammation in pathogenesis. Inflammatory pathways have also been linked to some traditional risk factors of colorectal cancer such as obesity, smoking and diabetes, as well as more novel associations such as the gut microbiome, the gut mycobiome and exosomes. In this review, we will explore the roles of obesity and diet, smoking, diabetes, the microbiome, the mycobiome and exosomes in colorectal cancer, with a specific focus on the underlying inflammatory and metabolic pathways involved. We will also investigate how the study of colon cancer from an inflammatory background not only creates a more holistic and inclusive understanding of this disease, but also creates unique opportunities for prevention, early diagnosis and therapy.

Processed Foods - Getting Back to The Basics

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Real-world data suggested that more than half of daily energy intake is coming from processed and ultra-processed foods in most western countries. This high consumption of processed foods is of concern, given laboratory and epidemiological studies' findings that prove overwhelming harms of processed foods on human health.

RECENT FINDINGS

Data demonstrate that consumption of processed foods is increasing with more reports linking ultra-processed foods to various medical conditions; namely, obesity, metabolic syndrome, atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases, and certain types of cancer. Scientific community's understanding of the mechanisms and substances by which processed foods are affecting human health is expanding. Holistic approach to the current critical situation is advisable and requires collaborative public health strategies. The current review describes recent classification of processed foods and highlights the pertinent findings in the relationship between processed foods and health. It also outlines key clinical data relevant to the topic.

Comparative Analysis of Phenolic Composition of Six Commercially Available Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) Extracts: Potential Biological Implications

Several phytochemical-containing herbal extracts are increasingly marketed as health-promoting products. In particular, chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.) is well known for its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antitumor properties. Here, we evaluated differences in chemical composition among six commercially available products and their potential impact on biological activity in human immortalized colonocytes. Our investigation encompassed: (i) preparation of dry extracts and yield evaluation; (ii) qualitative and quantitative analysis of phenol content; (iii) modulation of redox state; and (iv) bioavailability of main bioactive compounds. We demonstrated that apparently identical products showed huge heterogeneity, in terms of yield extraction, chemical composition, and antioxidant effects. All samples contained high amounts of flavonoids and cinnamic acid derivatives, but differentially concentrated in the six extracts. Depending on polyphenol content, chamomile samples possessed variable antioxidant potential, in terms of decreased radical generation and increased reduced glutathione levels. The observed effects might be ascribed to flavones (apigenin, luteolin, and their glycones) highly represented in the six extracts. Nonetheless, chamomile extracts exerted cytotoxic effects at high concentrations, suggesting that a herbal medicine is not always safe. In conclusion, due to the complexity and variability of plant matrices, studies evaluating effectiveness of chamomile should always be accompanied by preliminary characterization of phytochemical composition.

Metabolic Evidence Rather Than Amounts of Red or Processed Meat as a Risk on Korean Colorectal Cancer

The incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC) has increased in Korea, a newly-industrialized Asian country, with the dramatic increase of meat intake. To assess the risks of red or processed meat consumption on CRC, we performed a case-control study with biological monitoring of urinary1-OHP, PhIP, and MeIQx for the meat exposure; dG-C8 MeIQx and dG-C8 PhIP for HCA-induced DNA adducts; and homocysteine and C-reactive protein (CRP) in blood as well as malondialdehyde (MDA) and 31fatty acids in urine for inflammation and lipid alteration. We further analyzed global DNA methylation and expression of 15 CRC-related genes. As a result, the consumption of red or processed meat was not higher in the cases than in the controls. However, urinary MeIQx and PhIP were associated with the intake of red meat and urinary 1-OHP. MDA and multiple fatty acids were related to the exposure biomarkers. Most of the 31 fatty acids and multiple saturated fatty acids were higher in the cases than in the controls. Finally, the cases showed upregulation of PTGS2, which is related to pro-inflammatory fatty acids. This study describes indirect mechanisms of CRC via lipid alteration with a series of processes including exposure to red meat, alteration of fatty acids, and relevant gene expression.

Processed meat products with added plant antioxidants affect the microbiota and immune response in C57BL/6JRj mice with cyclically induced chronic inflammation

Epidemiological studies have found that there is a correlation between red and processed meat consumption and an increased risk of colorectal cancer. There are numerous existing hypotheses on what underlying mechanisms are causative to this correlation, but the results remain unclear. A common hypothesis is that lipid oxidation, which occurs in endogenous lipids and phospholipids in consumed food, are catalyzed by the heme iron in meat. In this study, five pre-selected plant antioxidant preparations (sea buckthorn leaves and sprouts, summer savory leaves, olive polyphenols, onion skin and lyophilized black currant leaves) were added to a meatball type prone to oxidize (pork meat, 20 % fat, 2% salt, deep-fried and after 2 weeks of storage). Pro-inflammatory markers, neutrophil infiltration and microbiota composition were studied after four months in a chronic inflammation model in C57BL6/J female mice. We found that the bacterial diversity index was affected, as well as initial immunological reactions.

Dietary Factors Modulating Colorectal Carcinogenesis

The development of colorectal cancer, responsible for 9% of cancer-related deaths, is favored by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The modification of diet and lifestyle may modify the risk of colorectal cancer (CRC) and prevent neoplasia in up to 50% of cases. The Western diet, characterized by a high intake of fat, red meat and processed meat has emerged as an important contributor. Conversely, a high intake of dietary fiber partially counteracts the unfavorable effects of meat through multiple mechanisms, including reduced intestinal transit time and dilution of carcinogenic compounds. Providing antioxidants (e.g., vitamins C and E) and leading to increased intraluminal production of protective fermentation products, like butyrate, represent other beneficial and useful effects of a fiber-rich diet. Protective effects on the risk of developing colorectal cancer have been also advocated for some specific micronutrients like vitamin D, selenium, and calcium. Diet-induced modifications of the gut microbiota modulate colonic epithelial cell homeostasis and carcinogenesis. This can have, under different conditions, opposite effects on the risk of CRC, through the production of mutagenic and carcinogenic agents or, conversely, of protective compounds. The aim of this review is to summarize the most recent evidence on the role of diet as a potential risk factor for the development of colorectal malignancies, as well as providing possible prevention dietary strategies.

Commercial luncheon meat products and their in vitro gastrointestinal digests contain more protein carbonyl compounds but less lipid oxidation products compared to fresh pork

Because of the large diversity in processed meat products and the potential involvement of oxidation processes in the association between red and processed meat consumption and chronic diseases, the concentration of oxidation products after gastrointestinal digestion of commercial luncheon meat products was investigated. A broad spectrum of meat products (n = 24), displaying large variation in macro- and micronutrient composition and processing procedures, was digested in vitro by simulating digestion fluids of the human gastrointestinal tract. Lipid and protein oxidation was assessed in the meat products before digestion and in the corresponding digests by measurement of free malondialdehyde, 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal, hexanal and protein carbonyl compounds. Compared to an unprocessed cooked pork mince, that was included as a reference in the digestion experiment, levels of lipid oxidation products were low in the digests of most meat products. Only the digests of Parma ham had slightly higher or comparable levels as the reference pork. In contrast, protein carbonyl compounds were comparable or up to 6 times higher in the processed meat products compared to the reference pork. Particularly raw-cooked and precooked-cooked meat products and corresponding digests had higher protein carbonyl levels, but also lower protein contents and higher fat to protein ratios. In conclusion, most luncheon meat products and corresponding digests contained lower amounts of free lipid oxidation products, but more protein carbonyl compounds compared to the reference pork.

Glycosylated Biotherapeutics: Immunological Effects of N-Glycolylneuraminic Acid

The emerging field of biotherapeutics provides successful treatments for various diseases, yet immunogenicity and limited efficacy remain major concerns for many products. Glycosylation is a key factor determining the pharmacological properties of biotherapeutics, including their stability, solubility, bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, and immunogenicity. Hence, an increased attention is directed at optimizing the glycosylation properties of biotherapeutics. Currently, most biotherapeutics are produced in non-human mammalian cells in light of their ability to produce human-like glycosylation. However, most mammals produce the sialic acid N-glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc), while humans cannot due to a specific genetic defect. Humans consume Neu5Gc in their diet from mammalian derived foods (red meat and dairy) and produce polyclonal antibodies against diverse Neu5Gc-glycans. Moreover, Neu5Gc can metabolically incorporate into human cells and become presented on surface or secreted glycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids. Several studies in mice suggested that the combination of Neu5Gc-containing epitopes and anti-Neu5Gc antibodies could contribute to exacerbation of chronic inflammation-mediated diseases (e.g., cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and autoimmunity). This could potentially become complicated with exposure to Neu5Gc-containing biotherapeutics, bio-devices or xenografts. Indeed, Neu5Gc can be found on various approved and marketed biotherapeutics. Here, we provide a perspective review on the possible consequences of Neu5Gc glycosylation of therapeutic protein drugs due to the limited published evidence of Neu5Gc glycosylation on marketed biotherapeutics and studies on their putative effects on immunogenicity, drug efficacy, and safety.

Lipid Oxidation Inhibition Capacity of 11 Plant Materials and Extracts Evaluated in Highly Oxidised Cooked Meatballs

The underlying mechanism(s) behind the potential carcinogenicity of processed meat is a popular research subject of which the lipid oxidation is a common suspect. Different formulations and cooking parameters of a processed meat product were evaluated for their capacity to induce lipid oxidation. Meatballs made of beef or pork, containing different concentrations of fat (10 or 20 g 100 g⁻¹), salt (2 or 4 g 100 g⁻¹), subjected to differing cooking types (pan or deep frying), and storage times (1, 7, and 14 days), were evaluated using thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS). The deep-fried meatball type most susceptible to oxidation was used as the model meat product for testing the lipid oxidation inhibiting capacity of 11 plant materials and extracts, in two concentrations (100 and 200 mg kg⁻¹ gallic acid equivalent (GAE)), measured after 14 days of storage using TBARS. Summer savory lyophilized powder was the most efficient plant material, lowering lipid oxidation to 13.8% and 21.8% at the 200 and 100 mg kg⁻¹ concentration, respectively, followed by a sea buckthorn leaf extract, lowering lipid oxidation to 22.9% at 100 mg kg⁻¹, compared to the meatball without added antioxidants. The lipid oxidation was thus successfully reduced using these natural antioxidants.

Regulation of Inflammatory Response and the Production of Reactive Oxygen Species by a Functional Cooked Ham Reformulated with Natural Antioxidants in a Macrophage Immunity Model

Nowadays, more consumers demand healthier products. A way to offer such products is to functionalize them using health-promoting bioactive compounds. Meat and meat products are high in essential nutrients; however, their excessive consumption implies a high intake of other substances that, at levels above recommended uptake limits, have been linked to certain non-communicable chronic diseases. An effective way to reduce this danger is to reformulate meat products. In this study, natural botanical extracts rich in anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compounds were used to improve the health properties of a cooked ham with an optimal nutritional profile (i.e., low in fat and salt). The RAW 264.7 mouse cell line was used as an inflammatory model and was stimulated with Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide to evaluate changes in inflammatory biomarkers such as tumour necrosis factor alpha, the interleukins (ILs) IL-1β and IL-6, nitric oxide and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). The results showed that the use of natural extracts in optimized cooked ham significantly downregulated inflammatory markers and reduced the levels of intracellular ROS. Thus, the present study proposed a new functional cooked ham with potential health properties via anti-inflammatory and antioxidant in vitro activity.

Dietary inflammatory index and the risk of gastric cancer in a Korean population

We aimed to investigate the association with the Dietary Inflammatory Index (DII™) on the risk of gastric cancer and whether histological type modifies this association. From March 2011 to December 2014, 388 cases and 776 controls were enrolled at the National Cancer Center. Utilizing a food frequency questionnaire, thirty-five food components were used to score the DII. The tertile distribution of DII for controls was as follows: T1: <0.96, T2: 0.96-2.97, and T3: ≥2.97. To investigate the association between DII and the gastric cancer risk, multivariable logistic models were constructed. In subgroup analyses, histological types including intestinal and diffuse types were examined. As the DII increased, gastric cancer risk increased (p-value for trend =0.007). Participants in the highest DII tertile had a greater gastric cancer risk compared to those in the lowest tertile [Odds Ratio (OR) =1.63, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 1.15-2.29]. Stratification by sex revealed that men who were in the highest DII tertile showed a greater risk of intestinal type (OR=2.03, 95% CI 1.09-3.77). Participants positive for H. pylori infection had higher risk of intestinal type (OR=2.16, 95% CI 1.21-3.87). In this case-control study, we found a significantly positive association with a pro-inflammatory diet on gastric cancer risk, after adjusting for covariates. Future studies are suggested to prospectively examine the effect of a pro-inflammatory diet on gastric cancer risk.

Associations of red and processed meat intake with major molecular pathological features of colorectal cancer

Red and processed meat is an established risk factor for colorectal cancer (CRC). However, exact mechanisms to explain the associations remain unclear. Few studies have investigated the association with CRC by molecular tumor features, which could provide relevant information on associated molecular pathways. In this population-based case-control study from Germany (DACHS), 2449 cases and 2479 controls provided information on risk factors of CRC and completed a food frequency questionnaire. Multivariable logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the associations between meat intake and risk of CRC by molecular pathologic features and specific subtypes. Red and processed meat intake was associated with increased risk of colorectal (>1 time/day vs ≤1 time/week OR 1.66, 95% CI 1.34-2.07), colon and rectal cancer. Among the single molecular tumor features investigated, the results were similar for associations of red and processed meat with CRC risk by microsatellite instability, CpG island methylator phenotype, BRAF, oestrogen receptor-β and p53 status. Red and processed meat intake was associated less strongly with risk of KRAS-mutated CRC (OR >1 time/day vs ≤1 time/week: 1.49, 95% CI 1.09-2.03) than with risk of KRAS-wildtype CRC (OR 1.82, 95% CI 1.42-2.34; p _{heterogeneity} 0.04). These results support an association between red and processed meat and CRC risk similar for subsites of CRC and most of the investigated major molecular pathological features. Potential differences were observed in more specific subtype analyses. Further large studies are needed to confirm these results and to help further elucidate potential underlying mechanisms.

Concentrations of environmental organic contaminants in meat and meat products and human dietary exposure: A review

Meat and meat products is one of the most relevant food groups in an important number of human diets. Recently, the IARC, based on results of a number of epidemiological studies, classified the consumptions of red meat and processed meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans" and as "carcinogenic to humans", respectively. It was suggested that the substances responsible of the potential carcinogenicity would be mainly generated during meat processing, such as curing and smoking, or when meat is heated at high temperatures. However, the exposure to environmental pollutants through meat consumption was not discussed. The purpose of the present paper was to review recent studies reporting the concentrations of PCDD/Fs, DL-PCBs and PAHs in meat and meat products, as well as the human exposure to these pollutants through the diet. It is concluded that the health risks derived from exposure to carcinogenic environmental contaminants must be considered in the context of each specific diet, which besides meat and meat products, includes other foodstuffs containing also chemical pollutants, some of them with carcinogenic potential. Anyhow, meat and meat products are not the main food group responsible of the dietary exposure to carcinogenic (or probably carcinogenic) environmental organic pollutants.

Carcinogenicity of consumption of red meat and processed meat: A review of scientific news since the IARC decision

In October 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) issued a press release on the results of the evaluation of the carcinogenicity of red and processed meat. Based on the accumulated scientific literature, the consumption of red meat was classified as "probably carcinogenic to humans" and processed meat as "carcinogenic to humans". Given the importance of this topic, this review was aimed at revising the current state-of-the-art on the carcinogenicity of red and processed meat, some time after the IARC decision. Some new epidemiological studies and new reviews clearly supporting the IARC decision have been published during these months. However, a number of gaps still exist. It is basic to establish the mechanisms leading to the increased risk of colorectal cancer (CRC) and other cancers arising from red and processed meat consumption. Another important pending issue is to establish the role of known/suspected carcinogens contained in uncooked or unprocessed meats, as well as the influence of cooking. Finally, it would be highly recommended to conduct new epidemiological studies to elucidate whether the consumption of white meat, such as pork and/or poultry, are -positively or inversely-associated with an increased risk of CRC and other types of cancer.

Red Wine and Pomegranate Extracts Suppress Cured Meat Promotion of Colonic Mucin-Depleted Foci in Carcinogen-Induced Rats

Processed meat intake is carcinogenic to humans. We have shown that intake of a workshop-made cured meat with erythorbate promotes colon carcinogenesis in rats. We speculated that polyphenols could inhibit this effect by limitation of endogenous lipid peroxidation and nitrosation. Polyphenol-rich plant extracts were added to the workshop-made cured meat and given for 14 days to rats and 100 days to azoxymethane-induced rats to evaluate the inhibition of preneoplastic lesions. Colons of 100-d study were scored for precancerous lesions (mucin-depleted foci, MDF), and biochemical end points of peroxidation and nitrosation were measured in urinary and fecal samples. In comparison with cured meat-fed rats, dried red wine, pomegranate extract, α-tocopherol added at one dose to cured meat and withdrawal of erythorbate significantly decreased the number of MDF per colon (but white grape and rosemary extracts did not). This protection was associated with the full suppression of fecal excretion of nitrosyl iron, suggesting that this nitroso compound might be a promoter of carcinogenesis. At optimized concentrations, the incorporation of these plant extracts in cured meat might reduce the risk of colorectal cancer associated with processed meat consumption.

Colorectal Carcinogenesis in the A/J Min/+ Mouse Model is Inhibited by Hemin, Independently of Dietary Fat Content and Fecal Lipid Peroxidation Rate

Background

Intake of red meat is considered a risk factor for colorectal cancer (CRC) development, and heme, the prosthetic group of myoglobin, has been suggested as a potential cause. One of the proposed molecular mechanisms of heme-induced CRC is based on an increase in the rate of lipid peroxidation catalysed by heme.

Methods

In the present work, the novel A/J Min/+ mouse model for Apc-driven colorectal cancer was used to investigate the effect of dietary heme (0.5 μmol/g), combined with high (40 energy %) or low (10 energy %) dietary fat levels, on intestinal carcinogenesis. At the end of the dietary intervention period (week 3–11), spontaneously developed lesions in the colon (flat aberrant crypt foci (flat ACF) and tumors) and small intestine (tumors) were scored and thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS), a biomarker for lipid peroxidation was analysed in feces.

Results

Dietary hemin significantly reduced colonic carcinogenesis. The inhibitory effect of hemin was not dependent on the dietary fat level, and no association could be established between colonic carcinogenesis and the lipid oxidation rate measured as fecal TBARS. Small intestinal carcinogenesis was not affected by hemin. Fat tended to stimulate intestinal carcinogenesis.

Conclusions

Contradicting the hypothesis, dietary hemin did inhibit colonic carcinogenesis in the present study. The results indicate that fecal TBARS concentration is not directly related to intestinal lesions and is therefore not a suitable biomarker for CRC.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12885-016-2874-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Time-dependent depletion of nitrite in pork/beef and chicken meat products and its effect on nitrite intake estimation

The food additive nitrite (E249, E250) is commonly used in meat curing as a food preservation method. Because of potential negative health effects of nitrite, its use is strictly regulated. In an earlier study we have shown that the calculated intake of nitrite in children can exceed the acceptable daily intake (ADI) when conversion from dietary nitrate to nitrite is included. This study examined time-dependent changes in nitrite levels in four Swedish meat products frequently eaten by children: pork/beef sausage, liver paté and two types of chicken sausage, and how the production process, storage and also boiling (e.g., simmering in salted water) and frying affect the initial added nitrite level. The results showed a steep decrease in nitrite level between the point of addition to the product and the first sampling of the product 24 h later. After this time, residual nitrite levels continued to decrease, but much more slowly, until the recommended use-by date. Interestingly, this continuing decrease in nitrite was much smaller in the chicken products than in the pork/beef products. In a pilot study on pork/beef sausage, we found no effects of boiling on residual nitrite levels, but frying decreased nitrite levels by 50%. In scenarios of time-dependent depletion of nitrite using the data obtained for sausages to represent all cured meat products and including conversion from dietary nitrate, calculated nitrite intake in 4-year-old children generally exceeded the ADI. Moreover, the actual intake of nitrite from cured meat is dependent on the type of meat source, with a higher residual nitrite levels in chicken products compared with pork/beef products. This may result in increased nitrite exposure among consumers shifting their consumption pattern of processed meats from red to white meat products.