Risk of opportunistic infections in patients treated with alemtuzumab for multiple sclerosis

Impact of High-Efficacy Therapies for Multiple Sclerosis on B Cells

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory and neurodegenerative autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system characterized by demyelination and neurodegeneration. Traditionally considered a T-cell-mediated disease, the crucial role of B lymphocytes in its pathogenesis, through different mechanisms contributing to inflammation and autoreactivity, is increasingly recognized. The risk of long-term disability in MS patients can be reduced by an early treatment initiation, in particular with high-efficacy therapies. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the mechanisms of action of high-efficacy therapies for MS, with a focus on their impact on B cells and how this contributes to the drugs' efficacy and safety profiles. Anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies, Alemtuzumab, Cladribine and sequestering therapies encompassing Natalizumab and S1P receptors modulators will be discussed and emerging therapies, including Bruton's Tyrosine Kinase inhibitors, will be presented.

Central American and Caribbean consensus for the treatment of MS, NMOSD, and MOGAD

BACKGROUND

In recent years, significant progress has been made in immune demyelinating disorders, particularly regarding early diagnosis and disease-modifying drugs (DMDs). Despite advancements, socioeconomic factors in many Latin American countries present unique challenges that impede the proper identification and management of these disorders.

OBJECTIVES

The updated consensus from the Central American and Caribbean working group strives to enhance the management of Multiple Sclerosis (MS), Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder (NMOSD), and Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease (MOGAD) by offering a framework for incorporating available treatment into clinical practice.

METHODS

The authors conducted an extensive bibliographic search and followed a consensus process that included input from forum members to present a new, revised, and finalized report.

RESULTS

The consensus, endorsed by over 70% of members, covers the application of DMDs, biologic agents, glucocorticoids, definitions of therapeutic failure, patient monitoring, cessation of treatment, prognosis, therapy use during pregnancy and lactation, and vaccination in patients initiating or on DMDs or biologic treatments.

CONCLUSION

The revised consensus and guidelines aim to enhance long-term outcomes in these regions by assisting patients, regulatory bodies, healthcare providers, and policymakers.

Efficacy and safety results after >3.5 years of treatment with the Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor evobrutinib in relapsing multiple sclerosis: Long-term follow-up of a Phase II randomised clinical trial with a cerebrospinal fluid sub-study

BACKGROUND

Evobrutinib - an oral, central nervous system (CNS)-penetrant, and highly selective Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor - has shown efficacy in a 48-week, double-blind, Phase II trial in patients with relapsing MS.

OBJECTIVE

Report results of the Phase II open-label extension (OLE; up to week 192 from randomisation) and a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) sub-study.

METHODS

In the 48-week double-blind period (DBP), patients received evobrutinib 25 mg once-daily, 75 mg once-daily, 75 mg twice-daily or placebo (switched to evobrutinib 25 mg once-daily after week 24). Patients could then enter the OLE, receiving evobrutinib 75 mg once-daily (mean (± standard deviation (SD)) duration = 50.6 weeks (±6.0)) before switching to 75 mg twice-daily.

RESULTS

Of 164 evobrutinib-treated patients who entered the OLE, 128 (78.0%) completed ⩾192 weeks of treatment. Patients receiving DBP evobrutinib 75 mg twice-daily: annualised relapse rate at week 48 (0.11 (95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.04-0.25)) was maintained with the OLE twice-daily dose up to week 192 (0.11 (0.05-0.22)); Expanded Disability Status Scale score remained stable; serum neurofilament light chain fell to levels like a non-MS population (Z-scores); T1 gadolinium-enhancing lesion numbers remained low. No new safety signals were identified. In the OLE, evobrutinib was detected in the CSF of all sub-study patients.

CONCLUSION

Long-term evobrutinib treatment was well tolerated and associated with a sustained low level of disease activity. Evobrutinib was present in CSF at concentrations similar to plasma.

Consensus recommendations for diagnosis and treatment of Multiple Sclerosis: 2023 revision of the MENACTRIMS guidelines

With evolving diagnostic criteria and the advent of new oral and parenteral therapies for Multiple Sclerosis (MS), most current diagnostic and treatment algorithms need revision and updating. The diagnosis of MS relies on incorporating clinical and paraclinical findings to prove dissemination in space and time and exclude alternative diseases that can explain the findings at hand. The differential diagnostic workup should be guided by clinical and laboratory red flags to avoid unnecessary tests. Appropriate selection of MS therapies is critical to maximize patient benefit. The current guidelines review the current diagnostic criteria for MS and the scientific evidence supporting treatment of acute relapses, radiologically isolated syndrome, clinically isolated syndrome, relapsing remitting MS, progressive MS, pediatric cases and pregnant women. The purpose of these guidelines is to provide practical recommendations and algorithms for the diagnosis and treatment of MS based on current scientific evidence and clinical experience.

Dietetics Student Perceptions of Food Safety Communication to Vulnerable Populations: An International Study

Registered dietitians can play an important role in delivering food safety information to vulnerable population groups. Although dietetic students are reported to perceive food safety to be important for vulnerable population groups, little is known regarding their attitudes toward their role in the delivery of food safety information. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine and evaluate the perceptions of dietetic students regarding their role in food safety communication to vulnerable populations from three international institutions. A total of 208 dietetics students participated in the study from Columbus, Ohio, USA (n = 100), Cardiff, Wales, UK (n = 78), and Beirut, Lebanon (n = 30). Predominantly, the students in this study had positive attitudes toward the importance of food safety for vulnerable groups, although more students from Lebanon were skeptical that vulnerable patients were more susceptible to foodborne infections than the general populations (p < 0.001). Data indicated confidence and understanding of food safety principles and a willingness to learn more about food safety for these groups, however, some students in the UK (30%) and USA (31%) were not confident that they could effectively communicate food safety to vulnerable patients. Based on the findings in this and previous studies, adjustments are recommended to the requirements for food safety knowledge among dietetic students to include food safety counseling competency.

Antibody response to SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis treated with evobrutinib: A Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor

BACKGROUND

Evobrutinib is an oral, central nervous system (CNS)-penetrant and highly selective covalent Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor under clinical development for patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis (RMS).

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of evobrutinib on immune responses in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccinated patients with RMS from a Phase II trial (NCT02975349).

METHODS

A post hoc analysis of patients with RMS who received evobrutinib 75 mg twice daily and SARS-CoV-2 vaccines during the open-label extension (n = 45) was conducted. Immunoglobulin (Ig)G anti-S1/S2-specific SARS-CoV-2 antibodies were measured using an indirect chemiluminescence immunoassay.

RESULTS

In the vaccinated subgroup, mean/minimum evobrutinib exposure pre-vaccination was 105.2/88.7 weeks. In total, 43 of 45 patients developed/increased S1/S2 IgG antibody levels post-vaccination; one patient's antibody response remained negative post-vaccination and the other had antibody levels above the upper limit of detection, both pre- and post-vaccination. Most patients (n = 36/45), regardless of pre-vaccination serostatus, had a 10-100-fold increase of antibody levels pre- to post-vaccination. Antibody levels post-booster were higher versus post-vaccination.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest evobrutinib, an investigational drug with therapeutic potential for patients with RMS, acts as an immunomodulator, that is, it inhibits aberrant immune cell responses in patients with RMS, while responsiveness to foreign de novo and recall antigens is maintained.

Latin American consensus recommendations on the risk of infections in people with multiple sclerosis treated with disease modifying drugs

INTRODUCTION

The emergence of several therapeutic options in multiple sclerosis (MS), which significantly modify the immune system functioning, has led to the need for the consideration of additional factors, such as risk of infections, in the decision-making process. The aim of these consensus recommendations was to discuss and perform a practical guide to Latin American neurologists on the risk of infections at diagnosis, follow-up and prior to initiation of DMDs.

METHODS

A panel of Latin American neurologists, experts in demyelinating diseases and dedicated to management and care of MS patients, gathered during 2021 and 2022 to make consensus recommendations on the risk of infections in PwMS treated with DMDs in Latin America. The RAND/UCLA methodology was developed to synthesize the scientific evidence and expert opinions on health care topics and was used for reaching a formal agreement.

RESULTS

Recommendations were established based on relevant published evidence and expert opinion, focusing on: 1- baseline infection disease and vaccination status; 2- opportunistic infections; 3- progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy; 4- genitourinary system infections; 5- respiratory tract infections; 6- digestive system infections, 7-others local infections and 8- COVID-19.

CONCLUSION

The recommendations of this consensus seek to optimize the care, management and treatment of PwMS in Latin America. The standardized evidence-based care of pwMS infections will allow better outcomes.

Characterisation of the safety profile of evobrutinib in over 1000 patients from phase II clinical trials in multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus: an integrated safety analysis

OBJECTIVE

Analyse the integrated safety profile of evobrutinib, a Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor (BTKi), using pooled data from multiple sclerosis (MS), rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) trials.

METHODS

Phase II, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial data were analysed (N=1083; MS: n=213, 48 weeks (W); RA: n=390, 12W; SLE: n=480, 52W). The analysis included all patients who received ≥1 dose of evobrutinib (25 mg or 75 mg once daily, or 50 mg or 75 mgtwice daily) or placebo. Descriptive statistics and exposure-adjusted incidence rates (EAIR) were used to report treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs).

RESULTS

Data from 1083 patients were pooled: evobrutinib, n=861; placebo, n=271 (sum >1083 due to MS trial design: n=49 received both placebo (W0-24) and evobrutinib 25 mg (W25-48)); median follow-up time (pt-years): evobrutinib, 0.501; placebo, 0.463. Across indications, the proportion of patients with TEAEs and the EAIR were similar for evobrutinib and placebo (66.2% (247.6 events/100 pt-years) vs 62.4% (261.4 events/100 pt-years)). By indication, the EAIR (events/100 pt-years) of TEAEs for evobrutinib versus placebo were: MS: 119.7 vs 148.3; RA: 331.8 vs 306.8; SLE: 343.0 vs 302.1. Two fatal events occurred (in SLE). The serious infections EAIR was 2.7 and 2.1 events/100 pt-years for evobrutinib and placebo. For previously reported BTKi-class effects, the EAIR of transient elevated alanine aminotransferase/aspartate aminotransferase TEAEs (events/100 pt-years) with evobrutinib versus placebo was 4.8 vs 2.8/3.5 vs 0.7, respectively. IgG levels were similar in evobrutinib/placebo-treated patients.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first BTKi-integrated safety analysis that includes patients with MS. Overall, evobrutinib treatment (all doses) was generally well tolerated across indications.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBERS

NCT02975349, NCT03233230, NCT02975336.

Reducing infection risk in multiple sclerosis and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders: a Brazilian reference center's approach

BACKGROUND

Multiple sclerosis (MS) and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD) are the most common autoimmune diseases of the central nervous system (CNS). They present chronic relapsing courses that demand treatment with disease-modifying drugs (DMDs) to prevent inflammatory activity. Disease-modifying drugs lead to immunomodulation or immunosuppression through diverse mechanisms (e.g., shifting lymphocyte and cytokine profile, suppressing specific lymphocyte subpopulations). Thus, patients are more prone to infectious complications and associated worsening of disease.

OBJECTIVE

To present feasible strategies for mitigating the infection risk of MS and NMOSD treated patients.

METHODS

Targeted literature review concerning the management of infection risk with an emphasis on vaccination, therapy-specific measures, and particularities of the Brazilian endemic infectious diseases' scenario.

CONCLUSION

We propose a vaccination schedule, infectious screening routine, and prophylactic measures based on the current scientific evidence. Awareness of emergent tropical diseases is necessary due to evidence of demyelinating events and possible parainfectious cases of MS and NMOSD.

Impact of previous disease-modifying treatment on safety and efficacy in patients with MS treated with AHSCT

BACKGROUND

Autologous haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (AHSCT) is a highly effective treatment for multiple sclerosis (MS). The impact of previous long-lasting disease-modifying treatments (DMT) for safety and efficacy of AHSCT is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To explore whether previous DMTs with long-lasting effects on the immune system (anti-CD20 therapy, alemtuzumab and cladribine) affect treatment-related complications, long-term outcome and risk of new MS disease activity in patients treated with AHSCT.

METHODS

Retrospective observational study of 104 relapsing remitting patients with MS treated by AHSCT in Sweden and Norway from 2011 to 2021, grouped according to the last DMT used ≤6 months prior to AHSCT. The primary outcomes were early AHSCT-related complications (mortality, neutropenic fever and hospitalisation length), long-term complications (secondary autoimmunity) and proportion of patients with No Evidence of Disease Activity (NEDA-3 status): no new relapses, no MRI activity and no disease progression during the follow-up.

RESULTS

The mean follow-up time was 39.5 months (range 1-95). Neutropenic fever was a common AHSCT-related complication affecting 69 (66%) patients. There was no treatment-related mortality. During the follow-up period, 20 patients (19%) were diagnosed with autoimmunity. Occurrence of neutropenic fever, hospitalisation length or secondary autoimmunity did not vary dependent on the last DMT used prior to AHSCT. A total of 84 patients (81%) achieved NEDA-3 status, including all patients (100%) using rituximab, alemtuzumab or cladribine before AHSCT.

CONCLUSION

This study provides level 4 evidence that AHSCT in patients previously treated with alemtuzumab, cladribine or rituximab is safe and efficacious.

Vaccinations in Children and Adolescents Treated With Immune-Modifying Biologics: Update and Current Developments

Treatment with immune-modifying biologics has positively impacted disease control and quality of life in many patients with immune-mediated disorders. However, the higher susceptibility to common and opportunistic pathogens is of concern. Thus, immunization strategies to control vaccine-preventable diseases represent a critical issue in this population. However, limited data exist on the safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of available vaccines in patients on biologics, particularly in children. Here, according to published literature and real-life experience and practice, we report the interim indications of the Italian Society of Pediatric Allergology and Immunology (SIAIP) Vaccine Committee and of the Italian Primary Immunodeficiency Network (IPINet) Centers on immunization of children and adolescents receiving biologics. Our aim is to provide a practical guidance for the clinician to ensure optimal protection for patients and the community.

Cladribine Tablets for Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis: A Clinician's Review

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease characterized by inflammation and demyelination for which there is currently no cure; therefore, the aim of therapy is to reduce the risk of relapse and disability progression. The treatment options for MS have increased greatly in recent years with the development of several disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) and the advent of immune reconstitution therapy (IRT). IRTs are administered in short-dosing periods to produce long-term effects on the immune system. Treatment with an IRT is based on the 3Rs: reduction, repopulation, and reconstitution of lymphocytes, which leads to restoration of immune effector functions. Cladribine tablets represent a selective, high-efficacy, oral form of IRT for patients with MS that targets lymphocytes and spares innate immune cells. Patients require only two weekly treatment courses, with each course comprising two treatment weeks, in Years 1 and 2; therefore, cladribine tablets are associated with a lower monitoring burden than many other DMTs, while short dosing periods can help to improve adherence. This review provides an overview of IRT and offers the clinician's perspective on the current MS treatment landscape, with a focus on practical advice for the management of patients undergoing treatment with cladribine tablets based on the most recent evidence available, including risks associated with COVID-19 and recommendations for vaccination in patients with MS.

Monoclonal Antibodies in the Treatment of Relapsing Multiple Sclerosis: an Overview with Emphasis on Pregnancy, Vaccination, and Risk Management

Monoclonal antibodies have become a mainstay in the treatment of patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis (RMS) and provide some benefit to patients with primary progressive MS. They are highly precise by specifically targeting molecules displayed on cells involved in distinct immune mechanisms of MS pathophysiology. They not only differ in the target antigen they recognize but also by the mode of action that generates their therapeutic effect. Natalizumab, an [Formula: see text]4[Formula: see text]1 integrin antagonist, works via binding to cell surface receptors, blocking the interaction with their ligands and, in that way, preventing the migration of leukocytes across the blood-brain barrier. On the other hand, the anti-CD52 monoclonal antibody alemtuzumab and the anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies rituximab, ocrelizumab, ofatumumab, and ublituximab work via eliminating selected pathogenic cell populations. However, potential adverse effects may be serious and can necessitate treatment discontinuation. Most importantly, those are the risk for (opportunistic) infections, but also secondary autoimmune diseases or malignancies. Monoclonal antibodies also carry the risk of infusion/injection-related reactions, primarily in early phases of treatment. By careful patient selection and monitoring during therapy, the occurrence of these potentially serious adverse effects can be minimized. Monoclonal antibodies are characterized by a relatively long pharmacologic half-life and pharmacodynamic effects, which provides advantages such as permitting infrequent dosing, but also creates disadvantages regarding vaccination and family planning. This review presents an overview of currently available monoclonal antibodies for the treatment of RMS, including their mechanism of action, efficacy and safety profile. Furthermore, we provide practical recommendations for risk management, vaccination, and family planning.

Secondary Immunodeficiency and Risk of Infection Following Immune Therapies in Neurology

Secondary immunodeficiencies (SIDs) are acquired conditions that may occur as sequelae of immune therapy. In recent years a number of disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) has been approved for multiple sclerosis and related disorders such as neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders, some of which are frequently also used in- or off-label to treat conditions such as chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP), myasthenia gravis, myositis, and encephalitis. In this review, we focus on currently available immune therapeutics in neurology to explore their specific modes of action that might contribute to SID, with particular emphasis on their potential to induce secondary antibody deficiency. Considering evidence from clinical trials as well as long-term observational studies related to the patients' immune status and risks of severe infections, we delineate long-term anti-CD20 therapy, with the greatest data availability for rituximab, as a major risk factor for the development of SID, particularly through secondary antibody deficiency. Alemtuzumab and cladribine have relevant effects on circulating B-cell counts; however, evidence for SID mediated by antibody deficiency appears limited and urgently warrants further systematic evaluation. To date, there has been no evidence suggesting that treatment with fingolimod, dimethyl fumarate, or natalizumab leads to antibody deficiency. Risk factors predisposing to development of SID include duration of therapy, increasing age, and pre-existing low immunoglobulin (Ig) levels. Prevention strategies of SID comprise awareness of risk factors, individualized treatment protocols, and vaccination concepts. Immune supplementation employing Ig replacement therapy might reduce morbidity and mortality associated with SIDs in neurological conditions. In light of the broad range of existing and emerging therapies, the potential for SID warrants urgent consideration among neurologists and other healthcare professionals.

Ocular adverse events from pharmacological treatment in patients with multiple sclerosis-A systematic review of the literature

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to review the scientific evidence and describe the ocular treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) related to pharmacological treatment in patients with multiple sclerosis.

METHODS

A systematic review of literature was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis guidelines in the MEDLINE, LILACS, EMBASE, and COCHRANE databases. Articles were filtered based on title and abstract considering the selection criteria and subsequently filtered by full-text reading. The resulting articles were evaluated using the Joanna Briggs Institute Quality Tools. Study characteristics and results were extracted and presented in structured tables to conduct a narrative synthesis.

RESULTS

A total of 2852 published articles were extracted using our strategy. After removing duplicates, 2841 articles were screened based on title and abstract, 102 articles were evaluated using quality tools, and 69 articles were filtered by full-text reading. Through this search strategy, 60 articles met all the inclusion criteria and seven articles, through a search update conducted in the same manner, were included. This resulted in 67 articles meeting the inclusion criteria, of which 11 were experimental and 56 were observational. The therapies related to ocular TEAEs were alemtuzumab, amantadine, fingolimod, steroids, CTLA-4 Ig, estriol, interferon β, natalizumab, hyperbaric oxygen, rituximab, siponimod, teriflunomide, and tovaxin. Fingolimod and siponimod were commonly associated with macular edema, interferon β was associated with retinopathy, alemtuzumab was associated with thyroid eye disease, amantadine was associated with corneal edema, and steroids were associated with acute retinal necrosis. Opportunistic infections were also found, and there was one life-threatening case.

CONCLUSIONS

Our search revealed different methodological assessments of the topic. However, longitudinal studies regarding ocular TEAEs related to multiple sclerosis therapy are necessary to provide evidence-based recommendations, especially in understudied regions such as Latin America and Africa. Physicians should monitor ocular symptoms in patients being treated for multiple sclerosis and consider an interdisciplinary approach.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO ID CRD42020106886.

Role of B Cell Profile for Predicting Secondary Autoimmunity in Patients Treated With Alemtuzumab

Objective

To explore if baseline blood lymphocyte profile could identify relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) patients at higher risk of developing secondary autoimmune adverse events (AIAEs) after alemtuzumab treatment.

Methods

Multicenter prospective study including 57 RRMS patients treated with alemtuzumab followed for 3.25 [3.5-4.21] years, (median [interquartile range]). Blood samples were collected at baseline, and leukocyte subsets determined by flow cytometry. We had additional samples one year after the first cycle of alemtuzumab treatment in 39 cases.

Results

Twenty-two patients (38.6%) developed AIAEs during follow-up. They had higher B-cell percentages at baseline (p=0.0014), being differences mainly due to plasmablasts/plasma cells (PB/PC, p=0.0011). Those with no AIAEs had higher percentages of CD4+ T cells (p=0.013), mainly due to terminally differentiated (TD) (p=0.034) and effector memory (EM) (p=0.031) phenotypes. AIAEs- patients also showed higher values of TNF-alpha-producing CD8+ T cells (p=0.029). The percentage of PB/PC was the best variable to differentiate both groups of patients. Baseline values >0.10% closely associated with higher AIAE risk (Odds ratio [OR]: 5.91, 95% CI: 1.83-19.10, p=0.004). When excluding the 12 patients with natalizumab, which decreases blood PB/PC percentages, being the last treatment before alemtuzumab, baseline PB/PC >0.1% even predicted more accurately the risk of AIAEs (OR: 11.67, 95% CI: 2.62-51.89, p=0.0007). The AIAEs+ group continued having high percentages of PB/PC after a year of alemtuzumab treatment (p=0.0058).

Conclusions

A PB/PC percentage <0.1% at baseline identifies MS patients at low risk of secondary autoimmunity during alemtuzumab treatment.​

Product review on MAbs (alemtuzumab and ocrelizumab) for the treatment of multiple sclerosis

Traditionally, the management of active relapsing remitting MS was based on the, so-called, maintenance therapy, which is characterized by continuous treatment with particular disease modifying therapy (DMT), and a return of disease activity when the drug is discontinued. Another approach is characterized by a short treatment course of a DMT, which is hypothesized to act as an immune reconstitution therapy (IRT), with the potential to protect against relapses for years after a short course of treatment. Introduction of monoclonal antibodies in the treatment of MS has revolutionized MS treatment in the last decade. However, given the increasingly complex landscape of DMTs approved for MS, people with MS and neurologists are constantly faced with the question which DMT is the most appropriate for the given patient, a question we still do not have an answer to. In this product review, we will discuss the first DMT that acts as IRT, an anti-CD52 monoclonal antibody alemtuzumab and an anti CD20 monoclonal antibody, ocrelizumab that has the potential to act as an IRT, but is administered continuously. Special emphasis will be given on safety in the context of COVID-19 pandemics and vaccination strategies.

Latent tuberculosis infection reactivation in patients with multiple sclerosis in use of disease-modifying therapies: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious-contagious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This disease can act acutely or in latent form as granuloma. Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease more common in the Central Nervous System (CNS). Its treatment involves disease-modifying therapies (DMTs), which can predispose MS patients to a higher risk of infections by interfering in the immune system. Patients undergoing MS treatment could be more susceptible to Latent Tuberculosis Infection (LTBI) reactivation. This study aims to elucidate the possible relationship between MS and LTBI through a systematic review of the literature.

METHODS

MEDLINE/PubMed, Cochrane, ScienceDirect, LILACS, and SciELO were systematically reviewed from 2010 to 2020 and Google Scholar from 2015 to 2020 to detect eligible papers. The following keywords were used for this search: "LTBI and MS"; "Multiple Sclerosis and Latent Tuberculosis"; "Multiple Sclerosis and Latent Tuberculosis infection reactivation"; "Multiple Sclerosis and Pulmonary Tuberculosis"; "Multiple Sclerosis and Active Tuberculosis"; "Multiple Sclerosis and Tuberculosis Reactivation" for MEDLINE/Pubmed and ScienceDirect; and "Multiple Sclerosis and Latent Tuberculosis Infection" for Google Scholar, Cochrane, SCIELO, and LILACS. The filter for "review articles," "research articles," and "case reports" was applied in ScienceDirect.

RESULTS

Fourteen (14) studies describing the relationship between MS and LTBI were included in qualitative synthesis: case-report (2), prevalence (2), non-systematic review (4), expert consensus (2), and case-control (4) studies.

CONCLUSION

The reactivation of LTBI is well understood, but hardly any literature addressed the association between the contagious disease and MS' treatment. The selected articles are observational studies that offer limited data and differ in many aspects detailed over this study. These divergences make it challenging to compare articles' results. Nevertheless, most reports recommend screening for LTBI before starting MS treatment, mainly in high incidence countries.

Update on infective complications in patients treated with alemtuzumab for multiple sclerosis: review and meta-analysis of real-world and randomized studies

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to systematically assess the pooled prevalence of infective complications in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and real-world studies (RWSs) investigating alemtuzumab treatment in multiple sclerosis (MS), also looking at selected infections and their severity.

METHODS

We included in the analysis RCTs and RWSs investigating the use of alemtuzumab in MS in which infective complications were reported, as well as case reports of rare infections. We conducted a meta-analysis of proportions and a random effect model meta-regression to investigate heterogeneity.

RESULTS

The pooled prevalence of infective complications in alemtuzumab treated MS patients is 24%. The most common reported infections are respiratory tract infections (47%) and the most part of the infections are mild-to-moderate (85%). Severe infections account for 6% of the total estimate. We found first-time-reported cases of invasive aspergillosis, hepatitis E virus infection, EBV hepatitis, and cerebral toxoplasmosis. The prevalence of infections is higher in studies conducted before 2009, and in studies with higher proportion of male participants.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinicians should be aware that the prevalence of serious infections during alemtuzumab can be higher than expected from RCTs. Peculiar opportunistic infections should be considered when evaluating a patient treated with alemtuzumab who develops signs of infection.

HUMORAL RESPONSE TO SARS-CoV-2 AND COVID-19 VACCINES IN PATIENTS WITH MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS TREATED WITH IMMUNE RECONSTITUTION THERAPIES

Background

It has been generally accepted that people with MS (PwMS) should be vaccinated against COVID-19. The aim of our investigation was to evaluate the humoral response to natural SARS-CoV-2 infection and to two COVID-19 vaccines (BNT162b2 Pfizer-BioNTech and Beijing/Sinopharm BBIBP-CorV) in our cohort of PwMS under high efficacy disease modifying therapies (DMTs), cladribine and alemtuzumab.

Methods

Twenty two PwMS treated at the Clinic of Neurology, in Belgrade, who developed COVID-19 and/or were vaccinated against SARS-CoV-2, during treatment with cladribine and alemtuzumab, were included. Out of 18 patients treated with cladribine, 11 developed COVID-19, and 11 were vaccinated against SARS-CoV-2 (four with mRNA vaccine, 7 with Sinopharm). Four MS patients under alemtuzumab were vaccinated against SARS-CoV-2; three with mRNA, and one with Sinopharm vaccine. SARS-Cov-2 IgG response was measured using ELISA anti-spike protein-based serology (INEP, Belgrade, Serbia).

Results

All 7 patients under cladribine treatment who suffered from COVID-19, developed IgG antibodies, 2.0-5.5 months after last symptoms. All four (100%) patients under cladribine who were vaccinated with Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, and three out of seven (42.9%) vaccinated with Sinopharm, developed antibodies. All 4 patients under alemtuzumab developed antibodies after vaccination. In all cases, seroprotection occurred, irrespective of timing of vaccination and absolute lymphocyte count.

Conclusion

Our findings in a small number of highly active PwMS in whom, lymphodepleting, immune reconstitution therapies, were applied in order to successfully manage MS, indicate that in a number of these patients it was possible to develop at the same time seroprotection in these patients after COVID-19 vaccination in these complex circumstances.

Anti-CD52 Therapy for Multiple Sclerosis: An Update in the COVID Era

CD52 is a small surface glycoprotein composed of 12 amino acids. CD52 is found mostly on the surface of mature immune cells, such as lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and dendritic cells, as well as the male genital tract: within the epididymis and on the surface of mature sperm. Low CD52 expression is also found in neutrophils. CD52 function is not fully understood, although experiments with anti-CD52 antibodies have shown that CD52 is essential for lymphocyte transendothelial migration and may contribute to costimulation of CD4+ T cells and T-cell activation and proliferation. Although knowledge about exact CD52 function is still poor, CD52 presence on the surface of a broad spectrum of immune cells makes it a therapeutic target, especially in immunomediated diseases, such as multiple sclerosis. In multiple sclerosis, alemtuzumab is registered for adult patients with the relapsing-remitting form of the disease defined by clinical and imaging features. Despite the high efficacy of the drug, the main issue is its safety. The main adverse effects of alemtuzumab are associated with drug infusion due to cytokine release and cytotoxic effects of antibodies associated with lymphocyte depletion, which leads to immunosuppression, and secondary autoimmunity that may be the effect of excessive B-cell repopulation and cancer. This review presents current knowledge on the drug's mechanism of action, efficacy and safety data from clinical trials, and real-world observations, including available though scarce data on using alemtuzumab in the COVID era.

Immunization in multiple sclerosis and other childhood immune-mediated disorders of the central nervous system: A review of the literature

Childhood is a period where most vaccines are administered in order to build-up immunological memory, and immunization against vaccine-preventable diseases is an essential part of child care and health. The administration of vaccines to children with inflammatory diseases is a frequent point of concern for parents and physicians. Published information on the relation between vaccines and autoinflammatory diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) consists of case and cohort studies and reviews, in great majority on adult patients. Vaccines do not have any established causative or triggering effects on these diseases. Another issue is the immunization schedule of patients with autoinflammatory CNS diseases, specifically the interactions between the disorder, the clinical status, the treatment and the vaccine. In this review, we summarize the existing information between autoinflammatory disorders of the CNS and vaccines in childhood and underline the points to be considered under various treatment regimens.

Infection Mitigation Strategies for Multiple Sclerosis Patients on Oral and Monoclonal Disease-Modifying Therapies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The newer, higher-efficacy disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) for multiple sclerosis (MS)-orals and monoclonals-have more profound immunomodulatory and immunosuppressive properties than the older, injectable therapies and require risk mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of serious infections. This review will provide a systematic framework for infectious risk mitigation strategies relevant to these therapies.

RECENT FINDINGS

We classify risk mitigation strategies according to the following framework: (1) screening and patient selection, (2) vaccinations, (3) antibiotic prophylaxis, (4) laboratory and MRI monitoring, (5) adjusting dose and frequency of DMT, and (6) behavioral modifications to limit the risk of infection. We systematically apply this framework to the infections for which risk mitigations are available: hepatitis B, herpetic infections, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, and tuberculosis. We also discuss up-to-date recommendations regarding COVID-19 vaccinations for patients on DMTs. We offer a practical, comprehensive, DMT-specific framework of derisking strategies designed to minimize the risk of infections associated with the newer MS therapies.

Infections associated with the new 'nibs and mabs' and cellular therapies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In recent years, we have witnessed a remarkable surge in the clinical development of effective biological and cellular therapies for the treatment of neoplastic and autoimmune disorders. The present review summarizes our understanding of the pathogen-specific infection risk associated with the use of such therapies.

RECENT FINDINGS

A variety of biologics, in the form of either monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) or small molecule kinase inhibitors (Nibs), are continuously introduced in the clinic for the management of autoimmune and malignant diseases. In addition, cellular therapies such as the infusion of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cells are becoming increasingly available for patients with treatment-refractory lymphoid malignancies. Some of these biological and cellular interventions exert direct or indirect adverse effects on the induction of protective immune responses against various pathogens, resulting in heightened infection susceptibility.

SUMMARY

The introduction of biological and cellular therapies for the treatment of malignant and autoimmune diseases has been associated with increased infection susceptiblity, which varies greatly depending on the specific immunomodulatory therapy, the infecting pathogen and the recipient patient population. A high index of clinical suspicion and efforts aiming at early diagnosis, targeted vaccination or prophylaxis, and prompt initiation of antimicrobial treatment should help improve infection outcomes.

Risk of invasive fungal infections among patients treated with disease modifying treatments for multiple sclerosis: a comprehensive review

Introduction: Disease modifying treatments are commonly used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis. As different opportunistic infections have been reported, concerns are also raised regarding the risk of invasive fungal infections.Areas covered: Both clinical trials and observational studies on safety and efficacy of diseases modifying treatment for multiple sclerosis were reviewed and data regarding the occurrence of invasive fungal infections were reported. Papers evaluating the following drugs were reviewed: rituximab, ocrelizumab, alemtuzumab, fingolimod, natalizumab, dimethyl fumarate, interferon, glatiramer acetate, cladribine, teriflunomide.Expert opinion: Overall, the occurrence of invasive fungal infections was low, with most infective events reported among patients treated with monoclonal antibodies and fingolimod. Aspergillosis and cryptococcal meningitidis were the most representative fungal infections. Although not common, these infections may be difficult to diagnose and their fatality rate is often high. For this reason, screening protocols for fungal infections must be implemented in the clinical practice when managing patients with MS.

Assessing and mitigating risk of infection in patients with multiple sclerosis on disease modifying treatment

Introduction: The important development that the multiple sclerosis (MS) treatment field has experienced in the last years comes along with the need of dealing with new adverse events such as the increase risk of infections. In the shared therapeutic decision-making process, the MS expert neurologist should also balance the risks of specific infections under each particular treatment and be familiar with new mitigation strategies.Areas covered: In this review, the authors provide an up-to-date review of the infection risk associated with MS treatments with a specific focus on risk mitigating strategies. The search was conducted using Pubmed® database (2000 - present) to identify publications that reported infection rates and infection complications for each treatment (interferon beta, glatiramer acetate, teriflunomide, dimethyl fumarate, fingolimod, cladribine, natalizumab, alemtuzumab, rituximab, and ocrelizumab).Expert opinion: Since the emergence of the first natalizumab-related PML case, the arrival of new MS therapies has come hand in hand with new infectious complications. MS-specialist neurologist has to face new challenges regarding the management of immunosuppression-related infectious complications. The implementation of patient-centered management focus on preventive and mitigating strategies with a multidisciplinary approach should be seen in the future as a marker of excellence of MS management.

The risk of infection in patients with multiple sclerosis treated with disease-modifying therapies: A Delphi consensus statement

The risk of infection associated with immunomodulatory or immunosuppressive disease-modifying drugs (DMDs) in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) has been increasingly addressed in recent scientific literature. A modified Delphi consensus process was conducted to develop clinically relevant, evidence-based recommendations to assist physicians with decision-making in relation to the risks of a wide range of infections associated with different DMDs in patients with MS. The current consensus statements, developed by a panel of experts (neurologists, infectious disease specialists, a gynaecologist and a neuroradiologist), address the risk of iatrogenic infections (opportunistic infections, including herpes and cryptococcal infections, candidiasis and listeria; progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy; human papillomavirus and urinary tract infections; respiratory tract infections and tuberculosis; hepatitis and gastrointestinal infections) in patients with MS treated with different DMDs, as well as prevention strategies and surveillance strategies for the early identification of infections. In the discussion, more recent data emerged in the literature were taken into consideration. Recommended risk reduction and management strategies for infections include screening at diagnosis and before starting a new DMD, prophylaxis where appropriate, monitoring and early diagnosis.

Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation following alemtuzumab therapy in aggressive multiple sclerosis: A report of three cases

The management of multiple sclerosis patients with persistent disease activity under alemtuzumab treatment is not established yet. Concerns have been raised on the safety of autologous haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (aHSCT) after alemtuzumab treatment because of the risk of serious infectious adverse events. We report short-term safety and efficacy data from three patients treated with aHSCT following alemtuzumab treatment. Early adverse events were consistent with expected transplant toxicities. All patients were free of disease activity at the last follow-up. Our data suggest that aHSCT can be considered as a rescue treatment strategy for MS patients with persistent disease activity during alemtuzumab treatment.

Long-term drug treatment in multiple sclerosis: safety success and concerns

INTRODUCTION

The portfolio of multiple sclerosis (MS) disease modifying treatments (DMTs) has significantly expanded over the past two decades. Given the lifelong use of MS pharmacotherapy, understanding their long-term safety profiles is essential in determining suitable and personalized treatment.

AREAS COVERED

In this narrative review, we summarize the short-, mid-, and long-term safety profile of currently available MS DMTs categories. In addition to the initial trial findings, safety outcomes derived from long-term extension studies (≥5-20 years) and safety-based prescription programs have been reviewed. In order to better understand the risk-benefit ratio for each particular DMT group, a short description of the DMT-based efficacy outcomes has been included.

EXPERT OPINION

Long-term extension trials, large observational studies and real-world databases allow detection of rare and potentially serious adverse events. Two-year-long trials are unable to fully capture the positive and negative effects of immune system modulation and reconstitution. DMT-based monitoring programs can provide greater insights regarding safe use of MS medications in different patient populations and clinical settings. During the process of shared DMT decision, both MS care providers and their patients should be aware of an ever-expanding number of drug-based adverse events and their influence on the risk-benefit analysis.

The underpinning biology relating to multiple sclerosis disease modifying treatments during the COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

SARS-CoV-2 viral infection causes COVID-19 that can result in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which can cause significant mortality, leading to concern that immunosuppressive treatments for multiple sclerosis and other disorders have significant risks for both infection and ARDS.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the biology that potentially underpins immunity to the SARS-Cov-2 virus and the immunity-induced pathology related to COVID-19 and determine how this impinges on the use of current disease modifying treatments in multiple sclerosis.

OBSERVATIONS

Although information about the mechanisms of immunity are scant, it appears that monocyte/macrophages and then CD8 T cells are important in eliminating the SARS-CoV-2 virus. This may be facilitated via anti-viral antibody responses that may prevent re-infection. However, viral escape and infection of leucocytes to promote lymphopenia, apparent CD8 T cell exhaustion coupled with a cytokine storm and vascular pathology appears to contribute to the damage in ARDS.

IMPLICATIONS

In contrast to ablative haematopoietic stem cell therapy, most multiple-sclerosis-related disease modifying therapies do not particularly target the innate immune system and few have any major long-term impact on CD8 T cells to limit protection against COVID-19. In addition, few block the formation of immature B cells within lymphoid tissue that will provide antibody-mediated protection from (re)infection. However, adjustments to dosing schedules may help de-risk the chance of infection further and reduce the concerns of people with MS being treated during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The Meaning of Immune Reconstitution after Alemtuzumab Therapy in Multiple Sclerosis

Alemtuzumab is a monoclonal antibody that binds to CD52, a protein present on the surface of mature lymphocytes, but not on the stem cells from which these lymphocytes are derived. It is currently used as an immune reconstitution therapy in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Alemtuzumab treatment is an intermittent infusion that induces long-term remission of Multiple Sclerosis also in the treatment-free period. After the robust T and B cell depletion induced by alemtuzumab, the immune system undergoes radical changes during its reconstitution. In this review, we will discuss the current knowledge on the reconstitution of the lymphocyte repertoire after alemtuzumab treatment and how it could affect the development of side effects, which led to its temporary suspension by the European Medical Agency.

Immune Reconstitution Therapy or Continuous Immunosuppression for the Management of Active Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis Patients? A Narrative Review

The majority of disease-modifying drugs (DMDs) available for the management of active relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RMS) depend on continuous drug intake for maintained efficacy, with escalation to a more active drug when an unacceptable level of disease activity returns. Among continuously applied regimens, interferons and glatiramer acetate act as immunomodulators, while dimethyl fumarate, fingolimod, ocrelizumab, natalizumab and teriflunomide are associated with continuous immunosuppression. By contrast, immune reconstitution therapy (IRT) provides efficacy that outlasts a short course of treatment. Autologous hemopoietic stem cell transplantation is perhaps the classic example of IRT, but this invasive and intensive therapy has challenging side-effects. A short treatment course of a pharmacologic agent hypothesized to act as an IRT, such as Cladribine Tablets 3.5 mg/kg or alemtuzumab, can provide long-term suppression of MS disease activity, without need for continuous treatment (the anti-CD20 mechanism of ocrelizumab has the potential to act as an IRT, but is administered continuously, at 6-monthly intervals). Cladribine Tablets 3.5 mg/kg shows some selectivity in targeting adaptive immunity with a lesser effect on innate immunity. The introduction of IRT-like disease-modifying drugs (DMDs) challenges the traditional maintenance/escalation mode of treatment and raises new questions about how disease activity is measured. In this review, we consider a modern classification of DMDs for MS and its implications for the care of patients in the IRT era.

Targeted therapies for autoimmune/idiopathic nonmalignant diseases: risk and management of opportunistic infections

INTRODUCTION

The management of patients affected by autoimmune/idiopathic diseases has been revolutionized by the development of targeted therapies (TT). However, the use of TT is complicated by several adverse events, like opportunistic infections (OIs). The potential of TT to predispose to OIs mainly depends on the site of action; nevertheless, such associations are far from being deterministic, because many factors could increase the infection risk.

AREAS COVERED

The impact on the infective risk of different TT used for autoimmune/idiopathic diseases is far from being completely understood. Indeed, many post-marketing reports documented severe or unexpected infections in patients treated with TT that did not emerge during registrative trials. In this review, the authors attempt to provide an easy and practical update about the 'infectious' safety of TT and examine the management strategies of OIs and other infections more frequently observed in the course of treatment with TT.

EXPERT OPINION

The authors suggest to precisely schedule the clinical management of these subjects, both to prevent and eventually treat promptly the TT-related infectious complications. A coordinated approach should be implemented from different medical specialties to improve the overall understanding of safety of TT and, in general, the management of opportunistic infections in immune-compromised hosts.

Treatment Optimization in Multiple Sclerosis: Canadian MS Working Group Recommendations

The Canadian Multiple Sclerosis Working Group has updated its treatment optimization recommendations (TORs) on the optimal use of disease-modifying therapies for patients with all forms of multiple sclerosis (MS). Recommendations provide guidance on initiating effective treatment early in the course of disease, monitoring response to therapy, and modifying or switching therapies to optimize disease control. The current TORs also address the treatment of pediatric MS, progressive MS and the identification and treatment of aggressive forms of the disease. Newer therapies offer improved efficacy, but also have potential safety concerns that must be adequately balanced, notably when treatment sequencing is considered. There are added discussions regarding the management of pregnancy, the future potential of biomarkers and consideration as to when it may be prudent to stop therapy. These TORs are meant to be used and interpreted by all neurologists with a special interest in the management of MS.

Prevention Strategies to Minimize the Infection Risk Associated with Biologic and Targeted Immunomodulators

The introduction of biologic and targeted immunomodulators is a significant breakthrough in the therapeutic area of various fields of medicine. The occurrence of serious infections, a complication of secondary immunosuppression associated with these agents, leads to increased morbidity and mortality. Implementing preventive strategies could minimize infection-related complications and improve therapeutic outcomes. The purpose of this review is to focus on current evident approaches regarding screening, monitoring, preventing (immunization and chemoprophylaxis), and management of infections in patients who are candidates for about 70 biologic and targeted immunomodulators. Recommendations are based on relevant guidelines, especially the ESCMID Study Group for Infections in Compromised Hosts (ESGICH) Consensus Document series published in 2018.

Incidence and Predictive Risk Factors of Infective Events in Patients With Multiple Sclerosis Treated With Agents Targeting CD20 and CD52 Surface Antigens

OBJECTIVE

Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) directed against the CD20 and CD52 antigens are used increasingly in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). Several life-threatening opportunistic infections have been reported in postmarketing case series. The aim of this study was to investigate the incidence of infections and associated prognostic factors during the first year of treatment in patients receiving anti-CD20 (ocrelizumab or rituximab) or anti-CD52 MAbs (alemtuzumab).

METHODS

A retrospective study was conducted in patients with MS referring to the Neurodegenerative Diseases Center at the University of Naples Federico II who received MAbs between November 2015 and June 2018.

RESULTS

A total of 163 patients were enrolled. Approximately 40% of patients experienced lymphocytopenia during treatment. Eighty-six infective events were reported in 67 patients (41%). Bacterial infections were significantly more frequent with anti-CD20, whereas viral infections prevailed with alemtuzumab. Cytomegalovirus reactivation rates were significantly higher in the alemtuzumab group than in patients on anti-CD20 (51% vs 6%, P < .001). The overall annualized infection rate was 1.1 per patient-year, higher in patients on anti-CD52 versus those on anti-CD20 regimens (1.5 vs 0.8 per patient-year). Alemtuzumab treatment, prior exposure to ≥2 MS drugs, and iatrogenic immune impairment significantly and independently predicted an infection event (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 2.7; P = .013; aHR, 1.7; P = .052; and aHR, 2.9; P = .004; respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Given their considerable infection risk, MS patients receiving MAbs should undergo timely follow up and tailored preventive interventions. Anti-CD52-based treatment, prior exposure to MS drugs, and on-treatment immune impairment are significant predictive factors of infection and their evaluation could help clinicians to stratify a patient's risk of infection.

Seroprevalence of anti-Toxocara antibody among multiple sclerosis patients: a case-control study

Although previous studies have shown an association between parasitic infections and multiple sclerosis, the possible role of Toxocara infection on the etiology of multiple sclerosis has been overlooked. The present study aimed to investigate the seroprevalence of anti-Toxocara IgG antibodies among patients with multiple sclerosis compared to healthy controls. Seventy patients with prior diagnosis of multiple sclerosis were selected as cases and 70 healthy matched individuals as controls. The presence of serum anti-Toxocara IgG antibody was investigated by ELISA technique. The Chi square test was used to test statistically significant differences for parametric data. A total of 140 serum samples were collected and analyzed. In the case and control groups, 20 (28.6%) and 8 (11.4%) participants had positive serum anti-Toxocara IgG antibodies, respectively, indicating a statistically significant difference (OR 3.1; 95% CI 1.26-7.63; p value = 0.02). The seroprevalence rate was also higher among individuals with a history of contact with dogs (OR 2.7; 95% CI 1.17-6.37; p value = 0.03).The results declare that a protective role of Toxocara canis against the development of multiple sclerosis is unlikely.

Consensus recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of multiple sclerosis: 2019 revisions to the MENACTRIMS guidelines

With evolving diagnostic criteria and the advent of new oral and parenteral therapies for MS, most current diagnostic and treatment algorithms need revision and updating. The diagnosis of MS relies on incorporating clinical and paraclinical findings to prove dissemination in space and in time, and exclude alternative diseases that can explain the findings at hand. The differential diagnostic workup should be guided by clinical and laboratory red flags to avoid unnecessary tests. Appropriate selection of multiple sclerosis (MS) therapies is critical to maximize patient benefit. The current guidelines review the scientific evidence supporting treatment of acute relapses, radiologically isolated syndrome, clinically isolated syndrome, relapsing remitting MS, and progressive MS. The purpose of these guidelines is to provide practical recommendations and algorithms for the diagnosis and treatment of MS based on current scientific evidence and clinical experience.

State of Art of Idiosyncratic Drug-Induced Neutropenia or Agranulocytosis, with a Focus on Biotherapies

INTRODUCTION

Idiosyncratic drug-induced neutropenia and agranulocytosis is seldom discussed in the literature, especially for new drugs such as biotherapies outside the context of oncology. In the present paper, we report and discuss the clinical data and management of this relatively rare disorder, with a focus on biotherapies used in autoimmune and auto-inflammatory diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A review of the literature was carried out using the PubMed database of the US National Library of Medicine. We searched for articles published between January 2010 and May 2019 using the following key words or associations: "drug-induced neutropenia", "drug-induced agranulocytosis", and "idiosyncratic agranulocytosis". We included specific searches on several biotherapies used outside the context of oncology, including: tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha inhibitors, anti-CD20 agents, anti-C52 agents, interleukin (IL) 6 inhibitors, IL 1 inhibitors, and B-cell activating factor inhibitor.

RESULTS

Idiosyncratic neutropenia remains a potentially serious adverse event due to the frequency of severe sepsis with severe deep tissue infections (e.g., pneumonia), septicemia, and septic shock in approximately two-thirds of all hospitalized patients with grade 3 or 4 neutropenia (neutrophil count (NC) ≤ 0.5 × 109/L and ≤ 0.1 × 109/L, respectively). Over the last 20 years, several drugs have been strongly associated with the occurrence of idiosyncratic neutropenia, including antithyroid drugs, ticlopidine, clozapine, sulfasalazine, antibiotics such as trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and deferiprone. Transient grade 1-2 neutropenia (absolute blood NC between 1.5 and 0.5 × 109/L) related to biotherapy is relatively common with these drugs. An approximate 10% prevalence of such neutropenia has been reported with several of these biotherapies (e.g., TNF-alpha inhibitors, IL6 inhibitors, and anti-CD52 agents). Grade 3-4 neutropenia or agranulocytosis and clinical manifestations related to sepsis are less common, with only a few case reports to date for most biotherapies. Special mention should be made of late onset and potentially severe neutropenia, especially following anti-CD52 agent therapy. During drug therapy, several prognostic factors have been identified that may be helpful when identifying 'susceptible' patients. Older age (>65 years), septicemia or shock, renal failure, and a neutrophil count ≤0.1 × 109/L have been identified as poor prognostic factors. Idiosyncratic neutropenia should be managed depending on clinical severity, with permanent/transient discontinuation or a lower dose of the drug, switching from one drug to another of the same or another class, broad-spectrum antibiotics in cases of sepsis, and hematopoietic growth factors (particularly G-CSF).

CONCLUSION

Significant progress has been made in recent years in the field of idiosyncratic drug-induced neutropenia, leading to an improvement in their prognosis (currently, mortality rate between 5 and 10%). Clinicians must continue their efforts to improve their knowledge of these adverse events with new drugs as biotherapies.

Advances in preventing adverse events during monoclonal antibody management of multiple sclerosis

INTRODUCTION

Decades of pharmacological research in Multiple Sclerosis (MS) led to the development of therapeutic Monoclonal Antibodies (MAbs) with many different mechanisms of action (MoA), potentially able to improve disability outcome but also determining a more complex management of patients. Areas covered: When clinicians select MS treatments, they should consider adverse events (AEs) on individual basis to minimize patients' risks. Some AEs are common and can be easily handled, but rare complications should also be taken into account. The aim of this review is to summarize existing evidence and provide practical recommendations for the management of therapeutic MAbs in MS. Expert opinion: The introduction of MAbs revolutionized MS treatment with an improvement in effectiveness. Unfortunately, this has been coupled with a more complex array of AEs needing a tighter surveillance strategy. A close interaction between general practitioners, neurologists, and other specialists is the key for a safer use of such effective drugs.

Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis and pulmonary tuberculosis in a patient treated with infliximab for Crohn's disease

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Pulmonary TB together with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis due to infliximab therapy has been occasionally described.

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Other than tuberculosis reactivation, TNF-α antagonists may be associated with other opportunistic infections such as invasive aspergillosis.

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Interactions among rifamycins, antifungal and antiarrhythmic drugs are complex and may require the choice of second line therapies.

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Isavuconazole may have a better interaction profile with amiodarone and antitubercular therapy than voriconazole.

We report a case of concurrent development of active pulmonary tuberculosis and invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) in a patient who received therapy with infliximab for Crohn’s disease. He has been treated with antitubercular therapy and liposomal amphotericin B for 8 weeks. His clinical course was complicated by paroxysmal atrial fibrillation requiring maintenance therapy with amiodarone, respiratory failure due both to pneumonia caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL)-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae and pleural effusion requiring chest drainage. At discharge, a maintenance regimen based on the administration of isavuconazole 200 mg daily, moxifloxacin 400 mg daily and isoniazid 300 mg daily was chosen to avoid multiple drug-drug interaction between rifamycins, antifungal triazole agents and antiarrhythmic drugs. At 3 months of follow-up his clinical conditions were dramatically improved, high resolution chest tomography (HRCT) showed reduction of parenchymal lesions and no changes both in sinus rhythm and QTc interval were noticed. Besides the complexity and the peculiarity of the clinical scenario, this case underlines the risk of invasive fungal infections linked to the administration of TNF-α antagonists in gastroenterological setting and the importance of accurate evaluation of drug-drug interactions when choosing the antimicrobial therapies.