Acquired coagulant factor VIII deficiency induced by Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin in mice

Targeted Delivery to Dying Cells Through P-Selectin-PSGL-1 Axis: A Promising Strategy for Enhanced Drug Efficacy in Liver Injury Models

To minimize off-target adverse effects and improve drug efficacy, various tissue-specific drug delivery systems have been developed. However, even in diseased organs, both normal and stressed, dying cells coexist, and a targeted delivery system specifically for dying cells has yet to be explored to mitigate off-target effects within the same organ. This study aimed to establish such a system. By examining the surfaces of dying cells in vitro, we identified P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1) as a universal marker for dying cells, positioning it as a potential target for selective drug delivery. We demonstrated that liposomes conjugated with the PSGL-1 binding protein P-selectin had significantly greater binding efficiency to dying cells compared to control proteins such as E-selectin, L-selectin, galectin-1, and C-type lectin-like receptor 2. Using thioacetamide (TAA) to induce hepatitis and hepatocyte damage in mice, we assessed the effectiveness of our P-selectin-based delivery system. In vivo, P-selectin-conjugated liposomes effectively delivered fluorescent dye and the apoptosis inhibitor z-DEVD to TAA-damaged livers in wild-type mice, but not in PSGL-1 knockout mice. In TAA-treated wild-type mice, unconjugated liposomes required a 100-fold higher z-DEVD dose compared to P-selectin-conjugated liposomes to achieve a comparable, albeit less effective, therapeutic outcome in lowering plasma alanine transaminase levels and alleviating thrombocytopenia. This emphasizes that P-selectin conjugation enhances drug delivery efficiency by approximately 100-fold in mice. These results suggest that P-selectin-based liposomes could be a promising strategy for targeted drug delivery, enabling both diagnosis and treatment by specifically delivering cell-labeling agents and rescue agents to dying cells via the P-selectin-PSGL-1 axis at the individual cell level.

Regional anticoagulation magnetic artificial blood vessels constructed by heparin-PLCL core-shell nanofibers for rapid deployment of veno-venous bypass

Veno-venous bypass (VVB) is necessary for maintaining hemodynamic and internal environment stabilities in complex liver surgeries. However, the current VVB strategies require systematic anticoagulation and are time-consuming, leading to unexpected complications. This study aims to overcome these limitations by using a novel magnetic artificial blood vessel constructed with heparin-PLCL core-shell nanofibers. Coaxial electrospinning was used to fabricate core-shell nanofibers with heparin encapsulated into the core layer. The microstructure, physical and chemical properties, hemocompatibility, and heparin release behavior were characterized. The regional anticoagulation magnetic artificial vessel was constructed with these nanofibers and used to perform VVB in a rat liver transplantation model for in vivo evaluation. The core-shell nanofibers appeared smooth and uniform without apparent defects. Fluorescence and TEM images indicated that heparin was successfully encapsulated into the core layer. In addition, the in vitro heparin release test presented a two-phase release profile, burst release at day 1 and sustained release from days 2 to 14, which resulted in better hemocompatibility. The VVB could be rapidly deployed in 3.65 ± 0.83 min by the magnetic artificial vessel without systemic anticoagulation. Moreover, the novel device could reduce portal pressure and abdominal organ congestion, protect intestinal function, and increase the survival rate of liver transplantation with a long anhepatic phase from 0 to 65%. In summary, VVB can be rapidly deployed using regional anticoagulation magnetic artificial blood vessels without systemic anticoagulation, which is promising for improving patient outcomes after complex liver surgery.

Activating Transcription Factor 3 Protects against Restraint Stress-Induced Gastrointestinal Injury in Mice

Psychological stress increases the risk of gastrointestinal (GI) tract diseases, which involve bidirectional communication of the GI and nerves systems. Acute stress leads to GI ulcers; however, the mechanism of the native cellular protection pathway, which safeguards tissue integrality and maintains GI homeostasis, remains to be investigated. In a mouse model of this study, restraint stress induced GI leakage, abnormal tight junction protein expression, and cell death of gut epithelial cells. The expression of activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3), a stress-responsive transcription factor, is upregulated in the GI tissues of stressed animals. ATF3-deficient mice displayed an exacerbated phenotype of GI injuries. These results suggested that, in response to stress, ATF3 is part of the native cellular protective pathway in the GI system, which could be a molecular target for managing psychological stress-induced GI tract diseases.

Exposure of Platelets to Dengue Virus and Envelope Protein Domain III Induces Nlrp3 Inflammasome-Dependent Platelet Cell Death and Thrombocytopenia in Mice

In tropical and subtropical regions, mosquito-borne dengue virus (DENV) infections can lead to severe dengue, also known as dengue hemorrhage fever, which causes bleeding, thrombocytopenia, and blood plasma leakage and increases mortality. Although DENV-induced platelet cell death was linked to disease severity, the role of responsible viral factors and the elicitation mechanism of abnormal platelet activation and cell death remain unclear. DENV and virion-surface envelope protein domain III (EIII), a cellular binding moiety of the virus particle, highly increase during the viremia stage. Our previous report suggested that exposure to such viremia EIII levels can lead to cell death of endothelial cells, neutrophils, and megakaryocytes. Here we found that both DENV and EIII could induce abnormal platelet activation and predominantly necrotic cell death pyroptosis. Blockages of EIII-induced platelet signaling using the competitive inhibitor chondroitin sulfate B or selective Nlrp3 inflammasome inhibitors OLT1177 and Z-WHED-FMK markedly ameliorated DENV- and EIII-induced thrombocytopenia, platelet activation, and cell death. These results suggest that EIII could be considered as a virulence factor of DENV, and that Nlrp3 inflammasome is a feasible target for developing therapeutic approaches against dengue-induced platelet defects.

Suppressed humoral immunity is associated with dengue nonstructural protein NS1-elicited anti-death receptor antibody fractions in mice

Dengue virus (DENV) infections may cause life-threatening dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF). Suppressed protective immunity was shown in these patients. Although several hypotheses have been formulated, the mechanism of DENV-induced immunosuppression remains unclear. Previously, we found that cross-reactive antibodies against tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) receptor 1 (death receptor 4 [DR4]) were elicited in DHF patients, and that anti-DR4 autoantibody fractions were elicited by nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) immunizations in experimental mice. In this study, we found that anti-DR4 antibodies could suppress B lymphocyte function in vitro and in vivo. Treatment with the anti-DR4 immunoglobulin (Ig) induced caspase-dependent cell death in immortalized B lymphocyte Raji cells in vitro. Anti-DR4 Igs elicited by NS1 and DR4 immunizations markedly suppressed mouse spleen transitional T2 B (IgM+IgD+), bone marrow pre-pro-B (B220+CD43+), pre-B (B220+CD43-), and mature B cell (B220+IgD+) subsets in mice. Furthermore, functional analysis revealed that the pre-elicitation of anti-NS1 and anti-DR4 Ig titers suppressed subsequently neutralizing antibody production by immunization with DENV envelop protein. Our data suggest that the elicitation of anti-DR4 titers through DENV NS1 immunization plays a suppressive role in humoral immunity in mice.

Thioacetamide-induced liver damage and thrombocytopenia is associated with induction of antiplatelet autoantibody in mice

Thrombocytopenia is usually associated with liver injury, elevated plasma aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase levels, and high antiplatelet immunoglobulin (Ig) titers, although the mechanism behind these effects remains elusive. Deciphering the mechanism behind acute liver disease–associated thrombocytopenia may help solve difficulties in routine patient care, such as liver biopsy, antiviral therapy, and surgery. To determine whether liver damage is sufficient per se to elicit thrombocytopenia, thioacetamide (TAA)-induced hepatitis rodent models were employed. The analysis results indicated that TAA treatment transiently induced an elevation of antiplatelet antibody titer in both rats and mice. B-cell-deficient (BCD) mice, which have loss of antibody expression, exhibited markedly less thrombocytopenia and liver damage than wild-type controls. Because TAA still induces liver damage in BCD mice, this suggests that antiplatelet Ig is one of the pathogenic factors, which play exacerbating role in the acute phase of TAA-induced hepatitis. TNF-α was differentially regulated in wild-type versus BCD mice during TAA treatment, and anti-TNF treatment drastically ameliorated antiplatelet Ig induction, thrombocytopenia, and liver injury, suggesting that the TNF pathway plays a critical role in the disease progression.

TRPM8 and RAAS-mediated hypertension is critical for cold-induced immunosuppression in mice

Mechanisms underlying cold-induced immunosuppression remain unclear. Here we found that cold exposure leads to transient receptor potential melastatin 8 (TRPM8)-dependent, renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS)-mediated hypertension, which subsequently induces small molecule and fluid extravasation, increases plasma Ig levels, and elicits immunosuppression. An effect is similar to the clinically-used immunosuppressive treatments of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) against various inflammatory diseases, such as immune thrombocytopenia (ITP). Essential roles of TRPM8 and Ig in cold-induced immunosuppression are supported by the cold-mediated amelioration of ITP and the cold-mediated suppression of bacterial clearance, which were observed in wild-type mice but not in Ig- and TRPM8-deficient mutants. Treatment with antihypertensive drugs aliskiren and losartan drastically reversed high plasma Ig levels and ameliorated cold-induced immunosuppression, indicating the involvement of the RAAS and hypertension. These results indicated that the natively increased plasma Ig level is associated with immunosuppression during periods of cold exposure, and antihypertensive drugs can be useful to manage cold-induced immunosuppression.

Suppressive effect of dengue virus envelope protein domain III on megakaryopoiesis

Dengue virus (DENV) infection can cause severe, life-threatening events, and no specific treatments of DENV infection are currently approved. Although thrombocytopenia is frequently observed in dengue patients, its pathogenesis is still not fully understood. Previous studies have suggested that DENV-induced thrombocytopenia occurs through viral-replication-mediated megakaryopoiesis inhibition in the bone marrow; however, the exact mechanism for megakaryopoiesis suppression remains elusive. In this study, a reductionist approach was applied, in which C57B/6J mice were inoculated with recombinant DENV-envelope protein domain III (DENV-EIII) instead of the full viral particle. Our results demonstrated that DENV-EIII-suppressed megakaryopoiesis is similar to those observed with DENV infection. Furthermore, in agreement with our in vivo analyses, DENV-EIII sufficiently suppressed the megakaryopoiesis of progenitor cells from murine bone marrow and human cord blood in vitro. Additional analyses suggested that autophagy impairment and apoptosis are involved in DENV-EIII-mediated suppression of megakaryopoiesis. These data suggest that, even without viral replication, the binding of DENV-EIII to the cell surface is sufficient to suppress megakaryopoiesis.

Soluble P-selectin rescues mice from anthrax lethal toxin-induced mortality through PSGL-1 pathway-mediated correction of hemostasis

As one of the virulence factors of Bacillus anthracis, lethal toxin (LT) induces various pathogenic responses including the suppression of the coagulation system. In this study, we observed that LT markedly increased the circulating soluble P-selectin (sP-sel) levels and microparticle (MP) count in wild-type but not P-selectin (P-sel, Selp^-/-) or P-sel ligand-1 (PSGL-1, Selplg^-/-) knockout mice. Because sP-sel induces a hypercoagulable state through PSGL-1 pathway to generate tissue factor-positive MPs, we hypothesized that the increase in plasma sP-sel levels can be a self-rescue response in hosts against the LT-mediated suppression of the coagulation system. In agreement with our hypothesis, our results indicated that compared with wild-type mice, Selp^-/- and Selplg^-/- mice were more sensitive to LT. In addition, the recombinant sP-sel treatment markedly ameliorated LT-mediated pathogenesis and reduced mortality. As a result, elicitation of circulating sP-sel is potentially a self-rescue response, which is beneficial to host recovery from an LT-induced hypocoagulation state. These results suggest that the administration of sP-sel is likely to be useful in the development of a new strategy to treat anthrax.

Visible Light-Responsive Platinum-Containing Titania Nanoparticle-Mediated Photocatalysis Induces Nucleotide Insertion, Deletion and Substitution Mutations

Conventional photocatalysts are primarily stimulated using ultraviolet (UV) light to elicit reactive oxygen species and have wide applications in environmental and energy fields, including self-cleaning surfaces and sterilization. Because UV illumination is hazardous to humans, visible light-responsive photocatalysts (VLRPs) were discovered and are now applied to increase photocatalysis. However, fundamental questions regarding the ability of VLRPs to trigger DNA mutations and the mutation types it elicits remain elusive. Here, through plasmid transformation and β-galactosidase α-complementation analyses, we observed that visible light-responsive platinum-containing titania (TiO₂) nanoparticle (NP)-mediated photocatalysis considerably reduces the number of Escherichia coli transformants. This suggests that such photocatalytic reactions cause DNA damage. DNA sequencing results demonstrated that the DNA damage comprises three mutation types, namely nucleotide insertion, deletion and substitution; this is the first study to report the types of mutations occurring after photocatalysis by TiO₂-VLRPs. Our results may facilitate the development and appropriate use of new-generation TiO₂ NPs for biomedical applications.

Antibacterial Properties of Visible-Light-Responsive Carbon-Containing Titanium Dioxide Photocatalytic Nanoparticles against Anthrax

The bactericidal activity of conventional titanium dioxide (TiO₂) photocatalyst is effective only on irradiation by ultraviolet light, which restricts the applications of TiO₂ for use in living environments. Recently, carbon-containing TiO₂ nanoparticles [TiO₂(C) NP] were found to be a visible-light-responsive photocatalyst (VLRP), which displayed significantly enhanced antibacterial properties under visible light illumination. However, whether TiO₂(C) NPs exert antibacterial properties against Bacillus anthracis remains elusive. Here, we evaluated these VLRP NPs in the reduction of anthrax-induced pathogenesis. Bacteria-killing experiments indicated that a significantly higher proportion (40%–60%) of all tested Bacillus species, including B. subtilis, B. cereus, B. thuringiensis, and B. anthracis, were considerably eliminated by TiO₂(C) NPs. Toxin inactivation analysis further suggested that the TiO₂(C) NPs efficiently detoxify approximately 90% of tested anthrax lethal toxin, a major virulence factor of anthrax. Notably, macrophage clearance experiments further suggested that, even under suboptimal conditions without considerable bacterial killing, the TiO₂(C) NP-mediated photocatalysis still exhibited antibacterial properties through the reduction of bacterial resistance against macrophage killing. Our results collectively suggested that TiO₂(C) NP is a conceptually feasible anti-anthrax material, and the relevant technologies described herein may be useful in the development of new strategies against anthrax.

Soluble P-selectin rescues viper venom-induced mortality through anti-inflammatory properties and PSGL-1 pathway-mediated correction of hemostasis

Venomous snakebites are lethal and occur frequently worldwide each year, and receiving the antivenom antibody is currently the most effective treatment. However, the specific antivenom might be unavailable in remote areas. Snakebites by Viperidae usually lead to hemorrhage and mortality if untreated. In the present study, challenges of rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox) venom markedly increased the circulating soluble P-selectin (sP-sel) level, but not P-selectin (P-sel, Selp^−/−) mutants, in wild-type mice. Because sP-sel enhances coagulation through the P-selectin ligand 1 (PSGL-1, Selplg) pathway to produce tissue factor–positive microparticles, we hypothesized that increasing the plasma sP-sel level can be a self-rescue response in hosts against snake venom–mediated suppression of the coagulation system. Confirming our hypothesis, our results indicated that compared with wild-type mice, Selp^−/− and Selplg^−/− mice were more sensitive to rattlesnake venom. Additionally, administration of recombinant sP-sel could effectively reduce the mortality rate of mice challenged with venoms from three other Viperidae snakes. The antivenom property of sP-sel is associated with improved coagulation activity in vivo. Our data suggest that the elevation of endogenous sP-sel level is a self-protective response against venom-suppressed coagulation. The administration of recombinant sP-sel may be developed as a new strategy to treat Viperidae snakebites.