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Poplin V, Smith C, Caceres DH, Herkert PF, Jegede O, Thompson GR, Baddley JW, Schwartz IS, Kubat R, Deka MA, Toda M, Lockhart SR, Chiller T, Hagen F, Bahr NC. Geographical distribution of the Cryptococcus gattii species complex: a systematic review. THE LANCET. MICROBE 2024:100921. [PMID: 39191262 DOI: 10.1016/s2666-5247(24)00161-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 06/04/2024] [Accepted: 06/06/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024]
Abstract
The taxonomy of the Cryptococcus gattii species complex continues to evolve, and has been divided into five pathogenic species. The objective of this systematic review was to summarise the geographical distribution of the C gattii species complex and the species within the C gattii species complex. We searched PubMed for articles related to human, animal, ecological, or laboratory-based studies of C gattii species complex isolates with traceable geographical origin published from January, 1970, until September, 2021. Having extracted their geographical origin, we used ArcMap to construct maps according to the highest degree of resolution allowed by their reported taxonomy, to reflect the most likely area of transmission on the basis of published reports of human isolates. 604 such articles were included in the study. This review indicated that although C gattii species complex isolates have been reported globally, understanding their heterogeneous geographical distribution by species can have implications for researchers and clinicians in formulating research questions and considering diagnostic quandaries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Poplin
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Kansas, Kansas City, KS, USA.
| | - Clarissa Smith
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas, Kansas City, KS, USA; Section of Pulmonary/Critical Care, Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Diego H Caceres
- Immuno-Mycologics (IMMY), Norman, OK, USA; Center of Expertise in Mycology Radboudumc/CWZ, Nijmegen, Netherlands; Studies in Translational Microbiology and Emerging Diseases (MICROS) Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universidad del Rosario, Bogota, Colombia
| | - Patricia F Herkert
- Faculty of Medicine, Centro Universitário de Pato Branco, UNIDEP, Pato Branco, Brazil
| | - Olujimi Jegede
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Kansas, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - George R Thompson
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA, USA; Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - John W Baddley
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ilan S Schwartz
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Ryan Kubat
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Kansas, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Mark A Deka
- Mycotic Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Mitsuru Toda
- Mycotic Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Shawn R Lockhart
- Mycotic Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Tom Chiller
- Mycotic Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ferry Hagen
- Department of Medical Mycology, Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, Netherlands; Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands; Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Nathan C Bahr
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Kansas, Kansas City, KS, USA; Division of Infectious Diseases and International Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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2
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Chang CC, Harrison TS, Bicanic TA, Chayakulkeeree M, Sorrell TC, Warris A, Hagen F, Spec A, Oladele R, Govender NP, Chen SC, Mody CH, Groll AH, Chen YC, Lionakis MS, Alanio A, Castañeda E, Lizarazo J, Vidal JE, Takazono T, Hoenigl M, Alffenaar JW, Gangneux JP, Soman R, Zhu LP, Bonifaz A, Jarvis JN, Day JN, Klimko N, Salmanton-García J, Jouvion G, Meya DB, Lawrence D, Rahn S, Bongomin F, McMullan BJ, Sprute R, Nyazika TK, Beardsley J, Carlesse F, Heath CH, Ayanlowo OO, Mashedi OM, Queiroz-Telles Filho F, Hosseinipour MC, Patel AK, Temfack E, Singh N, Cornely OA, Boulware DR, Lortholary O, Pappas PG, Perfect JR. Global guideline for the diagnosis and management of cryptococcosis: an initiative of the ECMM and ISHAM in cooperation with the ASM. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2024; 24:e495-e512. [PMID: 38346436 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(23)00731-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Cryptococcosis is a major worldwide disseminated invasive fungal infection. Cryptococcosis, particularly in its most lethal manifestation of cryptococcal meningitis, accounts for substantial mortality and morbidity. The breadth of the clinical cryptococcosis syndromes, the different patient types at-risk and affected, and the vastly disparate resource settings where clinicians practice pose a complex array of challenges. Expert contributors from diverse regions of the world have collated data, reviewed the evidence, and provided insightful guideline recommendations for health practitioners across the globe. This guideline offers updated practical guidance and implementable recommendations on the clinical approaches, screening, diagnosis, management, and follow-up care of a patient with cryptococcosis and serves as a comprehensive synthesis of current evidence on cryptococcosis. This Review seeks to facilitate optimal clinical decision making on cryptococcosis and addresses the myriad of clinical complications by incorporating data from historical and contemporary clinical trials. This guideline is grounded on a set of core management principles, while acknowledging the practical challenges of antifungal access and resource limitations faced by many clinicians and patients. More than 70 societies internationally have endorsed the content, structure, evidence, recommendation, and pragmatic wisdom of this global cryptococcosis guideline to inform clinicians about the past, present, and future of care for a patient with cryptococcosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina C Chang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Infectious Diseases, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa, Durban, South Africa.
| | - Thomas S Harrison
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, St George's University London, London, UK; Clinical Academic Group in Infection and Immunity, St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; Medical Research Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Tihana A Bicanic
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, St George's University London, London, UK; Clinical Academic Group in Infection and Immunity, St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; Medical Research Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Methee Chayakulkeeree
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Tania C Sorrell
- Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Infectious Diseases, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW, Australia
| | - Adilia Warris
- Medical Research Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK; Department of Infectious Diseases, Great Ormond Street Hospital, London, UK
| | - Ferry Hagen
- Faculty of Science, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands; Department of Medical Mycology, Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, Netherlands; Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Andrej Spec
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rita Oladele
- College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Nelesh P Govender
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, St George's University London, London, UK; Medical Research Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK; Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; Division of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Sharon C Chen
- Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Infectious Diseases, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW, Australia; Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology Laboratory Services, Institute for Clinical Pathology and Medical Research, New South Wales Health Pathology, Westmead, NSW, Australia
| | - Christopher H Mody
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Andreas H Groll
- Infectious Disease Research Program, and Department of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, University Children's Hospital, Münster, Germany; Center for Bone Marrow Transplantation, and Department of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, University Children's Hospital, Münster, Germany
| | - Yee-Chun Chen
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital and College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan; National Institute of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Taiwan
| | - Michail S Lionakis
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology & Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Alexandre Alanio
- Institut Pasteur, Centre National de Référence Mycoses Invasives et Antifongiques, Groupe de recherche Mycologie Translationnelle, Département de Mycologie, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France; Laboratoire de parasitologie-mycologie, AP-HP, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | | | - Jairo Lizarazo
- Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitario Erasmo Meoz, Faculty of Health, Univesidad de Pamplona, Cúcuta, Colombia
| | - José E Vidal
- Departmento de Neurologia, Instituto de Infectologia Emílio Ribas, São Paulo, Brazil; Departamento de Moléstias Infecciosas e Parasitárias, Hospital das Clinicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Instituto de Medicina Tropical, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Takahiro Takazono
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan; Department of Respiratory Medicine, Nagasaki University Hospital, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Martin Hoenigl
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Translational Medical Mycology Research Unit, European Confederation of Medical Mycology Excellence Center for Medical Mycology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria; BioTechMed, Graz, Austria
| | - Jan-Willem Alffenaar
- Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Pharmacy, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW, Australia; School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Jean-Pierre Gangneux
- Institute for Health, Environment and Work Research-Irset, Inserm UMR_S 1085, University of Rennes, Rennes, France; Laboratory for Parasitology and Mycology, Centre National de Référence Mycoses Invasives et Antifongiques LA Asp-C, University Hospital of Rennes, Rennes, France
| | - Rajeev Soman
- Jupiter Hospital, Pune, India; Deenanath Mangeshkar Hospital, Pune, India; Hinduja Hospital, Mumbai, India
| | - Li-Ping Zhu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biosafety Emergency Response, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai China
| | - Alexandro Bonifaz
- Hospital General de México, Dermatology Service, Mycology section, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Joseph N Jarvis
- Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK; Botswana Harvard AIDS Institute Partnership, Gaborone, Botswana
| | - Jeremy N Day
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infection, Royal Devon and Exeter University Hospital NHS Trust, Exeter, UK
| | - Nikolai Klimko
- Department of Clinical Mycology, Allergy and Immunology, I Mechnikov North Western State Medical University, Staint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Jon Salmanton-García
- Translational Research, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Center for Integrated Oncology Aachen Bonn Cologne Duesseldorf and Excellence Center for Medical Mycology, Department I of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Partner Site Bonn-Cologne, German Centre for Infection Research, Cologne, Germany
| | - Grégory Jouvion
- Histology and Pathology Unit, Ecole nationale vétérinaire d'Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France; Dynamyc Team, Université Paris Est Créteil and Ecole nationale vétérinaire d'Alfort, Créteil, France
| | - David B Meya
- Infectious Diseases Institute, School of Medicine, College of Heath Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - David Lawrence
- Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK; Botswana Harvard AIDS Institute Partnership, Gaborone, Botswana
| | - Sebastian Rahn
- Translational Research, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Center for Integrated Oncology Aachen Bonn Cologne Duesseldorf and Excellence Center for Medical Mycology, Department I of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Partner Site Bonn-Cologne, German Centre for Infection Research, Cologne, Germany
| | - Felix Bongomin
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Gulu University, Gulu, Uganda
| | - Brendan J McMullan
- Discipline of Paediatrics, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Infectious Diseases, Sydney Children's Hospital, Randwick, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Rosanne Sprute
- Translational Research, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Center for Integrated Oncology Aachen Bonn Cologne Duesseldorf and Excellence Center for Medical Mycology, Department I of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Partner Site Bonn-Cologne, German Centre for Infection Research, Cologne, Germany
| | - Tinashe K Nyazika
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
| | - Justin Beardsley
- Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Infectious Diseases, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW, Australia
| | - Fabianne Carlesse
- Pediatric Department, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Oncology Pediatric Institute-IOP-GRAACC, Federal Univeristy of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Christopher H Heath
- Department of Microbiology, Fiona Stanley Hospital Network, PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Perth, WA, Australia; Department of Infectious Diseases, Fiona Stanley Hospital, Perth, WA, Australia; UWA Medical School, Internal Medicine, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Olusola O Ayanlowo
- Dermatology Unit, Department of Medicine, Lagos University Teaching Hospital, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Olga M Mashedi
- Centre for Respiratory Diseases Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Mina C Hosseinipour
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; UNC Project Malawi, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - Atul K Patel
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Sterling Hospitals, Ahmedabad, India
| | - Elvis Temfack
- Africa Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Nina Singh
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Oliver A Cornely
- Translational Research, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Center for Integrated Oncology Aachen Bonn Cologne Duesseldorf and Excellence Center for Medical Mycology, Department I of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Partner Site Bonn-Cologne, German Centre for Infection Research, Cologne, Germany; Clinical Trials Centre Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - David R Boulware
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Olivier Lortholary
- Université de Paris Cité, APHP, Service des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Centre d'Infectiologie Necker-Pasteur, Institut Imagine, Paris, France; Institut Pasteur, CNRS, Unité de Mycologie Moléculaire, Centre National de Référence Mycoses Invasives et Antifongiques, UMR 2000, Paris, France
| | - Peter G Pappas
- Mycoses Study Group Central Unit, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - John R Perfect
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA.
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Sood H, Pradhan N, Singh H, Dhibar DP, Bethanbhatla MK, Kaur H, Gupta K, Suri V, Bhalla A. An Unusual Case of Brain Abscess in an HIV Negative Host. Am J Med 2024; 137:e117-e119. [PMID: 38582320 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2024.03.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Harleen Sood
- Division of Clinical Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Nupur Pradhan
- Department of Pathology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Harpreet Singh
- Division of Clinical Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India.
| | - Deba Prasad Dhibar
- Division of Clinical Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | | | - Harsimran Kaur
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Kirti Gupta
- Department of Pathology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Vikas Suri
- Division of Clinical Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Ashish Bhalla
- Division of Clinical Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
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Dao A, Kim HY, Garnham K, Kidd S, Sati H, Perfect J, Sorrell TC, Harrison T, Rickerts V, Gigante V, Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Alffenaar JW, Morrissey CO, Chen SCA, Beardsley J. Cryptococcosis-a systematic review to inform the World Health Organization Fungal Priority Pathogens List. Med Mycol 2024; 62:myae043. [PMID: 38935902 PMCID: PMC11210623 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myae043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcosis causes a high burden of disease worldwide. This systematic review summarizes the literature on Cryptococcus neoformans and C. gattii infections to inform the World Health Organization's first Fungal Priority Pathogen List. PubMed and Web of Science were used to identify studies reporting on annual incidence, mortality, morbidity, antifungal resistance, preventability, and distribution/emergence in the past 10 years. Mortality rates due to C. neoformans were 41%-61%. Complications included acute renal impairment, raised intracranial pressure needing shunts, and blindness. There was moderate evidence of reduced susceptibility (MIC range 16-32 mg/l) of C. neoformans to fluconazole, itraconazole, ketoconazole, voriconazole, and amphotericin B. Cryptococcus gattii infections comprised 11%-33% of all cases of invasive cryptococcosis globally. The mortality rates were 10%-23% for central nervous system (CNS) and pulmonary infections, and ∼43% for bloodstream infections. Complications described included neurological sequelae (17%-27% in C. gattii infections) and immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. MICs were generally low for amphotericin B (MICs: 0.25-0.5 mg/l), 5-flucytosine (MIC range: 0.5-2 mg/l), itraconazole, posaconazole, and voriconazole (MIC range: 0.06-0.5 mg/l). There is a need for increased surveillance of disease phenotype and outcome, long-term disability, and drug susceptibility to inform robust estimates of disease burden.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiken Dao
- Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Westmead, Sydney, Australia
- Westmead Clinical School, Westmead Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Hannah Yejin Kim
- Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Sydney Pharmacy School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, Australia
- Department of Pharmacy, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, Australia
| | - Katherine Garnham
- Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Sunshine Coast University Hospital, Birtinya, Qld 4575, Australia
| | - Sarah Kidd
- National Mycology Reference Centre, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, SA Pathology, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Hatim Sati
- AMR Division, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Tania C Sorrell
- Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Westmead, Sydney, Australia
- Westmead Clinical School, Westmead Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Thomas Harrison
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, St George’s University London, London, UK
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | | | - Valeria Gigante
- AMR Division, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ana Alastruey-Izquierdo
- Mycology Reference Laboratory, National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jan-Willem Alffenaar
- Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Westmead Clinical School, Westmead Hospital, Sydney, Australia
- Sydney Pharmacy School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, Australia
| | - C Orla Morrissey
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Health, Melbourne, Australia
- Monash University, Department of Infectious Diseases, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sharon C-A Chen
- Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology Laboratory Services, Institute of Clinical Pathology and Medical Research, New South Wales Health Pathology, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, Sydney, Australia
| | - Justin Beardsley
- Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Westmead, Sydney, Australia
- Westmead Clinical School, Westmead Hospital, Sydney, Australia
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5
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Teh A, Pritchard E, Donahoe SL, Malik R, Krockenberger M. A case of disseminated cryptococcosis with abdominal involvement due to Cryptococcus neoformans species complex in a Ragdoll cat and false-negative cryptococcal antigen lateral flow tests due to the postzone phenomenon. Aust Vet J 2024; 102:306-312. [PMID: 38567673 DOI: 10.1111/avj.13329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Although cryptococcosis is the most common systemic fungal disease of cats, abdominal involvement is rarely reported. The pathogenesis of cryptococcosis usually involves sinonasal colonisation, followed by tissue invasion and sinonasal infection, with possible subsequent spread to the lungs and/or direct extension into the central nervous system (CNS), for example, via the cribriform plate. Further haematogenous spread can occur to any tissue, including skin and the CNS. This report describes a case of disseminated cryptococcosis due to Cryptococcus neoformans species complex in a 13-year-old cat, the fourth documented Australian feline case with abdominal involvement. The cat presented with a chronic history of upper respiratory disease that progressed to severe lethargy and anorexia. An autopsy revealed striking peritonitis with multifocal abdominal involvement affecting the liver, spleen, adrenal glands, kidneys, pancreas and mesentery. Cryptococcal organisms were also observed in organs within the thoracic cavity, sinonasal tissues and the CNS. Testing of abdominal fluid and serum for cryptococcal antigen using a commercially available lateral flow assay using neat fluid specimen initially tested false-negative. However, after dilution of the sample to 1:64, a positive result was obtained, confirming a postzone phenomenon. Taken together, the collective findings were indicative of widely disseminated cryptococcosis due to Cryptococcus neoformans with atypical involvement of the abdominal cavity.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Teh
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - E Pritchard
- Animal Referral Hospital, Homebush West, New South Wales, Australia
| | - S L Donahoe
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - R Malik
- Centre for Veterinary Education, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - M Krockenberger
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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6
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Gifford A, Jayawardena N, Carlesse F, Lizarazo J, McMullan B, Groll AH, Warris A. Pediatric Cryptococcosis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2024; 43:307-312. [PMID: 38241632 DOI: 10.1097/inf.0000000000004216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Seroprevalence studies have shown that 70% of children are exposed to Cryptococcus , the most common cause of meningitis in people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), but reported pediatric disease prevalence is much lower than in adults. METHODS PubMed and Ovid Global Health databases were searched with the terms "cryptococcosis," "cryptococcal meningitis," " Cryptococcus neoformans " or " Cryptococcus gattii ." All studies reporting pediatric specific data in the English language from 1980 up until December 2022 were included. RESULTS One hundred sixty-eight publications were reviewed totaling 1469 children, with the majority reported from Africa (54.2%). Sixty-five percent (961) were HIV positive, 10% (147) were non-HIV immunocompromised and 19% (281) were immunocompetent. Clinical signs and symptoms were only reported for 458 children, with fever (64%), headache (55%) and vomiting (39%) being the most common. Most children (80%) suffered from meningoencephalitis. Lung involvement was rarely described in HIV-positive children (1%), but significantly more common in the non-HIV immunocompromised (36%) and immunocompetent (40%) groups ( P < 0.0001). Only 22% received the recommended antifungal combination therapy, which was significantly higher in immunocompetent children than those with HIV (39% vs. 6.8%; P < 0.0001). Overall mortality was 23%. A significant higher mortality was observed in children with HIV compared with immunocompetent children (32% vs. 16%; P < 0.001), but not compared with children with non-HIV immunosuppression (25). CONCLUSIONS This is the largest review of pediatric cryptococcosis with new observations on differences in clinical presentation and outcome depending on the underlying condition. The lack of granular clinical data urges prospective clinical epidemiological studies for improved insight in the epidemiology, management and outcome of cryptococcosis in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Gifford
- MRC Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Naamal Jayawardena
- MRC Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Fabianne Carlesse
- Pediatric Department, Federal University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paolo, Brazil
- Grupo de Apoio ao Adolescente e à Criança com Câncer (GRAACC), Oncology Pediatric Institute, Federal University of São Paulo, Sao Paolo, Brazil
| | - Jairo Lizarazo
- Faculty of Health, Hospital Universitario Erasmo Meoz de Cúcuta, Universidad de Pamplona, Cucuta, Colombia
| | - Brendan McMullan
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Sydney Children's Hospital Randwick, Sydney, Australia
| | - Andreas H Groll
- Department of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Infectious Disease Research Program, Center for Bone Marrow Transplantation, Children's University Hospital Münster, Munster, Germany
| | - Adilia Warris
- MRC Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
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7
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Hester MM, Carlson D, Lodge JK, Levitz SM, Specht CA. Immune evasion by Cryptococcus gattii in vaccinated mice coinfected with C. neoformans. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1356651. [PMID: 38469300 PMCID: PMC10925662 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1356651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans and C. gattii, the etiologic agents of cryptococcosis, cause over 100,000 deaths worldwide every year, yet no cryptococcal vaccine has progressed to clinical trials. In preclinical studies, mice vaccinated with an attenuated strain of C. neoformans deleted of three cryptococcal chitin deacetylases (Cn-cda1Δ2Δ3Δ) were protected against a lethal challenge with C. neoformans strain KN99. While Cn-cda1Δ2Δ3Δ extended the survival of mice infected with C. gattii strain R265 compared to unvaccinated groups, we were unable to demonstrate fungal clearance as robust as that seen following KN99 challenge. In stark contrast to vaccinated mice challenged with KN99, we also found that R265-challenged mice failed to induce the production of protection-associated cytokines and chemokines in the lungs. To investigate deficiencies in the vaccine response to R265 infection, we developed a KN99-R265 coinfection model. In unvaccinated mice, the strains behaved in a manner which mirrored single infections, wherein only KN99 disseminated to the brain and spleen. We expanded the coinfection model to Cn-cda1Δ2Δ3Δ-vaccinated mice. Fungal burden, cytokine production, and immune cell infiltration in the lungs of vaccinated, coinfected mice were indicative of immune evasion by C. gattii R265 as the presence of R265 neither compromised the immunophenotype established in response to KN99 nor inhibited clearance of KN99. Collectively, these data indicate that R265 does not dampen a protective vaccine response, but rather suggest that R265 remains largely undetected by the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen M. Hester
- Department of Medicine, The University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States
| | - Diana Carlson
- Department of Medicine, The University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States
| | - Jennifer K. Lodge
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Stuart M. Levitz
- Department of Medicine, The University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States
| | - Charles A. Specht
- Department of Medicine, The University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States
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8
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Qu J, Lv X. Cryptococcal meningitis in apparently immunocompetent patients. Crit Rev Microbiol 2024; 50:76-86. [PMID: 36562731 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2022.2159786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cryptococcal meningitis (CM) is an invasive fungal disease that currently poses a threat to human health worldwide, with high morbidity and mortality, particularly in immunocompromised patients. Although CM mainly occurs in HIV-positive patients and other immunocompromised patients, it is also increasingly seen in seemingly immunocompetent hosts. The clinical characteristics of CM between immunocompromised and immunocompetent populations are different. However, few studies have focussed on CM in immunocompetent individuals. This review summarizes the clinical characteristics of apparently immunocompetent CM patients in terms of aetiology, immune pathogenesis, clinical presentation, laboratory data, imaging findings, treatment strategies and prognosis. It is of great significance to further understand the disease characteristics of CM, explore new treatment strategies and improve the prognosis of CM in immunocompetent individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyan Qu
- Center of Infectious Disease, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaoju Lv
- Center of Infectious Disease, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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9
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Meena P, Bhargava V, Singh K, sethi J, Prabhakar A, panda S. Cryptococcosis in kidney transplant recipients: Current understanding and practices. World J Nephrol 2023; 12:120-131. [PMID: 38230297 PMCID: PMC10789088 DOI: 10.5527/wjn.v12.i5.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcosis is the third most commonly occurring invasive fungal disease in solid organ transplant recipients (SOT). It is caused by encapsulated yeast, Cryptococcus species, predominantly Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. Though kidney transplant recipients are at the lowest risk of cryptococcosis when compared to other solid organ transplant recipients such as lung, liver or heart, still this opportunistic infection causes significant morbidity and mortality in this subset of patients. Mortality rates with cryptococcosis range from 10%-25%, while it can be as high as 50% in SOT recipients with central nervous system involvement. The main aim of diagnosis is to find out if there is any involvement of the central nervous system in disseminated disease or whether there is only localized pulmonary involvement as it has implications for both prognostication and treatment. Detection of cryptococcal antigen (CrAg) in cerebrospinal fluid or plasma is a highly recommended test as it is more sensitive and specific than India ink and fungal cultures. The CrAg lateral flow assay is the single point of care test that can rapidly detect cryptococcal polysaccharide capsule. Treatment of cryptococcosis is challenging in kidney transplant recipients. Apart from the reduction or optimization of immunosuppression, lipid formulations of amphotericin B are preferred as induction antifungal agents. Consolidation and maintenance are done with fluconazole; carefully monitoring its interactions with calcineurin inhibitors. This review further discusses in depth the evolving developments in the epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostic assays, and management approach of cryptococcosis in kidney transplant recipients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priti Meena
- Department of Nephrology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar 751019, Odhisha, India
| | - Vinant Bhargava
- Department of Nephrology, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital New Delhi, New Delhi 110001, New Delhi, India
| | - Kulwant Singh
- Department of Nephrology, Ivy Hospital, Mohali Punjab, Mohali 160071, Punjab, India
| | - Jasmine sethi
- Department of Nephrology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education & Research, Chandigarh 160012, Punjab, India
| | - Aniketh Prabhakar
- Department of Nephrology, Consultant Nephrologist, Sigma Hospital, Mysore 570009, Karnataka, India
| | - Sandip panda
- Department of Nephrology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar 751019, Odhisha, India
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10
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McHale TC, Boulware DR, Kasibante J, Ssebambulidde K, Skipper CP, Abassi M. Diagnosis and management of cryptococcal meningitis in HIV-infected adults. Clin Microbiol Rev 2023; 36:e0015622. [PMID: 38014977 PMCID: PMC10870732 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00156-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcal meningitis is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally, especially in people with advanced HIV disease. Cryptococcal meningitis is responsible for nearly 20% of all deaths related to advanced HIV disease, with the burden of disease predominantly experienced by people in resource-limited countries. Major advancements in diagnostics have introduced low-cost, easy-to-use antigen tests with remarkably high sensitivity and specificity. These tests have led to improved diagnostic accuracy and are essential for screening campaigns to reduce the burden of cryptococcosis. In the last 5 years, several high-quality, multisite clinical trials have led to innovations in therapeutics that have allowed for simplified regimens, which are better tolerated and result in less intensive monitoring and management of medication adverse effects. One trial found that a shorter, 7-day course of deoxycholate amphotericin B is as effective as the longer 14-day course and that flucytosine is an essential partner drug for reducing mortality in the acute phase of disease. Single-dose liposomal amphotericin B has also been found to be as effective as a 7-day course of deoxycholate amphotericin B. These findings have allowed for simpler and safer treatment regimens that also reduce the burden on the healthcare system. This review provides a detailed discussion of the latest evidence guiding the clinical management and special circumstances that make cryptococcal meningitis uniquely difficult to treat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C. McHale
- Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - David R. Boulware
- Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - John Kasibante
- Infectious Diseases Institute, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | | | - Caleb P. Skipper
- Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Mahsa Abassi
- Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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11
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Tugume L, Ssebambulidde K, Kasibante J, Ellis J, Wake RM, Gakuru J, Lawrence DS, Abassi M, Rajasingham R, Meya DB, Boulware DR. Cryptococcal meningitis. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2023; 9:62. [PMID: 37945681 DOI: 10.1038/s41572-023-00472-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii species complexes cause meningoencephalitis with high fatality rates and considerable morbidity, particularly in persons with deficient T cell-mediated immunity, most commonly affecting people living with HIV. Whereas the global incidence of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis (HIV-CM) has decreased over the past decade, cryptococcosis still accounts for one in five AIDS-related deaths globally due to the persistent burden of advanced HIV disease. Moreover, mortality remains high (~50%) in low-resource settings. The armamentarium to decrease cryptococcosis-associated mortality is expanding: cryptococcal antigen screening in the serum and pre-emptive azole therapy for cryptococcal antigenaemia are well established, whereas enhanced pre-emptive combination treatment regimens to improve survival of persons with cryptococcal antigenaemia are in clinical trials. Short courses (≤7 days) of amphotericin-based therapy combined with flucytosine are currently the preferred options for induction therapy of cryptococcal meningitis. Whether short-course induction regimens improve long-term morbidity such as depression, reduced neurocognitive performance and physical disability among survivors is the subject of further study. Here, we discuss underlying immunology, changing epidemiology, and updates on the management of cryptococcal meningitis with emphasis on HIV-associated disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lillian Tugume
- Infectious Diseases Institute, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Kenneth Ssebambulidde
- Infectious Diseases Institute, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - John Kasibante
- Infectious Diseases Institute, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Jayne Ellis
- Infectious Diseases Institute, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
- Clinical Research Department, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Rachel M Wake
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, UK
| | - Jane Gakuru
- Infectious Diseases Institute, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - David S Lawrence
- Clinical Research Department, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
- Botswana Harvard AIDS Institute Partnership, Gaborone, Botswana
| | - Mahsa Abassi
- Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Radha Rajasingham
- Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - David B Meya
- Infectious Diseases Institute, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
- Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - David R Boulware
- Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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12
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Coussement J, Heath CH, Roberts MB, Lane RJ, Spelman T, Smibert OC, Longhitano A, Morrissey O, Nield B, Tripathy M, Davis JS, Kennedy KJ, Lynar SA, Crawford LC, Crawford SJ, Smith BJ, Gador-Whyte AP, Haywood R, Mahony AA, Howard JC, Walls GB, O'Kane GM, Broom MT, Keighley CL, Bupha-Intr O, Cooley L, O'Hern JA, Jackson JD, Morris AJ, Bartolo C, Tramontana AR, Grimwade KC, Au Yeung V, Chean R, Woolnough E, Teh BW, Chen SCA, Slavin MA. Current Epidemiology and Clinical Features of Cryptococcus Infection in Patients Without Human Immunodeficiency Virus: A Multicenter Study in 46 Hospitals in Australia and New Zealand. Clin Infect Dis 2023; 77:976-986. [PMID: 37235212 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciad321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients without human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are increasingly recognized as being at risk for cryptococcosis. Knowledge of characteristics of cryptococcosis in these patients remains incomplete. METHODS We conducted a retrospective study of cryptococcosis in 46 Australian and New Zealand hospitals to compare its frequency in patients with and without HIV and describe its characteristics in patients without HIV. Patients with cryptococcosis between January 2015 and December 2019 were included. RESULTS Of 475 patients with cryptococcosis, 90% were without HIV (426 of 475) with marked predominance in both Cryptococcus neoformans (88.7%) and Cryptococcus gattii cases (94.3%). Most patients without HIV (60.8%) had a known immunocompromising condition: cancer (n = 91), organ transplantation (n = 81), or other immunocompromising condition (n = 97). Cryptococcosis presented as incidental imaging findings in 16.4% of patients (70 of 426). The serum cryptococcal antigen test was positive in 85.1% of tested patients (319 of 375); high titers independently predicted risk of central nervous system involvement. Lumbar puncture was performed in 167 patients to screen for asymptomatic meningitis, with a positivity rate of 13.2% where meningitis could have been predicted by a high serum cryptococcal antigen titer and/or fungemia in 95% of evaluable cases. One-year all-cause mortality was 20.9% in patients without HIV and 21.7% in patients with HIV (P = .89). CONCLUSIONS Ninety percent of cryptococcosis cases occurred in patients without HIV (89% and 94% for C. neoformans and C. gattii, respectively). Emerging patient risk groups were evident. A high level of awareness is warranted to diagnose cryptococcosis in patients without HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Coussement
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Christopher H Heath
- Department of Microbiology, PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Fiona Stanley Hospital, Murdoch, Washington, Australia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Fiona Stanley Hospital, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Royal Perth Hospital, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Matthew B Roberts
- Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
- Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | | | - Tim Spelman
- Department of Health Services Research, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- University of Melbourne Department of Surgery, St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | | | | | - Orla Morrissey
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Health and Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Blake Nield
- Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Monica Tripathy
- Gold Coast Hospital and Health Service, Southport, Queensland, Australia
| | - Joshua S Davis
- John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Karina J Kennedy
- ACT Pathology, Canberra Health Services, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Sarah A Lynar
- Royal Darwin and Palmerston Hospitals, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia
- Menzies School of Health Research, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia
| | - Lucy C Crawford
- Royal Darwin and Palmerston Hospitals, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia
| | | | | | | | - Rose Haywood
- Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | | | | | - Genevieve B Walls
- Middlemore Hospital, Te Whatu Ora Counties Manukau, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Gabrielle M O'Kane
- Gosford Hospital, Gosford, New South Wales, Australia
- Wyong Hospital, Hamlyn Terrace, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Matthew T Broom
- North Shore Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand
- Waitakere Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | | | | | - Jennifer A O'Hern
- Royal Darwin and Palmerston Hospitals, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia
- Launceston General Hospital, Launceston, Tasmania, Australia
| | | | | | | | - Adrian R Tramontana
- Western Health, Footscray, Victoria, Australia
- Western Clinical School, Melbourne Medical School, University of Melbourne, St. Albans, Victoria, Australia
| | - Katherine C Grimwade
- Tauranga Hospital, Hauora a Toi Bay of Plenty, Tauranga, New Zealand
- Whakatane Hospital, Hauora a Toi Bay of Plenty, Whakatane, New Zealand
| | | | - Roy Chean
- Latrobe Regional Hospital, Traralgon, Victoria, Australia
| | - Emily Woolnough
- St. John of God Midland Public and Private Hospital, Midland, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Benjamin W Teh
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sharon C A Chen
- Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology Laboratory Services, Institute of Clinical Pathology and Medical Research, New South Wales Health Pathology, Westmead Hospital, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Monica A Slavin
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Service, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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13
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Liu J, Liu J, Yang L, Xu X, Bang-E Q, Jiang Y, Peng F. Review: The application of corticosteroids in cryptococcal meningitis. J Mycol Med 2023; 33:101364. [PMID: 36870302 DOI: 10.1016/j.mycmed.2023.101364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
Cryptococcal meningitis (CM) is a serious disease with high morbidity and mortality. Although the patients who received corticosteroids were at high risk of having CM, corticosteroids also have been used as an adjunct to antifungal drugs for treating people with CM in some situations (such as immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome, cerebral cyptococcoma, et al.). Here, we summarize the current knowledge on the application of the corticosteroids in CM, aiming to help clinicians to reasonably use corticosteroids in patients with CM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyu Liu
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510630, PR China
| | - Jia Liu
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510630, PR China
| | - Lu Yang
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510630, PR China
| | - Xiaofeng Xu
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510630, PR China
| | - Qin Bang-E
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510630, PR China
| | - Ying Jiang
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510630, PR China.
| | - Fuhua Peng
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510630, PR China.
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14
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Panda AK, Hazra S, Anthony A, Kushwaha S. Cryptococcal infection causing longitudinal extensive transverse myelitis in an immunocompetent individual: Case report and literature review. Front Neurol 2023; 14:1171572. [PMID: 37122302 PMCID: PMC10133556 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1171572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcal CNS infections in immunocompetent individuals are occasionally reported in literature. The spinal manifestations of cryptococcal CNS infections are epidural abscess, chronic arachnoiditis, intramedullary granuloma, myelitis and vasculitis. We report a rare case of CNS cryptococcal infection presenting as a longitudinal extensive transverse myelitis (LETM) in an immunocompetent male. This report highlights cryptococcus as an important etiology among infectious causes in acute LETM patients in-spite of the immunocompetent status of the patient and the utility of CRAG (cryptococcal antigen) for diagnosis in such patients. We also present a literature review of all reported cases of cryptococcal myelitis.
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15
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Beardsley J, Dao A, Keighley C, Garnham K, Halliday C, Chen SCA, Sorrell TC. What's New in Cryptococcus gattii: From Bench to Bedside and Beyond. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 9:jof9010041. [PMID: 36675862 PMCID: PMC9865494 DOI: 10.3390/jof9010041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus species are a major cause of life-threatening infections in immunocompromised and immunocompetent hosts. While most disease is caused by Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus gattii, a genotypically and phenotypically distinct species, is responsible for 11-33% of global cases of cryptococcosis. Despite best treatment, C. gattii infections are associated with early mortality rates of 10-25%. The World Health Organization's recently released Fungal Priority Pathogen List classified C. gattii as a medium-priority pathogen due to the lack of effective therapies and robust clinical and epidemiological data. This narrative review summarizes the latest research on the taxonomy, epidemiology, pathogenesis, laboratory testing, and management of C. gattii infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Beardsley
- Sydney Infectious Disease Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
- Westmead Hospital, New South Wales Health, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
- Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
- Correspondence:
| | - Aiken Dao
- Sydney Infectious Disease Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
- Westmead Hospital, New South Wales Health, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
- Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
| | - Caitlin Keighley
- Sydney Infectious Disease Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
| | - Katherine Garnham
- Sydney Infectious Disease Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
- Sunshine Coast University Hospital, Sunshine Coast University, Birtinya, QLD 4575, Australia
| | - Catriona Halliday
- Sydney Infectious Disease Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
- Westmead Hospital, New South Wales Health, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
- Institute of Clinical Pathology and Medical Research (ICPMR), NSW Health Pathology, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
| | - Sharon C.-A. Chen
- Sydney Infectious Disease Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
- Westmead Hospital, New South Wales Health, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
- Institute of Clinical Pathology and Medical Research (ICPMR), NSW Health Pathology, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
| | - Tania C. Sorrell
- Sydney Infectious Disease Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
- Westmead Hospital, New South Wales Health, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
- Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
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16
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Saidykhan L, Onyishi CU, May RC. The Cryptococcus gattii species complex: Unique pathogenic yeasts with understudied virulence mechanisms. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010916. [PMID: 36520688 PMCID: PMC9754292 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of Cryptococcus gattii/neoformans species complex are the etiological agents of the potentially fatal human fungal infection cryptococcosis. C. gattii and its sister species cause disease in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised hosts, while the closely related species C. neoformans and C. deneoformans predominantly infect immunocompromised hosts. To date, most studies have focused on similarities in pathogenesis between these two groups, but over recent years, important differences have become apparent. In this review paper, we highlight some of the major phenotypic differences between the C. gattii and neoformans species complexes and justify the need to study the virulence and pathogenicity of the C. gattii species complex as a distinct cryptococcal group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lamin Saidykhan
- Institute of Microbiology & Infection and School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
- Division of Physical and Natural Science, University of The Gambia, Brikama Campus, West Coast Region, The Gambia
| | - Chinaemerem U. Onyishi
- Institute of Microbiology & Infection and School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Robin C. May
- Institute of Microbiology & Infection and School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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17
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Torous VF, Branda JA. Fun with fungi: a comprehensive review of common fungal organisms encountered in cytology. J Am Soc Cytopathol 2022; 12:153-169. [PMID: 36564314 DOI: 10.1016/j.jasc.2022.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 11/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The ability to detect and diagnose infection is essential in the practice of cytopathology. The identification of suppurative or granulomatous inflammation should prompt careful evaluation for infection. Many of the most commonly encountered fungal organisms demonstrate characteristic microscopic appearances that allow accurate identification even with routine cytology stains, particularly when considered in the context of clinical factors such as geographic location, social history, patient immune status, and symptoms. Given the vital role cytopathologists play in the accurate diagnosis or presumptive identification of infections, this review explores the epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and morphologic features of common fungal pathogens in addition to their differential diagnoses and ancillary testing methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanda F Torous
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.
| | - John A Branda
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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18
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Howard-Jones AR, Sparks R, Pham D, Halliday C, Beardsley J, Chen SCA. Pulmonary Cryptococcosis. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:1156. [PMID: 36354923 PMCID: PMC9696922 DOI: 10.3390/jof8111156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary cryptococcosis describes an invasive lung mycosis caused by Cryptococcus neoformans or Cryptococcus gattii complex. It is often a high-consequence disease in both immunocompromised and immunocompetent populations, and may be misdiagnosed as pulmonary malignancy, leading to a delay in therapy. Epidemiology follows that of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis, with C. gattii infection more common in certain geographic regions. Diagnostic tools include histopathology, microscopy and culture, and the detection of cryptococcal polysaccharide antigen or Cryptococcus-derived nucleic acids. All patients with lung cryptococcosis should have a lumbar puncture and cerebral imaging to exclude central nervous system disease. Radiology is key, both as an adjunct to laboratory testing and as the initial means of detection in asymptomatic patients or those with non-specific symptoms. Pulmonary cryptococcomas (single or multiple) may also be associated with disseminated disease and/or cryptococcal meningitis, requiring prolonged treatment regimens. Optimal management for severe disease requires extended induction (amphotericin B and flucytosine) and consolidation therapy (fluconazole) with close clinical monitoring. Susceptibility testing is of value for epidemiology and in regions where relatively high minimum inhibitory concentrations to azoles (particularly fluconazole) have been noted. Novel diagnostic tools and therapeutic agents promise to improve the detection and treatment of cryptococcosis, particularly in low-income settings where the disease burden is high.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annaleise R. Howard-Jones
- Centre for Infectious Diseases & Microbiology Laboratory Services, New South Wales Health Pathology—Institute of Clinical Pathology & Medical Research, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW 2145, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2145, Australia
- Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Rebecca Sparks
- Centre for Infectious Diseases & Microbiology Laboratory Services, New South Wales Health Pathology—Institute of Clinical Pathology & Medical Research, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW 2145, Australia
| | - David Pham
- Centre for Infectious Diseases & Microbiology Laboratory Services, New South Wales Health Pathology—Institute of Clinical Pathology & Medical Research, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW 2145, Australia
| | - Catriona Halliday
- Centre for Infectious Diseases & Microbiology Laboratory Services, New South Wales Health Pathology—Institute of Clinical Pathology & Medical Research, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW 2145, Australia
| | - Justin Beardsley
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2145, Australia
- Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
- Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Westmead, NSW 2145, Australia
| | - Sharon C.-A. Chen
- Centre for Infectious Diseases & Microbiology Laboratory Services, New South Wales Health Pathology—Institute of Clinical Pathology & Medical Research, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW 2145, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2145, Australia
- Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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Langner KFA, Yang WJ. Clinical performance of the IMMY cryptococcal antigen lateral flow assay in dogs and cats. Vet Med (Auckl) 2022; 36:1966-1973. [PMID: 36254569 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.16555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cryptococcal lateral flow antigen assays (CLFAs) have been assessed in comparison to the latex cryptococcal antigen agglutination test but their clinical performance is unknown. OBJECTIVE Determine clinical performance of IMMY CLFA (Immuno-Mycologics Inc, Oklahoma) using patients with and without cryptococcosis as the reference standard. ANIMALS One-hundred ninety-seven serum samples from client-owned dogs and cats. METHODS Review of medical records of a referral population of dogs and cats that had CLFA performed between 2012 and 2020. Animals were classified as cryptococcosis positive (Cr+) or negative (Cr-) based on clinical information. Clinical diagnosis was used to calculate positive and negative percent agreement of the CLFA. RESULTS Twelve specimens (4 canine, 8 feline) were obtained from Cr+ animals and had positive CLFA results. One-hundred eighty-five specimens (139 canine, 46 feline) were collected from Cr- animals. Negative CLFA results were recorded in 129 canine and 44 feline Cr- samples. Positive CLFA results were noted for 10 canine and 2 feline Cr- samples. Positive percent agreement of CLFA was 100% (confidence interval [CI], 39.8%-100% dogs; 63.1%-100% cats). Negative percent agreements were 92.8% (CI, 87.2%-96.5%) for dogs and 95.7% (CI, 85.2%-99.5%) for cats. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE A negative IMMY CLFA result enables reliable exclusion of cryptococcal infection in dogs and cats. By contrast, a positive result must be interpreted cautiously and further testing should be performed to verify a diagnosis of cryptococcosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin F A Langner
- Western Australian Veterinary Emergency and Specialty, Success, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Wen-Jie Yang
- Veterinary Specialists Aotearoa, Auckland, New Zealand
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Wembabazi A, Nassozi DR, Akot E, Ochola TI, Kweka PT, Katamu NT, Meya D, Achan B. Prevalence of Cryptococcus gattii in Ugandan HIV-infected patients presenting with cryptococcal meningitis. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0270597. [PMID: 35839221 PMCID: PMC9286220 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0270597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction
Cryptococcal meningitis (CM) is a life threatening disease and leading cause of opportunistic fungal-related mortality in HIV/AIDS. Most CM infections are caused by C. neoformans species complexes but the prevalence of Cryptococcus gattii species complexes in Uganda is unknown however, it is known in a few other parts of Africa. We estimated the prevalence of C. gattii in patients living with HIV and a diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis in Uganda.
Methods
Cryptococcus isolates (n = 200) obtained from cerebrospinal fluid of patients with CM recruited at the Infectious Diseases Institute, Kampala, Uganda, were tested by phenotypic methods. The Cryptococcus isolates were sub-cultured on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar plates for 48 hours. The yeast colonies were examined by India ink stain, urea hydrolysis, and C. gattii was identified by blue pigmentation on CGB agar. The results were analyzed for frequency of C. gattii. Patient demographic characteristics were collected from the case record forms.
Results
From the 200 patients’ case record forms, 87 (43.5%) were female and 113 (56.5%) were male. The median age was 35 (19–64) years. Most patients, 93% (187/200) were from Central Uganda in the districts of Kampala and Wakiso. 97.51% (157/161) of the patients had absolute CD4 lymphocyte counts of less than 200 cells per cubic millimeter; 1.86% (3/161) 200–350 cells per cubic millimeter and 0.62% (1/161) above 500 cells per cubic millimeter. 45.4% (74/163) were not yet on HAART and 54.6% (89/163) were on HAART. 66.7% (58/87) had poor adherence to HAART treatment and 33.3% (29/87) had reported good adherence to HAART treatment. A total of 200 clinical isolates of Cryptococcus isolates were tested. No (0% (0/200) C. gattii was identified among the Cryptococcus isolates.
Conclusion
In this study among patients living with HIV and a diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis in Uganda, we found no C. gattii infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abel Wembabazi
- School of Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Dianah Rhoda Nassozi
- School of Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Enid Akot
- School of Medicine, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Timothy Isaac Ochola
- School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Prosper Tom Kweka
- School of Medicine, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Nelson Tom Katamu
- School of Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - David Meya
- Infectious Diseases Institute, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
- Department of Medicine, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
- Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
- * E-mail: (BA); (DM)
| | - Beatrice Achan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
- * E-mail: (BA); (DM)
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Su XH, Li WP, Liu JY, Wang YJ, Liu J, Xu XF, Yang L, Xia H, Jiang Y, Peng FH. Comparison of features and outcomes between HIV-negative patients with Cryptococcus gattii meningitis and Cryptococcus neoformans meningitis in South China. Mycoses 2022; 65:887-896. [PMID: 35793429 DOI: 10.1111/myc.13491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To compare the epidemiologic, clinical, laboratory, and imaging features, and outcomes in patients with Cryptococcus gattii meningitis (CGM) and Cryptococcus neoformans meningitis (CNM). METHODS We performed a retrospective study of HIV-negative patients with CGM and CNM (2015-2021) distinguished by metagenomic next-generation sequencing in cerebrospinal fluid in South China. RESULTS 81 patients (17 CGM, 64 CNM) were enrolled (72.8% male, median age 49 years, range 21-77 years), and CGM patients were younger (median, 43 vs 53 years, p = 0.005). Of 17 CGM, VGI and VGII accounted for 70.6% and 29.4%, respectively. CGM patients had less underlying diseases (7/17 [41.2%] vs 48/64 [75%], p=0.018) and focal neurologic deficit (3/17 [17.6%] vs 35/64 [54.7%], p = 0.022), had higher intracranial pressure (15/17 [88.2%] vs 25/64 [39.1%], p=0.002), more meningeal enhancement (14/17 [82.4%] vs 32/64 [50%], p = 0.034), less parenchymal involvement (median, 1 vs 3, p = 0.018), more lung cryptococcomas (6/12 [50%] vs 6/47 [12.8%], p = 0.014), faster CSF fungal clearance (p = 0.004), less complications (median, 1 vs 3, p < 0.001), and more favorable outcomes (16/17 [94.1%] vs 41/64 [64.1%], p =0.035). CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrated that species identification helps to guide therapy and predict outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Hong Su
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Wei-Peng Li
- Department of Neurology, Integrated Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Jun-Yu Liu
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Yi-Jie Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Jia Liu
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Feng Xu
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Lu Yang
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Han Xia
- Department of Scientific Affairs, Hugobiotech Co., Ltd., Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Ying Jiang
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Fu-Hua Peng
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, P. R. China
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22
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Gora H, Smith S, Wilson I, Preston-Thomas A, Ramsamy N, Hanson J. The epidemiology and outcomes of central nervous system infections in Far North Queensland, tropical Australia; 2000-2019. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0265410. [PMID: 35312713 PMCID: PMC8936475 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0265410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The epidemiology of central nervous system (CNS) infections in tropical Australia is incompletely defined. Methods A retrospective study of all individuals in Far North Queensland, tropical Australia, who were diagnosed with a CNS infection between January 1, 2000, and December 31, 2019. The microbiological aetiology of the infection was correlated with patients’ demographic characteristics and their clinical course. Results There were 725 cases of CNS infection during the study period, meningitis (77.4%) was the most common, followed by brain abscess (11.6%), encephalitis (9.9%) and spinal infection (1.1%). Infants (24.3%, p<0.0001) and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians (175/666 local residents, 26.3%, p<0.0001) were over-represented in the cohort. A pathogen was identified in 513 cases (70.8%); this was viral in 299 (41.2%), bacterial in 175 (24.1%) and fungal in 35 (4.8%). Cryptococcal meningitis (24 cases) was diagnosed as frequently as pneumococcal meningitis (24 cases). There were only 2 CNS infections with a S. pneumoniae serotype in the 13-valent pneumococcal vaccine after its addition to the National Immunisation schedule in 2011. Tropical pathogens–including Cryptococcus species (9/84, 11%), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (7/84, 8%) and Burkholderia pseudomallei (5/84, 6%)–were among the most common causes of brain abscess. However, arboviral CNS infections were rare, with only one locally acquired case—a dengue infection in 2009—diagnosed in the entire study period. Intensive Care Unit admission was necessary in 14.3%; the overall case fatality rate was 4.4%. Conclusion Tropical pathogens cause CNS infections as commonly as traditional bacterial pathogens in this region of tropical Australia. However, despite being highlighted in the national consensus guidelines, arboviruses were identified very rarely. Prompt access to sophisticated diagnostic and supportive care in Australia’s well-resourced public health system is likely to have contributed to the cohort’s low case-fatality rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Gora
- College of Medicine and Dentistry, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Simon Smith
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ian Wilson
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
| | | | - Nicole Ramsamy
- Weipa Integrated Health Service, Weipa, Queensland, Australia
| | - Josh Hanson
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
- The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia
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23
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Goupil de Bouillé J, Epelboin L, Henaff F, Migaud M, Abboud P, Blanchet D, Aznar C, Djossou F, Lortholary O, Elenga N, Puel A, Lanternier F, Demar M. Case Report: Invasive Cryptococcosis in French Guiana: Immune and Genetic Investigation in Six Non-HIV Patients. Front Immunol 2022; 13:881352. [PMID: 35558066 PMCID: PMC9088011 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.881352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives We describe the clinical, mycological, immunological, and genetic characteristics of six HIV-negative patients presenting with invasive cryptococcosis. Methods Patients with cryptococcosis without any of the classical risk factors, such as HIV infection, followed at Cayenne Hospital, were prospectively included. An immunologic and genetic assessment was performed. Results Five male patients and one female patient, 5 adults and one child, were investigated. All presented a neuromeningeal localization. Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii and C. neoformans var. grubii were isolated in two and three patients, respectively, whereas one patient could not be investigated. Overall, we did not observe any global leukocyte defect. Two patients were found with high levels of circulating autoantibodies against Granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and none had detectable levels of autoantibodies against Interferon gamma (IFN-γ) Sequencing of STAT1 exons and flanking regions performed for four patients was wild type. Conclusion To better understand cryptococcosis in patients with cryptococcosis but otherwise healthy, further explorations are needed with repeated immune checkups and strain virulence studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne Goupil de Bouillé
- Avicenne Hospital, Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris, Bobigny, France
- Laboratoire Éducation et Pratique de Santé, University of Sorbonne Paris Nord, Bobigny, France
| | - Loïc Epelboin
- Cayenne Hospital, Cayenne, French Guiana
- University of French Guiana, Cayenne, French Guiana
| | | | | | | | - Denis Blanchet
- Cayenne Hospital, Cayenne, French Guiana
- University of French Guiana, Cayenne, French Guiana
| | - Christine Aznar
- Cayenne Hospital, Cayenne, French Guiana
- University of French Guiana, Cayenne, French Guiana
| | - Felix Djossou
- Cayenne Hospital, Cayenne, French Guiana
- University of French Guiana, Cayenne, French Guiana
| | - Olivier Lortholary
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale U1163, Necker Hospital, Assitance Publique des hôpitaux de Paris (APHP), Paris, France
| | - Narcisse Elenga
- Cayenne Hospital, Cayenne, French Guiana
- University of French Guiana, Cayenne, French Guiana
| | - Anne Puel
- Imagine Institute, Paris Cité University, Paris, France
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale U1163, Necker Hospital, Assitance Publique des hôpitaux de Paris (APHP), Paris, France
- St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Fanny Lanternier
- Imagine Institute, Paris Cité University, Paris, France
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale U1163, Necker Hospital, Assitance Publique des hôpitaux de Paris (APHP), Paris, France
- Unité Mixte de Recherche 2000, Pasteur Institute Paris, University of Paris, Paris, France
| | - Magalie Demar
- Cayenne Hospital, Cayenne, French Guiana
- University of French Guiana, Cayenne, French Guiana
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Faruq R, Plichtova L, Bhagat N, Saul Z. A Case of Cryptococcal Meningitis and Fungemia With Relapse in an HIV-Negative, Non-transplant Patient on Azathioprine Therapy for Mixed Connective Tissue Disorder. Cureus 2022; 14:e24356. [PMID: 35607540 PMCID: PMC9123404 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.24356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcal meningitis typically occurs in immunocompromised patients. Approximately 80% of cryptococcal infections occur in HIV patients. Non-HIV, non-transplant recipient patients are the least numerous population groups affected by cryptococcal infections. While this group includes patients on biologics and corticosteroids, very few cases have been reported in patients on azathioprine. Cryptococcal meningitis requires antifungal therapy, the duration of which varies among different population groups. Inadequate duration of antibiotics among these groups is one of the most common reasons for relapse; therefore, it is crucial to consider patient demographic when determining antifungal duration. Here, we report a 68-year-old male with a history of mixed connective tissue disease on azathioprine for six years, who was admitted to the hospital with worsening lethargy. Several days into admission, the patient developed low-grade fevers. Subsequent blood cultures grew Cryptococcus neoformans. He was started on liposomal amphotericin B. Lumbar puncture (LP) was done, which demonstrated positive cryptococcal antigen, and flucytosine was added to the treatment regimen. Repeat CSF culture demonstrated no fungal organisms. Amphotericin B was discontinued after 20 days of therapy. Following clinical improvement, he was subsequently discharged on oral fluconazole. One week following discharge, the patient was readmitted with worsening fevers and altered mental status. CSF studies demonstrated the growth of Cryptococcus on culture. Liposomal amphotericin B was reinitiated, and fluconazole was continued. Imaging showed hydrocephalus, which worsened despite ventriculoperitoneal shunt. The patient expired following transition to comfort care. In conclusion, cryptococcal meningitis should be considered as a differential in non-HIV, non-transplant patients on azathioprine presenting with fever and worsening lethargy, and 4-6 weeks of induction therapy is required in this patient group to prevent relapse.
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Sim BZ, Conway L, Smith LK, Fairhead L, Der YS, Payne L, Binotto E, Smith S, Hanson J. The aetiology and clinical characteristics of cryptococcal infections in Far North Queensland, tropical Australia. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0265739. [PMID: 35353860 PMCID: PMC8966997 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0265739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcal infections are an important cause of morbidity and mortality in tropical Australia. This retrospective audit was conducted to characterise the aetiology, temporospatial epidemiology, and clinical course of 49 cryptococcal infections in Far North Queensland between 1 January 1999 and 31 December 2019. Cryptococcus gattii was identified in 15/32 (47%) in whom it was possible to speciate the organism. Among these 15 patients, 13 (87%) had a rural residential address, 10 (67%) were Indigenous Australians and 11 (73%) presented during the May-November dry season. When compared to the 17 patients with Cryptococcus neoformans infection, patients with C. gattii were less likely to be immunocompromised (0/15 versus 8/17 (47%), p = 0.003). Neurosurgery was necessary in 5/15 C. gattii cases and 3/17 (18%) C. neoformans cases (p = 0.42). Outcomes were generally good with 42/49 (86%) cases—and 14/15 (93%) with C. gattii infection—surviving to hospital discharge. These positive outcomes are likely to be explained by the development of standardised treatment guidelines during the study period, low rates of comorbidity in the patients with C. gattii infection and access to liposomal amphotericin and neurosurgical support in the well-resourced Australian healthcare system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice Z. Sim
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Australia
- School of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Luke Conway
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Australia
| | - Laura K. Smith
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Australia
| | - Lee Fairhead
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Australia
| | - Yi Shan Der
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Australia
| | - Lara Payne
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Australia
| | - Enzo Binotto
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Australia
| | - Simon Smith
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Australia
| | - Josh Hanson
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Australia
- Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Tong MX, Hill SA, Romine JF. Disseminated cryptococcosis causing liver dysfunction in a pug. VETERINARY RECORD CASE REPORTS 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/vrc2.366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Miranda X. Tong
- Department of Internal Medicine Animal Referral Centre Auckland New Zealand
- Department of Internal Medicine Queensland Veterinary Specialists North Lakes Queensland Australia
| | - Sarah A. Hill
- Department of Internal Medicine Animal Referral Centre Auckland New Zealand
| | - Jessica F. Romine
- Department of Internal Medicine Animal Referral Centre Auckland New Zealand
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Central Nervous System Cryptococcosis due to Cryptococcus gattii in the Tropics. CURRENT TROPICAL MEDICINE REPORTS 2022; 9:1-7. [PMID: 35378784 PMCID: PMC8967080 DOI: 10.1007/s40475-022-00253-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Tucker M, Sheikh AM, Villanueva MS. Rapidly enlarging pulmonary mass due to immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) in an immunocompetent host with pulmonary Cryptococcus neoformans. BMJ Case Rep 2022; 15:e247495. [PMID: 35351746 PMCID: PMC8966528 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2021-247495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
An immunocompetent man presented with Cryptococcus neoformans disease manifesting as a large pulmonary mass (cryptococcoma). Despite an initial induction course of 4 weeks of liposomal amphotericin B (LAmB), followed by 8 weeks of fluconazole, the cryptococcoma enlarged in size. Ten days into a second course of induction therapy with LAmB and flucytosine, the cryptococcoma markedly increased in size with encroachment on critical vascular structures. Due to concern for immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS), prednisone was added with significant decrease in the size of the mass. To our knowledge, this is the first reported case of pulmonary cryptococcal-IRIS in an immunocompetent host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mollie Tucker
- Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Abdul Majeed Sheikh
- Infectious Diseases, Charlotte Hungerford Hospital, Torrington, Connecticut, USA
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Ke W, Xie Y, Hu Y, Ding H, Fan X, Huang J, Tian X, Zhang B, Xu Y, Liu X, Yang Y, Wang L. A forkhead transcription factor contributes to the regulatory differences of pathogenicity in closely related fungal pathogens. MLIFE 2022; 1:79-91. [PMID: 38818325 PMCID: PMC10989923 DOI: 10.1002/mlf2.12011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans and its sister species Cryptococcus deuterogattii are important human fungal pathogens. Despite their phylogenetically close relationship, these two Cryptococcus pathogens are greatly different in their clinical characteristics. However, the determinants underlying the regulatory differences of their pathogenicity remain largely unknown. Here, we show that the forkhead transcription factor Hcm1 promotes infection in C. neoformans but not in C. deuterogattii. Monitoring in vitro and in vivo fitness outcomes of multiple clinical isolates from the two pathogens indicates that Hcm1 mediates pathogenicity in C. neoformans through its key involvement in oxidative stress defense. By comparison, Hcm1 is not critical for antioxidation in C. deuterogattii. Furthermore, we identified SRX1, which encodes the antioxidant sulfiredoxin, as a conserved target of Hcm1 in two Cryptococcus pathogens. Like HCM1, SRX1 had a greater role in antioxidation in C. neoformans than in C. deuterogattii. Significantly, overexpression of SRX1 can largely rescue the defective pathogenicity caused by the absence of Hcm1 in C. neoformans. Conversely, Srx1 is dispensable for virulence in C. deuterogattii. Overall, our findings demonstrate that the difference in the contribution of the antioxidant sulfiredoxin to oxidative stress defense underlies the Hcm1-mediated regulatory differences of pathogenicity in two closely related pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weixin Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of MicrobiologyChinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
- College of Life SciencesUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Yuyan Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of MicrobiologyChinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
- College of Life SciencesUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Yue Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of MicrobiologyChinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Hao Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of MicrobiologyChinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
- College of Life SciencesUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Xin Fan
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, Beijing Chaoyang HospitalCapital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Jingjing Huang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical CollegeChinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Mechanisms Research and Precision Diagnosis of Invasive Fungal Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical CollegeChinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
- Graduate School, Peking Union Medical CollegeChinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Xiuyun Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of MicrobiologyChinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Baokun Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of New Molecular Diagnosis Technologies for Infectious Disease, Department of BiotechnologyBeijing Institute of Radiation MedicineBeijingChina
| | - Yingchun Xu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical CollegeChinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Mechanisms Research and Precision Diagnosis of Invasive Fungal Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical CollegeChinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Xiao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of MicrobiologyChinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
- College of Life SciencesUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Ying Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of New Molecular Diagnosis Technologies for Infectious Disease, Department of BiotechnologyBeijing Institute of Radiation MedicineBeijingChina
| | - Linqi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of MicrobiologyChinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
- College of Life SciencesUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
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Fungal Infections Other Than Invasive Aspergillosis in COVID-19 Patients. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8010058. [PMID: 35049999 PMCID: PMC8779574 DOI: 10.3390/jof8010058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Invasive fungal disease (IFD) associated with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has focussed predominantly on invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. However, increasingly emergent are non-Aspergillus fungal infections including candidiasis, mucormycosis, pneumocystosis, cryptococcosis, and endemic mycoses. These infections are associated with poor outcomes, and their management is challenged by delayed diagnosis due to similarities of presentation to aspergillosis or to non-specific features in already critically ill patients. There has been a variability in the incidence of different IFDs often related to heterogeneity in patient populations, diagnostic protocols, and definitions used to classify IFD. Here, we summarise and address knowledge gaps related to the epidemiology, risks, diagnosis, and management of COVID-19-associated fungal infections other than aspergillosis.
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Shokouhi S, Hakamifard A. Meningitis Caused by Cryptococcus neoformans in an Apparently Immunocompetent Patient. J Investig Med High Impact Case Rep 2022; 10:23247096221111779. [PMID: 35848079 PMCID: PMC9290167 DOI: 10.1177/23247096221111779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcal meningitis (CM), as a life-threatening opportunistic infection, often is among cases with cell-mediated immunodeficiencies, such as AIDS, hematologic malignancies, and solid organ transplant recipients. Cryptococcal meningitis in healthy individuals is uncommon, and its detection in immunocompetent cases may be tricky because the presentation is generally more indolent than the traditional meningitis presentation, leading to late diagnosis and potential sequels. We present a CM case in an immunocompetent Iranian male patient who was treated successfully.
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Fairhead LJ, Smith S, Sim BZ, Stewart AGA, Stewart JD, Binotto E, Law M, Hanson J. The seasonality of infections in tropical Far North Queensland, Australia: A 21-year retrospective evaluation of the seasonal patterns of six endemic pathogens. PLOS GLOBAL PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 2:e0000506. [PMID: 36962353 PMCID: PMC10021965 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0000506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
An understanding of the seasonality of infections informs public health strategies and assists clinicians in their management of patients with undifferentiated illness. The seasonality of infections is driven by a variety of environmental and human factors; however, the role of individual climatic factors has garnered much attention. This study utilises Poisson regression models to assess the seasonality of six important infections in tropical Australia and their association with climatic factors and severe weather events over a 21-year period. Melioidosis and leptospirosis showed marked wet season predominance, while more cases of rickettsial disease and cryptococcosis were seen in cooler, drier months. Staphylococcus aureus infections were not seasonal, while influenza demonstrated inter-seasonality. The climate did not significantly change during the 21 years of the study period, but the incidence of melioidosis and rickettsial disease increased considerably, highlighting the primacy of other factors-including societal inequality, and the impact of urban expansion-in the incidence of these infections. While anthropogenic climate change poses a threat to the region-and may influence the burden of these infections in the future-this study highlights the fact that, even for seasonal diseases, other factors presently have a greater effect on disease incidence. Public health strategies must also target these broader drivers of infection if they are to be effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee J Fairhead
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
| | - Simon Smith
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
| | - Beatrice Z Sim
- Infectious Diseases Service, Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | | | - James D Stewart
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
| | - Enzo Binotto
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
| | - Matthew Law
- The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Josh Hanson
- Department of Medicine, Cairns Hospital, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
- The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Alimi I, Keku E. Epidemiological Trends for Cryptococcosis in Swaziland (Eswatini), Southern Africa. RESEARCH IDEAS AND OUTCOMES 2021. [DOI: 10.3897/rio.7.e77736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcosis is a fungal disease that is characterized by inflammation of the lungs and central nervous system, and it is commonly associated with HIV/AIDS. Even though the disease accounts for roughly 15% of all AIDS-related deaths, it is relatively neglected. This is most especially true in Southern Africa which has the highest HIV/AIDS cases in the world and accounts for more than 10% of all HIV/AIDS cases worldwide most especially in Southern African countries such as Swaziland (Eswatini) which has the highest HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate in the world. Despite this, there are little or no previous studies with regards to the epidemiological trends for cryptococcosis in Swaziland (Eswatini) which further suggests that it is relatively neglected. With the increasing spread of virulent strains of the fungus such as Cryptococcus gattii causing outbreaks in several countries around the world, it is important to have a concrete understanding of the epidemiological trends for cryptococcosis in Swaziland (Eswatini). This is also important during the current coronavirus outbreak as previous studies have reported higher morbidity and mortality rates among COVID-19 patients that are also co-infected with HIV/AIDS, cryptococcus as well as other secondary infections. This is further supported by the fact that Southern Africa has the highest number of COVID-19 cases in Africa as well as one of the highest in the world. As a result, the purpose of this study is to determine the epidemiological trends for cryptococcosis in Swaziland (Eswatini) as this will enable adequate control, management, assessment, policies, and regulations that will be useful during outbreaks. This will be achieved by performing a repeated cross-sectional study to determine the epidemiological changes and trends for cryptococcosis in Swaziland (Eswatini) over a 5-year period from 2023 to 2028.
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Gnat S, Łagowski D, Nowakiewicz A, Dyląg M. A global view on fungal infections in humans and animals: opportunistic infections and microsporidioses. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 131:2095-2113. [PMID: 33556223 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
After cardiovascular diseases, infectious diseases are the second most common cause of death worldwide. Although these infections are caused mainly by viruses or bacteria, a systematically growing prevalence of human and animal opportunistic fungal infections is noticeable worldwide. More attention is being paid to this problem, especially due to the growing frequency of recalcitrant and recurrent mycoses. The latter are classically divided into superficial, which are the most common type, subcutaneous, and systemic. This work discusses opportunistic fungal pathogens without proven horizontal transmission between different animal species including humans and microsporidia as spore-forming unicellular parasites related to fungi; however, with a yet undetermined taxonomic position. The review also mentions aetiological agents, risk factors, epidemiology, geographical distribution, and finally symptoms characteristic for individual disease entities. This paper provides insight into fungal infections from a global perspective and simultaneously draws attention to emerging pathogens, whose prevalence is continuously increasing. Finally, this work also takes into consideration the correct nomenclature of fungal disease entities and the importance of secondary metabolites in the pathogenesis of fungal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Gnat
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - D Łagowski
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - A Nowakiewicz
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - M Dyląg
- Department of Mycology and Genetics, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Institute of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland
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Nascimento E, Barião PHG, Kress MRVZ, Vilar FC, Santana RDC, Gaspar GG, Martinez R. Cryptococcosis by Cryptococcus neoformans/Cryptococcus gattii Species Complexes in non-HIV-Infected Patients in Southeastern Brazil. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2021; 54:e01692021. [PMID: 34495255 PMCID: PMC8437442 DOI: 10.1590/0037-8682-0169-2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION: The clinical manifestations of cryptococcosis are usually associated with the infecting agents Cryptococcus neoformans (CN) and C. gattii (CG) species complexes and the host. In this study, non-HIV-infected patients, at a university hospital in southeastern Brazil, had epidemiological and clinical data associated with cryptococcal disease and isolated Cryptococcus species: CN - 24 patients and CG - 12 patients. METHODS: The comparison was comprised of demographic data, predisposing factors, clinical and laboratory manifestations, and outcomes of cryptococcosis patients treated between 2000 and 2016. Immunocompetent and immunosuppressed patients were also compared, irrespective of the infecting species. Cryptococcus spp. were genotyped by PCR-RFLP analysis of the URA5 gene. RESULTS: Infections by the CN species complex (100% VNI genotype) were associated with drug immunosuppression and fungemia, and patients infected with the CG species complex (83% VG II and 17% VGI genotypes) had more evident environmental exposure and higher humoral response. CN and CG affected patients with or without comorbidities. CONCLUSIONS: Diabetes mellitus, other chronic non-infectious diseases, and alcoholism were likely predisposing factors for infection by both CN and CG species. Immunocompetent patients, independent of the infecting Cryptococcus species complexes, showed a higher occurrence of meningitis and a trend toward less fungal dissemination and longer survival than immunosuppressed hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Nascimento
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - Patrícia Helena Grizante Barião
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - Marcia Regina von Zeska Kress
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - Fernando Crivelenti Vilar
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - Rodrigo de Carvalho Santana
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - Gilberto Gambero Gaspar
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - Roberto Martinez
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
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Cortez de Almeida RF, Daxbacher ELR, Fonte Boa MA, Halpern M, Campos CV, Jeunon T. Erythematous Infiltrated Plaque in the Arm: Answer. Am J Dermatopathol 2021; 43:667-669. [PMID: 34411019 DOI: 10.1097/dad.0000000000001890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Márcia Halpern
- Infectology Department, Hospital Federal de Bonsucesso, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Infectology Department, Hospital Universitário Clementino Fraga Filho, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ; and
| | | | - Thiago Jeunon
- Dermatology Department, Hospital Federal de Bonsucesso, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- ID-Investigação em Dermatologia, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Maciey S, Maria CS, Oshima S, Newberry JA. Cryptococcus gattii Meningitis in a Previously Healthy Young Woman: A Case Report. Clin Pract Cases Emerg Med 2021; 5:345-349. [PMID: 34437044 PMCID: PMC8373182 DOI: 10.5811/cpcem.2021.5.52344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cryptococcus gattii (C. gatti) is a rare cause of meningitis in the United States. Outbreaks in new geographic distributions in the past few decades raise concern that climate change may be contributing to a broader distribution of this pathogen. We review a case of C. gattii in a 23-year-old woman in Northern California who was diagnosed via lumbar puncture after six weeks of headache, blurred vision, and tinnitus. CASE REPORT A 23-year-old previously healthy young woman presented to the emergency department (ED) after multiple visits to primary care, other EDs, and neurologists, for several weeks of headache, nausea, tinnitus, and blurred vision. On examination the patient was found to have a cranial nerve VI palsy (impaired abduction of the left eye) and bilateral papilledema on exam. Lumbar puncture had a significantly elevated opening pressure. Cerebrospinal fluid studies were positive for C. gattii. The patient was treated with serial lumbar punctures, followed by lumbar drain, as well as amphotericin and flucytosine. The patient had improvement in headache and neurologic symptoms and was discharged to another facility that specializes in management of this disease to undergo further treatment with immunomodulators and steroids. CONCLUSION Fungal meningitis is uncommon in the US, particularly among immunocompetent patients. Due to climate change, C. gattii may be a new pathogen to consider. This finding raises important questions to the medical community about the way global climate change affects day to day medical care now, and how it may change in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarabeth Maciey
- Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford Health Care, Department of Emergency Medicine, Palo Alto, California
| | - Chloe Santa Maria
- Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford Comprehensive Otolaryngology Clinic, Department of Otolaryngology, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California
| | - Sachie Oshima
- Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford Health Care, Department of Emergency Medicine, Palo Alto, California
| | - Jennifer A Newberry
- Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford Health Care, Department of Emergency Medicine, Palo Alto, California
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Nassar Tobón AC, Rivera Rojas NJ, Pulido Correa MA, León Rivera LA. Cryptococosis meníngea y el sistema inmune. A Propósito de un Caso. REVISTA CUARZO 2021. [DOI: 10.26752/cuarzo.v27.n1.518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Vanherp L, Govaerts K, Riva M, Poelmans J, Coosemans A, Lagrou K, Gsell W, Vande Velde G, Himmelreich U. CryptoCEST: A promising tool for spatially resolved identification of fungal brain lesions and their differentiation from brain tumors with MRI. NEUROIMAGE-CLINICAL 2021; 31:102737. [PMID: 34225021 PMCID: PMC8261661 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2021.102737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The fungal disaccharide trehalose generates a concentration-dependent CEST MRI contrast. CEST MRI can detect endogenous trehalose in Cryptococcus neoformans and C. gattii cells. This enables spatially resolved identification of fungal lesions in the mouse brain. The CryptoCEST contrast can differentiate cryptococcal brain lesions from gliomas. CryptoCEST holds potential for non-invasive differential diagnosis of cryptococcomas.
Infectious brain lesions caused by the pathogenic fungi Cryptococcus neoformans and C. gattii, also referred to as cryptococcomas, could be diagnosed incorrectly as cystic brain tumors if only based on conventional magnetic resonance (MR) images. Previous MR spectroscopy (MRS) studies showed high local concentrations of the fungal disaccharide trehalose in cryptococcomas. The aim of this study was to detect and localize fungal brain lesions caused by Cryptococcus species based on Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer (CEST) MR imaging of endogenous trehalose, and hereby to distinguish cryptococcomas from gliomas. In phantoms, trehalose and cryptococcal cells generated a concentration-dependent CEST contrast in the 0.2 – 2 ppm chemical shift range, similar to glucose, but approximately twice as strong. In vivo single voxel MRS of a murine cryptococcoma model confirmed the presence of trehalose in cryptococcomas, but mainly for lesions that were large enough compared to the size of the MRS voxel. With CEST MRI, combining the more specific CEST signal at 0.7 ppm with the higher signal-to-noise ratio signal at 4 ppm in the CryptoCEST contrast enabled localization and distinction of cryptococcomas from the normal brain and from gliomas, even for lesions smaller than 1 mm3. Thanks to the high endogenous concentration of the fungal biomarker trehalose in cryptococcal cells, the CryptoCEST contrast allowed identification of cryptococcomas with high spatial resolution and differentiation from gliomas in mice. Furthermore, the CryptoCEST contrast was tested to follow up antifungal treatment of cryptococcomas. Translation of this non-invasive method to the clinic holds potential for improving the differential diagnosis and follow-up of cryptococcal infections in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liesbeth Vanherp
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Kristof Govaerts
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Matteo Riva
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncology, Leuven Cancer Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosurgery, Mont-Godinne Hospital, UCL Namur, Yvoir, Belgium
| | - Jennifer Poelmans
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - An Coosemans
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncology, Leuven Cancer Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Katrien Lagrou
- Laboratory of Clinical Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; National Reference Centre for Mycosis, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Willy Gsell
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Greetje Vande Velde
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Uwe Himmelreich
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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Cuetara MS, Jusdado Ruiz-Capillas JJ, Nuñez-Valentin MP, Rodríguez Garcia E, Garcia-Benayas E, Rojo-Amigo R, Rodriguez-Gallego JC, Hagen F, Colom MF. Successful Isavuconazole Salvage Therapy for a Cryptococcus deuterogattii (AFLP6/VGII) Disseminated Infection in a European Immunocompetent Patient. Mycopathologia 2021; 186:507-518. [PMID: 34115285 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-021-00566-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Members of the Cryptococcus gattii species complex are notorious causes of cryptococcosis as they often cause severe, life-threatening infections. Here we describe a case of a severe disseminated C. deuterogattii infection in a previously healthy patient who was initially treated with amphotericin B, 5-fluorocytosine and fluconazole, which led to a good neurological response, but the infection in the lungs remained unaltered and was not completely resolved until switching the antifungal therapy to isavuconazole. The infection was likely acquired during a one-month stay at the Azores Islands, Portugal. Environmental sampling did not yield any cryptococcal isolate; therefore, the source of this apparent autochthonous case could not be determined. Molecular typing showed that the cultured C. deuterogattii isolates were closely related to the Vancouver Island outbreak-genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Soledad Cuetara
- Department of Microbiology, Hospital Universitario Severo Ochoa, Avda. de Orellana S/N. 28914, Leganés, Madrid, Spain.
| | | | | | | | - Elena Garcia-Benayas
- Department of Pharmacy, Hospital Universitario Severo Ochoa, Leganés, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ricardo Rojo-Amigo
- Department of Immunology, Hospital Materno-Infantil-CHUAC, La Coruña, Spain
| | | | - Ferry Hagen
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Laboratory of Medical Mycology, Jining No. 1 People's Hospital, Jining, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - María Francisca Colom
- Medical Mycology Laboratory, Department of Plant Production and Microbiology, University Miguel Hernández, Campus of Sant Joan D'Alacant, 03550, Alicante, Spain. .,Institute for Healthcare and Biomedical Research of Alicante, Isabial, Spain.
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Fisher KM, Montrief T, Ramzy M, Koyfman A, Long B. Cryptococcal meningitis: a review for emergency clinicians. Intern Emerg Med 2021; 16:1031-1042. [PMID: 33420904 DOI: 10.1007/s11739-020-02619-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cryptococcal Meningitis (CM) remains a high-risk clinical condition, and many patients require emergency department (ED) management for complications and stabilization. OBJECTIVE This narrative review provides an evidence-based summary of the current data for the emergency medicine evaluation and management of CM. DISCUSSION This review evaluates the diagnosis, management, and empiric treatment of suspected CM in the ED. CM can easily evade diagnosis with a subacute presentation, and should be considered in any patient with a headache, neurological deficit, or who is immunocompromised. As a definitive diagnosis of CM will not be made in the ED, management of a patient with suspected CM includes prompt diagnostic testing and initiation of empiric treatment. Multiple types of newer Cryptococcal antigen tests provide high sensitivity and specificity both in serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Patients should be treated empirically for bacterial, fungal, and viral meningitis, specifically with amphotericin B and flucytosine for presumed CM. Additionally, appropriate resuscitation and supportive care, including advanced airway management, management of increased intracranial pressure (ICP), antipyretics, intravenous fluids, and isolation, should be initiated. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) should not be initiated in the ED for those found or known to be HIV-positive for risk of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS). CONCLUSIONS CM remains a rare clinical presentation, but carries significant morbidity and mortality. Physicians must rapidly diagnose these patients while evaluating for other diseases and complications. Early consultation with an infectious disease specialist is imperative, as is initiating symptomatic care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Marie Fisher
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Tim Montrief
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, 3550 Terrace St., Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Mark Ramzy
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, 3550 Terrace St., Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Alex Koyfman
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Brit Long
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Brooke Army Medical Center, 3841 Roger Brooke Dr, Fort Sam Houston, TX, 78234, USA.
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Abstract
Cryptococcosis is an invasive fungal infection of global significance caused by yeasts of the genus Cryptococcus. The prevalence of HIV in certain areas of the world and the expanding population of immunocompromised patients contribute to the ongoing global disease burden. Point-of-care serologic testing has allowed for more rapid diagnosis and implementation of screening programs in resource-limited settings. Management involves therapy aimed at reduction in fungal burden, maintenance of intracranial pressure, and optimization of host immunity. Despite diagnostic and therapeutic advances, cryptococcosis continues to be a disease with unacceptably high incidence and mortality, particularly in resource-limited settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis C Gushiken
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 725 West Lombard Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Kapil K Saharia
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 725 West Lombard Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - John W Baddley
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 725 West Lombard Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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Tsai ST, Lin FY, Chen PS, Chiang HY, Kuo CC. Three-year mortality in cryptococcal meningitis: Hyperglycemia predict unfavorable outcome. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0251749. [PMID: 34048463 PMCID: PMC8162582 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0251749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Existing evidence revealed grave prognosis for cryptococcal meningitis (CM), particularly its short-term mortality. However, its long-term survival and prognostic factors remained unknown. This study investigated 3-year mortality and analyzed its predictive factors in patients with CM. This retrospective cohort study with 83 cerebrospinal fluid culture-confirmed CM patients was conducted at China Medical University Hospital from 2003 to 2016. The 3-year mortality rate in patients with CM was 54% (45 deaths among 83 patients). Advanced age, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) seronegative state, low Glasgow Coma Scale score on admission, decreased hemoglobin and hyperglycemia on diagnosis were associated with 3-year mortality. After multivariate adjustment in the Cox proportional hazard model, only severe hyperglycemia (serum glucose ≥200 mg/dL) on diagnosis could predict 3-year mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Ta Tsai
- Department of Neurology, China Medical University Hospital and College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Fu-Yu Lin
- Department of Neurology, China Medical University Hospital and College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
| | - Pei-Shan Chen
- Big Data Center, China Medical University Hospital and College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hsiu-Yin Chiang
- Big Data Center, China Medical University Hospital and College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Chi Kuo
- Big Data Center, China Medical University Hospital and College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, China Medical University Hospital and College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
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Erturk Sengel B, Tukenmez Tigen E, Can Sarinoglu R, Midi I, Cerikcioglu N, Odabasi Z. Cryptococcus meningitis presented with multiple cerebral infarcts in an immunocompetent patient. IDCases 2021; 24:e01154. [PMID: 34026541 PMCID: PMC8131984 DOI: 10.1016/j.idcr.2021.e01154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans is generally observed with immunosuppressive conditions. Rarely, it may be seen in immunocompetent individuals and presented with non-specific conditions. We described an immunocompetent case of cryptococcal meningitis presented with multiple cerebral infarcts. Despite the late diagnosis and emergence of hydrocephalus during treatment, the patient was recovered without any sequelae. In immunocompetent patients, the conventional diagnostics tests may be negative because of the low fungal load. If it is available, the Biofire FilmArray meningitis panel has high sensitivity and specificity for diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Buket Erturk Sengel
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Infectious Disease and Clinical Microbiology, Istanbul, Turkey
- Corresponding author at: Marmara Üniversitesi Pendik Eğitim ve Araştırma Hastanesi, Fevzi Çakmak Mah. Muhsin Yazıcıoğlu Cad. No:10, Pendik, İstanbul, Turkey.
| | - Elif Tukenmez Tigen
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Infectious Disease and Clinical Microbiology, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Rabia Can Sarinoglu
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Medical Microbiology, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ipek Midi
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Neurology, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Nilgun Cerikcioglu
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Medical Microbiology, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Zekaver Odabasi
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Infectious Disease and Clinical Microbiology, Istanbul, Turkey
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45
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de Sousa HR, de Frazão S, de Oliveira Júnior GP, Albuquerque P, Nicola AM. Cryptococcal Virulence in Humans: Learning From Translational Studies With Clinical Isolates. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:657502. [PMID: 33968804 PMCID: PMC8097041 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.657502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcosis, an invasive mycosis caused by Cryptococcus spp, kills between 20% and 70% of the patients who develop it. There are no vaccines for prevention, and treatment is based on a limited number of antifungals. Studying fungal virulence and how the host responds to infection could lead to new therapies, improving outcomes for patients. The biggest challenge, however, is that experimental cryptococcosis models do not completely recapitulate human disease, while human experiments are limited due to ethical reasons. To overcome this challenge, one of the approaches used by researchers and clinicians is to: 1) collect cryptococcal clinical isolates and associated patient data; 2) study the set of isolates in the laboratory (virulence and host-pathogen interaction variables, molecular markers); 3) correlate the laboratory and patient data to understand the roles fungal attributes play in the human disease. Here we review studies that have shed light on the cryptococcosis pathophysiology using these approaches, with a special focus on human disease. Isolates that more effectively evade macrophage responses, that secrete more laccase, melanize faster and have larger capsules in the cerebrospinal fluid are associated with poorer patient outcomes. Additionally, molecular studies have also shown that cryptococcal clades vary in virulence, with clinical impact. Limitations of those studies include the use of a small number of isolates or retrospectively collected clinical data. The fact that they resulted in very important information is a reflection of the impact this strategy has in understanding cryptococcosis and calls for international collaboration that could boost our knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herdson Renney de Sousa
- Microbiology, Immunology and Biotechnology Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Stefânia de Frazão
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Pathogenic Fungi, Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Getúlio Pereira de Oliveira Júnior
- Division of Allergy and Inflammation, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Patrícia Albuquerque
- Microbiology, Immunology and Biotechnology Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Pathogenic Fungi, Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
- Faculty of Ceilândia, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - André Moraes Nicola
- Microbiology, Immunology and Biotechnology Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Genomic Sciences and Biotechnology, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
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46
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Vanherp L, Poelmans J, Weerasekera A, Hillen A, Croitor-Sava AR, Sorrell TC, Lagrou K, Vande Velde G, Himmelreich U. Trehalose as quantitative biomarker for in vivo diagnosis and treatment follow-up in cryptococcomas. Transl Res 2021; 230:111-122. [PMID: 33166695 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2020.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Revised: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Brain lesions caused by Cryptococcus neoformans or C. gattii (cryptococcomas) are typically difficult to diagnose correctly and treat effectively, but rapid differential diagnosis and treatment initiation are crucial for good outcomes. In previous studies, cultured cryptococcal isolates and ex vivo lesion material contained high concentrations of the virulence factor and fungal metabolite trehalose. Here, we studied the in vivo metabolic profile of cryptococcomas in the brain using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and assessed the relationship between trehalose concentration, fungal burden, and treatment response in order to validate its suitability as marker for early and noninvasive diagnosis and its potential to monitor treatment in vivo. We investigated the metabolites present in early and late stage cryptococcomas using in vivo 1H MRS in a murine model and evaluated changes in trehalose concentrations induced by disease progression and antifungal treatment. Animal data were compared to 1H and 13C MR spectra of Cryptococcus cultures and in vivo data from 2 patients with cryptococcomas in the brain. In vivo MRS allowed the noninvasive detection of high concentrations of trehalose in cryptococcomas and showed a comparable metabolic profile of cryptococcomas in the murine model and human cases. Trehalose concentrations correlated strongly with the fungal burden. Treatment studies in cultures and animal models showed that trehalose concentrations decrease following exposure to effective antifungal therapy. Although further cases need to be studied for clinical validation, this translational study indicates that the noninvasive MRS-based detection of trehalose is a promising marker for diagnosis and therapeutic follow-up of cryptococcomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liesbeth Vanherp
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jennifer Poelmans
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Akila Weerasekera
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; A.A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School (MGH/HMS), Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Amy Hillen
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anca R Croitor-Sava
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; STADIUS, Department of Electrical Engineering (ESAT), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Tania C Sorrell
- Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, University of Sydney, and Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Sydney, Australia
| | - Katrien Lagrou
- Laboratory of Clinical Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; National Reference Centre for Mycosis, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Greetje Vande Velde
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Uwe Himmelreich
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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47
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The interplay of phenotype and genotype in Cryptococcus neoformans disease. Biosci Rep 2021; 40:226594. [PMID: 33021310 PMCID: PMC7569153 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20190337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans is an opportunistic fungal pathogen that causes life-threatening meningitis primarily in immunocompromised individuals. In order to survive and proliferate during infection, C. neoformans must adapt to a variety of stresses it encounters within the host. Patient outcome depends on the interaction between the pathogen and the host. Understanding the mechanisms that C. neoformans uses to facilitate adaptation to the host and promote pathogenesis is necessary to better predict disease severity and establish proper treatment. Several virulence phenotypes have been characterized in C. neoformans, but the field still lacks a complete understanding of how genotype and phenotype contribute to clinical outcome. Furthermore, while it is known that C. neoformans genotype impacts patient outcome, the mechanisms remain unknown. This lack of understanding may be due to the genetic heterogeneity of C. neoformans and the extensive phenotypic variation observed between and within isolates during infection. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of how the various genotypes and phenotypes observed in C. neoformans correlate with human disease progression in the context of patient outcome and recurrence. We also postulate the mechanisms underlying the genetic and phenotypic changes that occur in vivo to promote rapid adaptation in the host.
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Baddley JW, Chen SCA, Huisingh C, Benedict K, DeBess EE, Galanis E, Jackson BR, MacDougall L, Marsden-Haug N, Oltean H, Perfect JR, Phillips P, Sorrell TC, Pappas PG. MSG07: An International Cohort Study Comparing Epidemiology and Outcomes of Patients with Cryptococcus neoformans or Cryptococcus gattii infections. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73:1133-1141. [PMID: 33772538 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciab268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cryptococcosis due to Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii varies with geographic region, populations affected, disease manifestations and severity of infection, which impact treatment. METHODS We developed a retrospective cohort of patients diagnosed with culture-proven cryptococcosis during 1995-2013 from five centers in North America and Australia. We compared underlying diseases, clinical manifestations, treatment and outcomes in patients with C. gattii or C. neoformans infection. RESULTS A total of 709 patients (452 C. neoformans; 257 C. gattii) were identified. Mean age was 50.2 years; 61.4% were male; and 52.3% were Caucasian. Time to diagnosis was prolonged in C. gattii patients compared with C. neoformans (mean 52.2 vs 36.0 days; p<0.003) and there was a higher proportion of C. gattii patients without underlying disease (40.5% vs 10.2%; p<0.0001). Overall, 59% had central nervous system (CNS) infection, with lung (42.5%) and blood (24.5%) being common sites. Pulmonary infection was more common in patients with C. gattii than those with C. neoformans (60.7% vs 32.1%; p<0.0001). CNS or blood infections were more common in C. neoformans-infected patients (p≤0.0001 for both). Treatment of CNS disease with induction therapy of amphotericin B and flucytosine occurred in 76.4% of patients. Crude 12-month mortality was higher in patients with C neoformans (28.4% vs 20.2%; Odds Ratio 1.56; 95% CI 1.08, 2.26). CONCLUSIONS This study emphasizes differences in species-specific epidemiology and outcomes of patients with cryptococcosis, including underlying diseases, site of infection and mortality. Species identification in patients with cryptococcosis is necessary to discern epidemiologic patterns, guide treatment regimens and predict clinical progression and outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Baddley
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sharon C-A Chen
- Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Laboratory Services, Institute of Clinical Pathology and Medical Research, Westmead Hospital, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Carrie Huisingh
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Kaitlin Benedict
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | - Eleni Galanis
- University of British Columbia, School of Population and Public Health, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | | | - Laura MacDougall
- British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | | | - Hanna Oltean
- Washington State Department of Health, Olympia, Washington, USA
| | - John R Perfect
- Duke University Medical Center, Department of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Peter Phillips
- University of British Columbia, School of Population and Public Health, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,St Paul's Hospital, Department of Medicine, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Tania C Sorrell
- Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Laboratory Services, Institute of Clinical Pathology and Medical Research, Westmead Hospital, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Infectious Diseases Group, Sydney, Australia
| | - Peter G Pappas
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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Paccoud O, Bougnoux ME, Desnos-Ollivier M, Varet B, Lortholary O, Lanternier F. Cryptococcus gattii in Patients with Lymphoid Neoplasms: An Illustration of Evolutive Host-Fungus Interactions. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:212. [PMID: 33809570 PMCID: PMC8001097 DOI: 10.3390/jof7030212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent outbreaks of Cryptococcus gattii (CG) infections in North America have sparked renewed interest in the pathogenic potential of CG, and have underscored notable differences with Cryptococcus neoformans in terms of geographic distribution, pathogen virulence, and host susceptibility. While cases of CG are increasingly reported in patients with a wide variety of underlying conditions, only very few have been reported in patients with lymphoid neoplasms. Herein, we report a case of autochthonous CG meningitis in a patient receiving ibrutinib for chronic lymphocytic leukemia in France, and review available data on the clinical epidemiology of CG infections in patients with lymphoid neoplasms. We also summarise recent data on the host responses to CG infection, as well as the potential management pitfalls associated with its treatment in the haematological setting. The clinical epidemiology, clinical presentation, and course of disease during infections caused by CG involve complex interactions between environmental exposure to CG, infecting genotype, pathogen virulence factors, host susceptibility, and host immune responses. Future treatment guidelines should address the challenges associated with the management of antifungal treatments in the onco-haematological setting and the potential drug-drug interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Paccoud
- University of Paris, Necker-Pasteur Center for Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Necker-Enfants Malades University Hospital, Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), 75015 Paris, France; (O.P.); (O.L.)
| | - Marie-Elisabeth Bougnoux
- University of Paris, Department of Mycology, Necker-Enfants Malades University Hospital, Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), 75015 Paris, France;
| | - Marie Desnos-Ollivier
- Molecular Mycology Unit, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), National Reference Center for Invasive Mycoses & Antifungals (NRCMA), Pasteur Institute, UMR2000, 75015 Paris, France;
| | - Bruno Varet
- University of Paris, Department of Hematology, Necker-Enfants Malades University Hospital, Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), 75015 Paris, France;
| | - Olivier Lortholary
- University of Paris, Necker-Pasteur Center for Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Necker-Enfants Malades University Hospital, Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), 75015 Paris, France; (O.P.); (O.L.)
- Molecular Mycology Unit, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), National Reference Center for Invasive Mycoses & Antifungals (NRCMA), Pasteur Institute, UMR2000, 75015 Paris, France;
| | - Fanny Lanternier
- University of Paris, Necker-Pasteur Center for Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Necker-Enfants Malades University Hospital, Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), 75015 Paris, France; (O.P.); (O.L.)
- Molecular Mycology Unit, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), National Reference Center for Invasive Mycoses & Antifungals (NRCMA), Pasteur Institute, UMR2000, 75015 Paris, France;
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50
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Yoon HA, Felsen U, Wang T, Pirofski LA. Cryptococcus neoformans infection in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-infected and HIV-uninfected patients at an inner-city tertiary care hospital in the Bronx. Med Mycol 2021; 58:434-443. [PMID: 31342058 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myz082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Revised: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans causes life-threatening meningoencephalitis. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is the most significant predisposing condition, but persons with other immunodeficiency states as well as phenotypically normal persons develop cryptococcosis. We retrospectively reviewed medical records of all patients with a diagnosis of cryptococcosis between 2005 and 2017 at our inner-city medical center in the Bronx, an epicenter of AIDS in New York City, and analyzed demographic data, clinical manifestations, laboratory findings, treatment, and mortality for these patients. In sum, 63% of the cases over this 12-year period occurred in HIV-infected patients. And 61% of the HIV-infected patients were non-adherent with antiretroviral therapy, 10% were newly diagnosed with AIDS, and 4% had unmasking cryptococcus-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. The majority were Hispanic or black in ethnicity/race. HIV-uninfected patients (47/126) were older (P < .0001), and the majority had an immunocompromising condition. They were less likely to have a headache (P = .0004) or fever (P = .03), had prolonged time to diagnosis (P = .04), higher cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) glucose levels (P = .001), less CSF culture positivity (P = .03), and a higher 30-day mortality (P = .03). Cases in HIV-uninfected patients were often unsuspected during their initial evaluation, leading to a delay in infectious diseases consultation, which was associated with mortality (P = .03). Our study indicates that HIV infection remains the most important predisposing factor for cryptococcosis despite availability of antiretroviral therapy and highlights potential missed opportunities for earlier diagnosis and differences in clinical and prognostic factors between HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Ah Yoon
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Uriel Felsen
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Tao Wang
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Liise-Anne Pirofski
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
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