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Van Royen T, Rossey I, Sedeyn K, Schepens B, Saelens X. How RSV Proteins Join Forces to Overcome the Host Innate Immune Response. Viruses 2022; 14:v14020419. [PMID: 35216012 PMCID: PMC8874859 DOI: 10.3390/v14020419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of severe acute lower respiratory tract infections in infants worldwide. Although several pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) can sense RSV-derived pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), infection with RSV is typically associated with low to undetectable levels of type I interferons (IFNs). Multiple RSV proteins can hinder the host’s innate immune response. The main players are NS1 and NS2 which suppress type I IFN production and signalling in multiple ways. The recruitment of innate immune cells and the production of several cytokines are reduced by RSV G. Next, RSV N can sequester immunostimulatory proteins to inclusion bodies (IBs). N might also facilitate the assembly of a multiprotein complex that is responsible for the negative regulation of innate immune pathways. Furthermore, RSV M modulates the host’s innate immune response. The nuclear accumulation of RSV M has been linked to an impaired host gene transcription, in particular for nuclear-encoded mitochondrial proteins. In addition, RSV M might also directly target mitochondrial proteins which results in a reduced mitochondrion-mediated innate immune recognition of RSV. Lastly, RSV SH might prolong the viral replication in infected cells and influence cytokine production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessa Van Royen
- VIB-UGent Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (T.V.R.); (I.R.); (K.S.); (B.S.)
- Department for Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Iebe Rossey
- VIB-UGent Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (T.V.R.); (I.R.); (K.S.); (B.S.)
- Department for Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Koen Sedeyn
- VIB-UGent Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (T.V.R.); (I.R.); (K.S.); (B.S.)
- Department for Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Bert Schepens
- VIB-UGent Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (T.V.R.); (I.R.); (K.S.); (B.S.)
- Department for Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Xavier Saelens
- VIB-UGent Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (T.V.R.); (I.R.); (K.S.); (B.S.)
- Department for Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Correspondence:
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Li Y, Xiao J, Tan Y, Wang J, Zhang Y, Deng X, Luo Y. Inhibition of PKR ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury by suppressing NF-κB pathway in mice. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2017; 39:165-172. [PMID: 28511573 DOI: 10.1080/08923973.2017.1303839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Acute lung injury (ALI) is characterized by dramatic lung inflammation and alveolar epithelial cell death. Although protein kinase R (PKR) (double-stranded RNA-activated serine/threonine kinase) has been implicated in inflammatory response to bacterial cell wall components, whether it plays roles in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI remains unclear. This study was aimed to reveal whether and how PKR was involved in LPS-induced ALI pathology and the potential effects of its specific inhibitor, C16 (C13H8N4OS). During the experiment, mice received C16 (100 or 500 ug/kg) intraperitoneally 1 h before intratracheal LPS instillation. Then, whole lung lavage was collected for analysis of total protein levels and proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-6. The lungs were tested for Western blot, transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) stain and immunohistochemistry. Results showed that PKR phosphorylation increased significantly after LPS instillation. Furthermore, PKR specific inhibition attenuated LPS-induced lung injury (hematoxylin and eosin stain), reduced lung protein permeability (total protein levels in whole lung lavage) and suppressed proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) and lung apoptosis (TUNEL stain and caspase3 activation). Moreover, mechanism-study showed that C16 significantly suppressed I kappa B kinase (IKK)/I kappa B alpha (IκBα)/NF-κB signaling pathway after LPS challenge. These findings suggested that PKR inhibition ameliorated LPS-induced lung inflammation and apoptosis in mice by suppressing NF-κB signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinjiao Li
- a Department of Anesthesiology , Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai , China
| | - Jinglei Xiao
- a Department of Anesthesiology , Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai , China
| | - Yongchang Tan
- a Department of Anesthesiology , Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai , China
| | - Jun Wang
- b Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care , Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University , Shanghai , China
| | - Yan Zhang
- b Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care , Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University , Shanghai , China
| | - Xiaoming Deng
- b Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care , Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University , Shanghai , China
| | - Yan Luo
- a Department of Anesthesiology , Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai , China
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Hashimoto S, Yamamoto S, Ogasawara N, Sato T, Yamamoto K, Katoh H, Kubota T, Shiraishi T, Kojima T, Himi T, Tsutsumi H, Yokota SI. Mumps Virus Induces Protein-Kinase-R-Dependent Stress Granules, Partly Suppressing Type III Interferon Production. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0161793. [PMID: 27560627 PMCID: PMC4999214 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress granules (SGs) are cytoplasmic granular aggregations that are induced by cellular stress, including viral infection. SGs have opposing antiviral and proviral roles, which depend on virus species. The exact function of SGs during viral infection is not fully understood. Here, we showed that mumps virus (MuV) induced SGs depending on activation of protein kinase R (PKR). MuV infection strongly induced interferon (IFN)-λ1, 2 and 3, and IFN-β through activation of IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) via retinoic acid inducible gene-I (RIG-I) and the mitochondrial antiviral signaling (MAVS) pathway. MuV-induced IFNs were strongly upregulated in PKR-knockdown cells. MuV-induced SG formation was suppressed by knockdown of PKR and SG marker proteins, Ras-GTPase-activating protein SH3-domain-binding protein 1 and T-cell-restricted intracellular antigen-1, and significantly increased the levels of MuV-induced IFN-λ1. However, viral titer was not altered by suppression of SG formation. PKR was required for induction of SGs by MuV infection and regulated type III IFN (IFN-λ1) mRNA stability. MuV-induced SGs partly suppressed type III IFN production by MuV; however, the limited suppression was not sufficient to inhibit MuV replication in cell culture. Our results provide insight into the relationship between SGs and IFN production induced by MuV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin Hashimoto
- Department of Pediatrics, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Soh Yamamoto
- Department of Microbiology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Noriko Ogasawara
- Department of Microbiology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Toyotaka Sato
- Department of Microbiology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Keisuke Yamamoto
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Katoh
- Department of Virology III, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Toru Kubota
- Department of Virology III, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tsukasa Shiraishi
- Department of Pediatrics, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Takashi Kojima
- Department of Cell Science, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Tetsuo Himi
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Tsutsumi
- Department of Pediatrics, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Shin-ichi Yokota
- Department of Microbiology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
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Makris S, Bajorek M, Culley FJ, Goritzka M, Johansson C. Alveolar Macrophages Can Control Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection in the Absence of Type I Interferons. J Innate Immun 2016; 8:452-63. [PMID: 27423203 PMCID: PMC5322584 DOI: 10.1159/000446824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a common cause of lower respiratory tract infections. Immunity to RSV is initiated upon detection of the virus by pattern recognition receptors, such as RIG-I-like receptors. RIG-I-like receptors signal via MAVS to induce the synthesis of proinflammatory mediators, including type I interferons (IFNs), which trigger and shape antiviral responses and protect cells from infection. Alveolar macrophages (AMs) are amongst the first cells to encounter invading viruses and the ones producing type I IFNs. However, it is unclear whether IFNs act to prevent AMs from serving as vehicles for viral replication. In this study, primary AMs from MAVS (Mavs-/-)- or type I IFN receptor (Ifnar1-/-)-deficient mice were exposed to RSV ex vivo. Wild-type (wt) AMs but not Mavs-/- and Ifnar1-/- AMs produced inflammatory mediators in response to RSV. Furthermore, Mavs-/- and Ifnar1-/- AMs accumulated more RSV proteins than wt AMs, but the infection was abortive. Thus, RIG-I-like receptor-MAVS and IFNAR signalling are important for the induction of proinflammatory mediators from AMs upon RSV infection, but this signalling is not central for controlling viral replication. The ability to restrict viral replication makes AMs ideal sensors of RSV infection and important initiators of immune responses in the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spyridon Makris
- Respiratory Infections Section, St. Mary's Campus, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
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Marr N, Wang TI, Kam SHY, Hu YS, Sharma AA, Lam A, Markowski J, Solimano A, Lavoie PM, Turvey SE. Attenuation of respiratory syncytial virus-induced and RIG-I-dependent type I IFN responses in human neonates and very young children. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2014; 192:948-57. [PMID: 24391215 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1302007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Newborn infants, including those born at term without congenital disorders, are at high risk of severe disease from respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection. Indeed, our current local surveillance data demonstrate that approximately half of children hospitalized with RSV were ≤3 mo old, and 74% were born at term. Informed by this clinical epidemiology, we investigated antiviral innate immune responses in early life, with the goal of identifying immunological factors underlying the susceptibility of infants and young children to severe viral lower respiratory tract infections. We compared RSV-induced innate cytokine production in blood mononuclear cells from neonates, young children aged 12-59 mo, and healthy adults. RSV-induced IFN-α production was primarily mediated by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs), and was significantly lower in term infants and young children < 5 y of age than in adults (p < 0.01). RSV-induced IFN-α production in human pDCs proceeded independently of endosomal TLRs, and human pDCs from healthy adult donors produced IFN-α in a retinoic acid-inducible gene I protein (RIG-I)-dependent manner. Of interest, young age and premature birth were independently associated with attenuated RIG-I-dependent IFN-α responses (p < 0.01). In contrast to IFN-α production, proinflammatory IL-6 responses to RSV were mediated by monocytes, appeared less dependent on RIG-I, and were significantly impaired only among preterm infants, not in term infants and young children. Our results suggest that human pDCs are less functional in early life, which may contribute to the increased susceptibility of infants and young children to severe RSV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nico Marr
- Department of Pediatrics, University of British Columbia and Children's and Women's Health Centre of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6H 3V4, Canada
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Chang ST, Tchitchek N, Ghosh D, Benecke A, Katze MG. A chemokine gene expression signature derived from meta-analysis predicts the pathogenicity of viral respiratory infections. BMC SYSTEMS BIOLOGY 2011; 5:202. [PMID: 22189154 PMCID: PMC3297540 DOI: 10.1186/1752-0509-5-202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2011] [Accepted: 12/22/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND During respiratory viral infections host injury occurs due in part to inappropriate host responses. In this study we sought to uncover the host transcriptional responses underlying differences between high- and low-pathogenic infections. RESULTS From a compendium of 12 studies that included responses to influenza A subtype H5N1, reconstructed 1918 influenza A virus, and SARS coronavirus, we used meta-analysis to derive multiple gene expression signatures. We compared these signatures by their capacity to segregate biological conditions by pathogenicity and predict pathogenicity in a test data set. The highest-performing signature was expressed as a continuum in low-, medium-, and high-pathogenicity samples, suggesting a direct, analog relationship between expression and pathogenicity. This signature comprised 57 genes including a subnetwork of chemokines, implicating dysregulated cell recruitment in injury. CONCLUSIONS Highly pathogenic viruses elicit expression of many of the same key genes as lower pathogenic viruses but to a higher degree. This increased degree of expression may result in the uncontrolled co-localization of inflammatory cell types and lead to irreversible host damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stewart T Chang
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle WA, USA
| | | | - Debashis Ghosh
- Department of Statistics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park PA, USA
| | - Arndt Benecke
- Institut des Hautes Etudes Scientifiques, Bures-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Michael G Katze
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle WA, USA
- Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle WA, USA
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Liao JY, Thakur SA, Zalinger ZB, Gerrish KE, Imani F. Inosine-containing RNA is a novel innate immune recognition element and reduces RSV infection. PLoS One 2011; 6:e26463. [PMID: 22028885 PMCID: PMC3196583 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0026463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2011] [Accepted: 09/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
During viral infections, single- and double-stranded RNA (ssRNA and dsRNA) are recognized by the host and induce innate immune responses. The cellular enzyme ADAR-1 (adenosine deaminase acting on RNA-1) activation in virally infected cells leads to presence of inosine-containing RNA (Ino-RNA). Here we report that ss-Ino-RNA is a novel viral recognition element. We synthesized unmodified ssRNA and ssRNA that had 6% to16% inosine residues. The results showed that in primary human cells, or in mice, 10% ss-Ino-RNA rapidly and potently induced a significant increase in inflammatory cytokines, such as interferon (IFN)-β (35 fold), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α (9.7 fold), and interleukin (IL)-6 (11.3 fold) (p<0.01). Flow cytometry data revealed a corresponding 4-fold increase in influx of neutrophils into the lungs by ss-Ino-RNA treatment. In our in vitro experiments, treatment of epithelial cells with ss-Ino-RNA reduced replication of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Interestingly, RNA structural analysis showed that ss-Ino-RNA had increased formation of secondary structures. Our data further revealed that extracellular ss-Ino-RNA was taken up by scavenger receptor class-A (SR-A) which activated downstream MAP Kinase pathways through Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and dsRNA-activated protein kinase (PKR). Our data suggests that ss-Ino-RNA is an as yet undescribed virus-associated innate immune stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie-ying Liao
- Laboratory of Respiratory Biology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Sheetal A. Thakur
- Laboratory of Respiratory Biology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Zachary B. Zalinger
- Laboratory of Respiratory Biology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Kevin E. Gerrish
- Gene Array Core Facility, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Farhad Imani
- ViraSource Laboratories, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Activation of protein kinase R is required for induction of stress granules by respiratory syncytial virus but dispensable for viral replication. Virology 2011; 413:103-10. [PMID: 21377708 PMCID: PMC3072468 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2011.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2010] [Revised: 11/24/2010] [Accepted: 02/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We performed experiments to determine the effect of PKR activation on respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) replication. We first determined that RSV infection activates PKR which induces the phosphorylation of eIF2α, resulting in the formation of host stress granules. We used RNA interference to decrease endogenous PKR levels. RSV replication was not altered in cells deficient for PKR expression. However, RSV-mediated stress granule formation was significantly reduced in PKR-knockdown cells. As an alternative method to block PKR activation, we used treatment with the kinase inhibitor 2-aminopurine (2-AP). We observed that 2-AP treatment significantly reduced viral replication. We also treated PKR-knockdown cells with 2-AP and inoculated with RSV. Under these conditions, 2-AP treatment diminished viral replication in the absence of PKR expression. These results suggest that PKR activation has a minimal effect on RSV replication and that the antiviral effect of 2-AP during RSV infection likely occurs via a PKR-independent mechanism.
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