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Malavolti M, Malagoli C, Wise LA, Poli M, Notari B, Taddei I, Fabbi S, Teggi S, Balboni E, Pancaldi A, Palazzi G, Vinceti M, Filippini T. Residential exposure to magnetic fields from transformer stations and risk of childhood leukemia. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 245:118043. [PMID: 38145739 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.118043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several studies have documented an increased risk of leukemia among children exposed to magnetic fields from high-voltage power lines, with some evidence of dose-response relation. However, findings in some studies have been inconsistent, and data on the effects of different sources of exposure are lacking. In this study, we evaluated the relation of childhood leukemia risk to exposure to magnetic fields from transformer stations. METHODS We conducted a population-based case-control study in a pediatric population of two Northern Italian provinces of Modena and Reggio Emilia. We included 182 registry-identified childhood leukemia cases diagnosed during 1998-2019 and 726 population controls matched on sex, year of birth, and province of residence. We assessed exposure by calculating distance from childhood residence to the nearest transformer station within a geographical information system, computing disease odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using conditional logistic regression, adjusting for potential confounders. We evaluated exposure using two buffers (15 m and 25 m radius) and assessed two case groups: leukemia (all subtypes) and acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). RESULTS Residing within 15 m of a transformer station (vs. ≥15 m) was not appreciably associated with risk of leukemia (all subtypes) or ALL. We found similar results using a less stringent exposure buffer (25 m). Among children aged ≥5 years, the adjusted ORs were 1.3 (95% CI 0.1-12.8) for leukemia and 1.3 (95% CI 0.1-12.4) for ALL using the 15 m buffer, while they were 1.7 (95% CI 0.4-7.0) for leukemia and 0.6 (95% CI 0.1-4.8) for ALL using the 25 m buffer. CONCLUSIONS While we found no overall association between residential proximity to transformer stations and childhood leukemia, there was some evidence for elevated risk of childhood leukemia among children aged ≥5 years. Precision was limited by the low numbers of exposed children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcella Malavolti
- Environmental, Genetic and Nutritional Epidemiology Research Center (CREAGEN), Section of Public Health, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Carlotta Malagoli
- Environmental, Genetic and Nutritional Epidemiology Research Center (CREAGEN), Section of Public Health, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Lauren A Wise
- Department of Epidemiology, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Maurizio Poli
- Emilia-Romagna Regional Agency for Environmental Prevention and Energy (ARPAE), Emilia-Romagna Region, Italy
| | - Barbara Notari
- Emilia-Romagna Regional Agency for Environmental Prevention and Energy (ARPAE), Emilia-Romagna Region, Italy
| | - Irene Taddei
- Emilia-Romagna Regional Agency for Environmental Prevention and Energy (ARPAE), Emilia-Romagna Region, Italy
| | - Sara Fabbi
- Department of Engineering 'Enzo Ferrari', University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Sergio Teggi
- Department of Engineering 'Enzo Ferrari', University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Erica Balboni
- Environmental, Genetic and Nutritional Epidemiology Research Center (CREAGEN), Section of Public Health, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy; Health Physics Unit, Modena Policlinico University Hospital, Modena, Italy
| | - Alessia Pancaldi
- Pediatric Oncology and Hematology Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Mothers, Children and Adults, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Giovanni Palazzi
- Pediatric Oncology and Hematology Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Mothers, Children and Adults, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Marco Vinceti
- Environmental, Genetic and Nutritional Epidemiology Research Center (CREAGEN), Section of Public Health, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy; Department of Epidemiology, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Tommaso Filippini
- Environmental, Genetic and Nutritional Epidemiology Research Center (CREAGEN), Section of Public Health, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy; School of Public Health, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
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Nguyen A, Crespi CM, Vergara X, Kheifets L. Pesticides as a potential independent childhood leukemia risk factor and as a potential confounder for electromagnetic fields exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 238:116899. [PMID: 37598846 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Both pesticides and high magnetic fields are suspected to be childhood leukemia risk factors. Pesticides are utilized at commercial plant nurseries, which sometimes occupy the areas underneath high-voltage powerlines. OBJECTIVES To evaluate whether potential pesticide exposures (intended use, chemical class, active ingredient) utilized at plant nurseries act as an independent childhood leukemia risk factor or as a confounder for proximity to, or magnetic fields exposure from, high-voltage powerlines. METHODS We conducted a state-wide records-based case-control study for California with 5788 childhood leukemia cases and 5788 controls that examined specific pesticide use, magnetic field exposures and distances to both powerlines and plant nurseries. Exposure assessment incorporated geographic information systems, aerial satellite images, and other historical information. RESULTS Childhood leukemia risk was potentially elevated for several active pesticide ingredients: permethrin (odds ratio (OR) 1.49, 95% confidence interval (CI) (0.83-2.67), chlorpyrifos (OR 1.29, 95% CI 0.89-1.87), dimethoate (OR 1.79, 95% CI 0.85-3.76), mancozeb (OR 1.41, 95% CI 0.85-2.33), oxyfluorfen (OR 1.41, 95% CI 0.75-2.66), oryzalin (OR 1.60, 95% CI 0.97-2.63), and pendimethalin (OR 1.82, 95% CI 0.81-2.25). Rodenticide (OR 1.42, 95% CI 0.78-2.56) and molluscicide (OR 1.22, 95% CI 0.82-1.81) exposure also presented potentially elevated childhood leukemia risks. Childhood leukemia associations with calculated fields or powerline proximity did not materially change after adjusting for pesticide exposure. Childhood leukemia risks with powerline proximity remained similar when pesticide exposures were excluded. DISCUSSION Pesticide exposure may be an independent childhood leukemia risk factor. Childhood leukemia risks for powerline proximity and magnetic fields exposure were not explained by pesticide exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Nguyen
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California Los Angeles Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1772, USA.
| | - C M Crespi
- Department of Biostatistics, University of California Los Angeles Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1772, USA.
| | - X Vergara
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California Los Angeles Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1772, USA.
| | - L Kheifets
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California Los Angeles Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1772, USA.
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Deshayes-Pinçon F, Morlais F, Roth-Delgado O, Merckel O, Lacour B, Launoy G, Launay L, Dejardin O. Estimation of the general population and children under five years of age in France exposed to magnetic field from high or very high voltage power line using geographic information system and extrapolated field data. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023:116425. [PMID: 37327843 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The effects of extremely low-frequency magnetic fields, especially their long-term health effects, including childhood leukaemia, remain elusive. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified the exposure to magnetic fields >0.4 μT as 'possibly carcinogenic to humans (group 2 B)' for childhood leukaemia. However, the number of exposed individuals, particularly children, remains poorly documented in international literature. The objective of this study was to estimate the number of individuals living near a high or very high voltage line in France (≥63 kV), among the general population and children under the age of five years. METHODS The estimate considered different exposure scenarios depending on the line voltage and the distance of the housing from it, and whether the line is overhead or underground. The exposure scenarios were obtained using a multilevel linear model created from a measurement database published by "Réseau de transport d'électricité", the operator of the French electricity transmission network. RESULTS Between 0.11% (n = 67,893) and 1.01% (n = 647,569) of the French population and between 0.10% (n = 4712) and 1.03% (n = 46,950) of children under five years of age were estimated to be living in an area potentially exposed to a magnetic field, depending on the exposure scenario (>0.4 μT and >0.1 μT, respectively). CONCLUSIONS By making it possible to estimate the total number of residents, schools, and health institutions near high-voltage power lines, the proposed methodology can help identify potential co-exposures near high-voltage power lines, which are regularly cited as a possible explanation for contradictory results from epidemiological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanny Deshayes-Pinçon
- MapInMed, Platon, University of Caen Normandy UCN, Caen, France; U1086 INSERM UCN ANTICIPE, "Team Labelled Ligue Contre le Cancer", Caen, France; François Baclesse Cancer Centre, Caen, France.
| | - Fabrice Morlais
- U1086 INSERM UCN ANTICIPE, "Team Labelled Ligue Contre le Cancer", Caen, France
| | - Olivia Roth-Delgado
- Anses: 14 Rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 94701 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Merckel
- Anses: 14 Rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 94701 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, Paris, France
| | - Brigitte Lacour
- French National Registry of Childhood Solid Tumours, CHU, Nancy, France; Inserm U1153, Centre of Research in Epidemiology and StatisticS (CRESS), Epidemiology of Childhood and Adolescent Cancers Team (EPICEA), Paris University, Paris, France
| | - Guy Launoy
- U1086 INSERM UCN ANTICIPE, "Team Labelled Ligue Contre le Cancer", Caen, France; University Hospital of Caen, Department of Research, Caen, France
| | - Ludivine Launay
- MapInMed, Platon, University of Caen Normandy UCN, Caen, France; U1086 INSERM UCN ANTICIPE, "Team Labelled Ligue Contre le Cancer", Caen, France; François Baclesse Cancer Centre, Caen, France
| | - Olivier Dejardin
- U1086 INSERM UCN ANTICIPE, "Team Labelled Ligue Contre le Cancer", Caen, France; University Hospital of Caen, Department of Research, Caen, France
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Genotoxic Risks to Male Reproductive Health from Radiofrequency Radiation. Cells 2023; 12:cells12040594. [PMID: 36831261 PMCID: PMC9954667 DOI: 10.3390/cells12040594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
During modern era, mobile phones, televisions, microwaves, radio, and wireless devices, etc., have become an integral part of our daily lifestyle. All these technologies employ radiofrequency (RF) waves and everyone is exposed to them, since they are widespread in the environment. The increasing risk of male infertility is a growing concern to the human population. Excessive and long-term exposure to non-ionizing radiation may cause genetic health effects on the male reproductive system which could be a primitive factor to induce cancer risk. With respect to the concerned aspect, many possible RFR induced genotoxic studies have been reported; however, reports are very contradictory and showed the possible effect on humans and animals. Thus, the present review is focusing on the genomic impact of the radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) underlying the male infertility issue. In this review, both in vitro and in vivo studies have been incorporated explaining the role of RFR on the male reproductive system. It includes RFR induced-DNA damage, micronuclei formation, chromosomal aberrations, SCE generation, etc. In addition, attention has also been paid to the ROS generation after radiofrequency radiation exposure showing a rise in oxidative stress, base adduct formation, sperm head DNA damage, or cross-linking problems between DNA & protein.
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Nguyen A, Crespi CM, Vergara X, Kheifets L. Commercial outdoor plant nurseries as a confounder for electromagnetic fields and childhood leukemia risk. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 212:113446. [PMID: 35550811 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Close residential proximity to powerlines and high magnetic fields exposure may be associated with elevated childhood leukemia risks as reported by prior studies and pooled analyses. Magnetic fields exposure from high-voltage powerlines is associated with proximity to these powerlines and consequently with any factor varying with distance. Areas underneath powerlines in California may be sites for commercial plant nurseries that can use pesticides, a potential childhood leukemia risk factor. OBJECTIVES Assess if potential pesticide exposure from commercial plant nurseries is a confounder or interacts with proximity or magnetic fields exposure from high-voltage powerlines to increase childhood leukemia risk. METHODS A comprehensive childhood leukemia record-based case-control study with 5788 cases and 5788 controls (born and diagnosed in California, 1986-2008) was conducted. Pesticide, powerline, and magnetic field exposure assessment utilized models that incorporated geographical information systems, aerial satellite images, site visits and other historical information. RESULTS The relationship for calculated fields with childhood leukemia (odds ratio (OR) 1.51, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.70-3.23) slightly attenuated when controlling for nursery proximity (OR 1.43, 95% CI 0.65-3.16) or restricting analysis to subjects living far (>300 m) from nurseries (OR 1.43, 95% CI 0.79-2.60). A similar association pattern was observed between distance to high-voltage powerlines and childhood leukemia. The association between nursery proximity and childhood leukemia was unchanged or only slightly attenuated when controlling for calculated fields or powerline distance; ORs remained above 2 when excluding subjects with high calculated fields or close powerline proximity (OR 2.16, 95% CI 0.82-5.67 and OR 2.15, 95% CI 0.82-5.64, respectively). The observed relationships were robust to different time periods, reference categories, and cut points. DISCUSSION Close residential proximity to nurseries is suggested as an independent childhood leukemia risk factor. Our results do not support plant nurseries as an explanation for observed childhood leukemia risks for powerline proximity and magnetic fields exposure, although small numbers of subjects concurrently exposed to high magnetic fields, close powerline proximity and plant nurseries limited our ability to fully assess potential confounding.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Nguyen
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California Los Angeles Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1772, USA.
| | - C M Crespi
- Department of Biostatistics, University of California Los Angeles Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1772, USA.
| | - X Vergara
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California Los Angeles Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1772, USA.
| | - L Kheifets
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California Los Angeles Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1772, USA.
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McCullough LE, Maliniak ML, Amin AB, Baker JM, Baliashvili D, Barberio J, Barrera CM, Brown CA, Collin LJ, Freedman AA, Gibbs DC, Haddad MB, Hall EW, Hamid S, Harrington KRV, Holleman AM, Kaufman JA, Khan MA, Labgold K, Lee VC, Malik AA, Mann LM, Marks KJ, Nelson KN, Quader ZS, Ross-Driscoll K, Sarkar S, Shah MP, Shao IY, Smith JP, Stanhope KK, Valenzuela-Lara M, Van Dyke ME, Vyas KJ, Lash TL. Epidemiology beyond its limits. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabn3328. [PMID: 35675391 PMCID: PMC9176748 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abn3328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In 1995, journalist Gary Taubes published an article in Science titled "Epidemiology faces its limits," which questioned the utility of nonrandomized epidemiologic research and has since been cited more than 1000 times. He highlighted numerous examples of research topics he viewed as having questionable merit. Studies have since accumulated for these associations. We systematically evaluated current evidence of 53 example associations discussed in the article. Approximately one-quarter of those presented as doubtful are now widely viewed as causal based on current evaluations of the public health consensus. They include associations between alcohol consumption and breast cancer, residential radon exposure and lung cancer, and the use of tanning devices and melanoma. This history should inform current debates about the reproducibility of epidemiologic research results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren E. McCullough
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Maret L. Maliniak
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Avnika B. Amin
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Julia M. Baker
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Davit Baliashvili
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Julie Barberio
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Chloe M. Barrera
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - Lindsay J. Collin
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Alexa A. Freedman
- Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - David C. Gibbs
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Maryam B. Haddad
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Eric W. Hall
- School of Public Health, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Sarah Hamid
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - Aaron M. Holleman
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - John A. Kaufman
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Mohammed A. Khan
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Katie Labgold
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Veronica C. Lee
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Amyn A. Malik
- Yale Institute for Global Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Laura M. Mann
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Kristin J. Marks
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Kristin N. Nelson
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Zerleen S. Quader
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | | | - Monica P. Shah
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Iris Y. Shao
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jonathan P. Smith
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Kaitlyn K. Stanhope
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Marisol Valenzuela-Lara
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Miriam E. Van Dyke
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Kartavya J. Vyas
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Timothy L. Lash
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Magnetic Fields and Cancer: Epidemiology, Cellular Biology, and Theranostics. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031339. [PMID: 35163262 PMCID: PMC8835851 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans are exposed to a complex mix of man-made electric and magnetic fields (MFs) at many different frequencies, at home and at work. Epidemiological studies indicate that there is a positive relationship between residential/domestic and occupational exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields and some types of cancer, although some other studies indicate no relationship. In this review, after an introduction on the MF definition and a description of natural/anthropogenic sources, the epidemiology of residential/domestic and occupational exposure to MFs and cancer is reviewed, with reference to leukemia, brain, and breast cancer. The in vivo and in vitro effects of MFs on cancer are reviewed considering both human and animal cells, with particular reference to the involvement of reactive oxygen species (ROS). MF application on cancer diagnostic and therapy (theranostic) are also reviewed by describing the use of different magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) applications for the detection of several cancers. Finally, the use of magnetic nanoparticles is described in terms of treatment of cancer by nanomedical applications for the precise delivery of anticancer drugs, nanosurgery by magnetomechanic methods, and selective killing of cancer cells by magnetic hyperthermia. The supplementary tables provide quantitative data and methodologies in epidemiological and cell biology studies. Although scientists do not generally agree that there is a cause-effect relationship between exposure to MF and cancer, MFs might not be the direct cause of cancer but may contribute to produce ROS and generate oxidative stress, which could trigger or enhance the expression of oncogenes.
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Sieroń K, Knapik K, Onik G, Romuk E, Birkner E, Kwiatek S, Sieroń A. Electromagnetic Fields Modify Redox Balance in the Rat Gastrointestinal Tract. Front Public Health 2021; 9:710484. [PMID: 34589462 PMCID: PMC8473753 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.710484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: The aim of the study was to assess the influence of electromagnetic fields with divergent physical properties on the prooxidative and antioxidative balances in homogenates of the tongue, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines of rats. Material and Methods: Forty rats were randomly divided into four equal groups, namely, a control group, a group exposed to low-frequency electromagnetic fields (LF-EMFs; frequency: 50 Hz; intensity: 10 kV/m; magnetic induction: 4.3 pT), a group exposed to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) emitted by mobile phones (frequency: 900 MHz), and a group exposed simultaneously to LF-EMFs and RF-EMFs emitted by mobile phones. After 28 consecutive days of the experiment, the following pro- and antioxidative markers were assessed in the gastrointestinal tract homogenates: superoxide dismutase (SOD) and its two isoenzymes (Mn-SOD, Cu,Zn-SOD) catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione S-transferase (GST), total antioxidative capacity (TAC), total oxidative status (TOS), and malondialdehyde (MDA). Results: In rats exposed to LF-EMFs, higher concentrations of the markers of prooxidant processes, MDA or TOS, were observed in the salivary glands, esophagus, and small intestine homogenates in comparison with the control group. Additionally, in the group of rats opposite to the control, antioxidant activity was observed. The main differences included a higher activity of Cu,Zn-SOD in homogenates of the tongue, salivary glands, and esophagus as well as decreased activity of CAT in homogenates of the tongue, esophagus, and small intestine. In animals exposed to RF-EMFs, the concentration of TOS was higher in the large intestine than in control rats. The main difference of antioxidant activity was presented by decreased Cu,Zn-SOD in homogenates of the salivary glands, stomach, small and large intestine as well as CAT in homogenates of the tongue, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestine. Moreover, in rats exposed simultaneously to LF-EMFs and RF-EMFs, a lower concentration of TOS was observed. Antioxidant activity was presented by a decreased activity of CAT in homogenates of the tongue, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestine in comparison to the control group. Conclusion: Among those applied in the study, electromagnetic fields of a low-frequency caused the most significant disturbances of oxidative stress in the rat gastrointestinal tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Sieroń
- Chair of Physiotherapy, Department of Physical Medicine, School of Health Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Katowice, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Knapik
- Chair of Physiotherapy, Department of Physical Medicine, School of Health Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Katowice, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Onik
- Chair of Physiotherapy, Department of Physical Medicine, School of Health Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Katowice, Poland
| | - Ewa Romuk
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine with the Division of Dentistry in Zabrze, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Katowice, Poland
| | - Ewa Birkner
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine with the Division of Dentistry in Zabrze, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Katowice, Poland
| | - Sebastian Kwiatek
- Division of Internal Diseases Oncology, Gastroenterology, Angiology, Department of Cardiology Intensive Care, Hospital of the Ministry of the Interior and Administration in Katowice, Katowice, Poland
| | - Aleksander Sieroń
- Department of Physiotherapy, Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, Czestochowa, Poland
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Seomun G, Lee J, Park J. Exposure to extremely low-frequency magnetic fields and childhood cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0251628. [PMID: 33989337 PMCID: PMC8121331 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0251628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Extremely low frequency magnetic fields (ELF-MFs) are classified as a possible carcinogenic factor (Group 2B). This study assessed the association between ELF-MFs and childhood cancer through a systematic review and meta-analysis. METHODS Three databases were searched in January 2020. We conducted a meta-analysis for the association between the ELF-MFs exposure level and childhood cancer. RESULTS A total of 33 studies were identified. Thirty studies with 186,223 participants were included in the meta-analysis. Children exposed to 0.2-, 0.3-, and 0.4-μT ELF-MFs had a 1.26 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.06-1.49), 1.22 (95% CI 0.93-1.61), and 1.72 (95% CI 1.25-2.35) times higher odds of childhood leukemia. In childhood brain tumors, children exposed to 0.2-μT had a 0.95 (95% CI 0.59-1.56) times higher odds, and those exposed to 0.4-μT ELF-MFs had a 1.25 (95% CI 0.93-1.61). Children exposed to 0.2- and 0.4-μT ELF-MFs had a 1.10 (95% CI 0.70-1.75) and 2.01 (95% CI 0.89-4.52) times higher odds of any childhood cancers. CONCLUSIONS Significant associations were observed between exposure to ELF-MFs and childhood leukemia. Furthermore, a possible dose-response effect was also observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- GyeongAe Seomun
- College of Nursing, Korea University, BK21FOUR R&E Center for Learning Health Systems, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Juneyoung Lee
- Department of Biostatistics, College of Medicine, Korea University, BK21FOUR Program in Learning Health Systems, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinkyung Park
- College of Nursing, Chonnam National University, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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10
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Drobakhin OO, Magro VI, Kosharnyi VV, Rutgaizer VH, Abdul-Ohly LV. The influence of microwave electromagnetic radiation on rat heart morphogenesis during thyroidectomy. REGULATORY MECHANISMS IN BIOSYSTEMS 2021. [DOI: 10.15421/022121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
It is known that electromagnetic radiation affects the functional systems of living beings, in particular, the endocrine and cardiovascular systems and directly the heart cells and their functioning. In this case, the influence of electromagnetic radiation significantly affects the properties of the cardiovascular system and changes physiological processes in it. Moreover, sensitivity to signals is higher for biosystems with a higher level of organization. The method of simulating hypothyroidism for rats makes it possible to develop an experimental model for analyzing morphogenetic changes in the rat heart. Under conditions of hypothyroidism modeling, destructive changes in muscle fibers are observed in the myocardium after thyroidectomy, but after microwave irradiation with an exposure of 45 minutes, a regenerative-compensatory reconstruction of the structural components of the myocardium of the heart wall occurs. After thyroidectomy and microwave irradiation with an exposure of 120 minutes, an increase in degenerative and destructive processes in the heart myocardium was observed. For the first time, a comparative ultramicroscopic study using electron microscopy was carried out. It showed that after electromagnetic irradiation with an exposure of 45 minutes, the general structure of the mitochondrial apparatus does not change. Irradiation with an exposure of 120 minutes causes the destruction of subsarcolemal and paranuclear organelles, edema and degradation of intermyofibrillar mitochondria. After exposure to electromagnetic radiation with the exposure of 45 minutes in a hypothyroid state, a compensatory restructuring of the energy apparatus of the contractile cardiomyocytes of the left ventricle occurs due to the formation of mitochondria and an increase in their contact interaction. After exposure to radiation for 120 minutes, the development of destructive-degenerative processes in the mitochondrial apparatus of left ventricular cardiomyocytes, deepening of damage to intermitochondrial contacts was observed. The most significant increase in the relative volume of the endothelium in the areas of the rat heart myocardium was observed for the case of microwave irradiation only (without experimental hypothyroidism) with exposure duration of 45 minutes. Immunohistochemical study both for the case of microwave irradiation only and for the case of microwave irradiation under conditions of experimental hypothyroidism allows us to conclude that morphogenetic transformations are highly active in the myocardium of the heart when the duration of exposure is 45 minutes. This study will make it possible to develop recommendations for persons with thyroid diseases on the duration of daily exposure of staying in electromagnetic field emitted by devices with characteristics similar to the case under study.
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11
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Yadav H, Rai U, Singh R. Radiofrequency radiation: A possible threat to male fertility. Reprod Toxicol 2021; 100:90-100. [PMID: 33497741 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2021.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Radiofrequency exposure from man-made sources has increased drastically with the era of advanced technology. People could not escape from such RF radiations as they have become the essential part of our routine life such as Wi-Fi, microwave ovens, TV, mobile phones, etc. Although non-ionizing radiations are less damaging than ionizing radiations but its long term exposure effect cannot be avoided. For fertility to be affected, either there is an alteration in germ cell, or its nourishing environment, and RF affects both the parameters subsequently, leading to infertility. This review with the help of in vitro and in vivo studies shows that RF could change the morphology and physiology of germ cells with affected spermatogenesis, motility and reduced concentration of male gametes. RF also results in genetic and hormonal changes. In addition, the contribution of oxidative stress and protein kinase complex after RFR exposure is also summarized which could also be the possible mechanism for reduction in sperm parameters. Further, some preventative measures are described which could help in reverting the radiofrequency effects on germ cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himanshi Yadav
- Department of Environmental Studies, Satyawati College, University of Delhi, Delhi, 110052, India
| | - Umesh Rai
- Deparment of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi, 110007, India
| | - Rajeev Singh
- Department of Environmental Studies, Satyawati College, University of Delhi, Delhi, 110052, India.
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12
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Karimi A, Ghadiri Moghaddam F, Valipour M. Insights in the biology of extremely low-frequency magnetic fields exposure on human health. Mol Biol Rep 2020; 47:5621-5633. [DOI: 10.1007/s11033-020-05563-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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13
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Carles C, Esquirol Y, Turuban M, Piel C, Migault L, Pouchieu C, Bouvier G, Fabbro-Peray P, Lebailly P, Baldi I. Residential proximity to power lines and risk of brain tumor in the general population. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 185:109473. [PMID: 32278161 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The effect of ELF-MF on human health is still controversial, particularly as regards long-term health effects like cancer. The literature does suggest, however, that they could be involved in the occurrence of brain tumors, although results concerning residential exposure are scarce. Our objective was to investigate the association between residential proximity to power lines and brain tumors among adults in France by using a geographical information system.CERENAT is a population-based case-control study carried out in France in 2004-2006. We used geographical data sources on power line location to create exposure scores based on distance between residence and power lines, and on the number of lines near residences. Conditional logistic regression for matched sets was used to estimate Odds Ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI).We found significant associations between cumulated duration living at <50 m to high voltage lines and: i) all brain tumors (OR 2.94; 95%CI 1.28-6.75); ii) glioma (OR 4.96; 95%CI 1.56-15.77). Further investigations are needed, particularly to improve the quality and availability of geographical and technical data on power lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Carles
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM UMR 1219, Equipe EPICENE, F33000, Bordeaux, France; CHU de Bordeaux, Service de Médecine du Travail et pathologie professionnelle, F33000, Bordeaux, France.
| | - Yolande Esquirol
- CHU, Toulouse, France; UMR 1027, Université Paul Sabatier III, Inserm, Toulouse, France
| | - Maxime Turuban
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM UMR 1219, Equipe EPICENE, F33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Clément Piel
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM UMR 1219, Equipe EPICENE, F33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Lucile Migault
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM UMR 1219, Equipe EPICENE, F33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Camille Pouchieu
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM UMR 1219, Equipe EPICENE, F33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Ghislaine Bouvier
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM UMR 1219, Equipe EPICENE, F33000, Bordeaux, France
| | | | - Pierre Lebailly
- Centre François Baclesse, Caen, France; Caen Normandie University, Caen, France; INSERM, UMR1086-Anticipe, Axe Cancers et Préventions, Caen, France
| | - Isabelle Baldi
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM UMR 1219, Equipe EPICENE, F33000, Bordeaux, France; CHU de Bordeaux, Service de Médecine du Travail et pathologie professionnelle, F33000, Bordeaux, France
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14
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Gaps in Knowledge Relevant to the "Guidelines for Limiting Exposure to Time-Varying Electric and Magnetic Fields (1 Hz-100 kHz)". HEALTH PHYSICS 2020; 118:533-542. [PMID: 32251081 DOI: 10.1097/hp.0000000000001261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Sources of low-frequency fields are widely found in modern society. All wires or devices carrying or using electricity generate extremely low frequency (ELF) electric fields (EFs) and magnetic fields (MFs), but they decline rapidly with distance to the source. High magnetic flux densities are usually found in the vicinity of power lines and close to equipment using strong electrical currents, but can also be found in buildings with unbalanced return currents, or indoor transformer stations. For decades, epidemiological as well as experimental studies have addressed possible health effects of exposure to ELF-MFs. The main goal of ICNIRP is to protect people and the environment from detrimental exposure to all forms of non-ionizing radiation (NIR). To this end, ICNIRP provides advice and guidance by developing and disseminating exposure guidelines based on the available scientific research. Research in the low-frequency range began more than 40 years ago, and there is now a large body of literature available on which ICNIRP set its protection guidelines. A review of the literature has been carried out to identify possible relevant knowledge gaps, and the aim of this statement is to describe data gaps in research that would, if addressed, assist ICNIRP in further developing guidelines and setting revised recommendations on limiting exposure to electric and magnetic fields. It is articulated in two parts: the main document, which reviews the science related to LF data gaps, and the annex, which explains the methodology used to identify the data gaps.
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15
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Weldu YW, Mannan M, Al-Ghamdi SG. Monitoring Electromagnetic Radiation Emissions in Buildings and Developing Strategies for Improved Indoor Environmental Quality. HEALTH PHYSICS 2019; 117:648-655. [PMID: 31283546 DOI: 10.1097/hp.0000000000001112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Electronic devices have become ubiquitous in daily life, but they emit electromagnetic radiation, which may have negative health impacts at excessive levels. Little is known regarding the impact of radiation emissions on building occupants or strategies for reducing its intensity. This study applied a novel approach using system analysis to quantify radiation exposure in building spaces, examine building material responses to radiation propagation, and investigate risks to human health in the country of Qatar. Radiation intensity levels varied based on the location and type of building space. Different types of construction materials showed varied responses to electromagnetic field wave propagation. Drywall exhibited the best blocking effect, whereas glass and lumber walls exhibited poor blocking effects. The field strengths quantified in this study are less than the corresponding reference values specified by some jurisdictions, but they are still significantly higher than the safety levels defined in many other countries, which could result in significant health risks. The key strategies for improving indoor environmental quality include the use of shielding materials, spatial design, reduction of exposure time, increased exposure distance, and complete avoidance of exposure in sensitive areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yemane W Weldu
- Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University
| | - Mehzabeen Mannan
- Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University
| | - Sami G Al-Ghamdi
- Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University
- ORCID ID 0000-0002-7416-5153
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16
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Carpenter DO. Extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields and cancer: How source of funding affects results. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 178:108688. [PMID: 31476684 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2019.108688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
While there has been evidence indicating that excessive exposure to magnetic fields from 50 to 60 Hz electricity increases risk of cancer, many argue that the evidence is inconsistent and inconclusive. This is particularly the case regarding magnetic field exposure and childhood leukemia. A major goal of this study is to examine how source of funding influences the reported results and conclusions. Several meta-analyses dating from about 2000 all report significant associations between exposure and risk of leukemia. By examining subsequent reports on childhood leukemia it is clear that almost all government or independent studies find either a statistically significant association between magnetic field exposure and childhood leukemia, or an elevated risk of at least OR = 1.5, while almost all industry supported studies fail to find any significant or even suggestive association. A secondary goal of this report is to examine the level of evidence for exposure and elevated risk of various adult cancers. Based on pooled or meta-analyses as well as subsequent peer-reviewed studies there is strong evidence that excessive exposure to magnetic fields increases risk of adult leukemia, male and female breast cancer and brain cancer. There is less convincing but suggestive evidence for elevations in several other cancer types. There is less clear evidence for bias based on source of funding in the adult cancer studies. There is also some evidence that both paternal and maternal prenatal exposure to magnetic fields results in an increased risk of leukemia and brain cancer in offspring. When one allows for bias reflected in source of funding, the evidence that magnetic fields increase risk of cancer is neither inconsistent nor inconclusive. Furthermore adults are also at risk, not just children, and there is strong evidence for cancers in addition to leukemia, particularly brain and breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- David O Carpenter
- Institute for Health and the Environment, University at Albany, A Collaborating Centre of the World Health Organization, 5 University Place, Room A 217, Rensselaer, NY, N 12144, USA.
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17
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Auger N, Bilodeau-Bertrand M, Marcoux S, Kosatsky T. Residential exposure to electromagnetic fields during pregnancy and risk of child cancer: A longitudinal cohort study. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 176:108524. [PMID: 31226625 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2019.108524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We assessed whether exposure to electromagnetic fields during pregnancy increases the risk of childhood cancer. METHODS We studied a retrospective cohort of 784,944 newborns in Quebec, Canada between 2006 and 2016 who were followed for cancer one decade after birth. The exposures were residential distance to the nearest high voltage power transformer station and transmission line. We determined the incidence of childhood cancer, and estimated hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CI) in Cox proportional hazards regression models adjusted for maternal and birth characteristics. RESULTS There were 1114 incident cases of cancer during 4,647,472 person-years of follow-up. Residential proximity to transformer stations was associated with a somewhat greater risk of cancer, but there was no association with transmission lines. Compared with 200 m, a distance of 80 m from a transformer station was associated with a hazard ratio of 1.08 (95% CI 0.98, 1.20) for any cancer, 1.04 (95% CI 0.88, 1.23) for hematopoietic cancer, and 1.11 (95% CI 0.99, 1.25) for solid tumours. CONCLUSIONS Residential proximity to transformer stations is associated with a borderline risk of childhood cancer, but the absence of an association with transmission lines suggests no causal link.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Auger
- University of Montreal Hospital Research Centre, 900 Saint-Denis, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Institut national de santé publique du Québec, 190 Cremazie Blvd E., Montreal, Quebec, Canada; School of Public Health, University of Montreal, 1301 Sherbrooke E., Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
| | | | - Sophie Marcoux
- School of Public Health, University of Montreal, 1301 Sherbrooke E., Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Tom Kosatsky
- National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health, British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, 601 West Broadway, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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18
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Withrow DR, Berrington de Gonzalez A, Lam CJK, Warren KE, Shiels MS. Trends in Pediatric Central Nervous System Tumor Incidence in the United States, 1998-2013. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2018; 28:522-530. [PMID: 30464022 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-18-0784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 09/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Brain and other central nervous system (CNS) cancers are the leading cause of U.S. pediatric cancer mortality. Incidence trends can provide etiologic insight. We report trends in incidence rates of pediatric malignant CNS cancers and pilocytic astrocytoma (nonmalignant but historically registered) in the United States. METHODS Age-standardized incidence rates and annual percent changes (APC) in rates during 1998 to 2013 were calculated for children aged 0 to 19, stratified by subtype, age, sex, and for gliomas, histology and location. We estimated the absolute change in number of cases diagnosed U.S.-wide during 2013 compared with the expected number of cases had 1998 rates remained stable. RESULTS Rates of all pediatric malignant CNS cancer combined (n = 18,612) did not change [APC: 0.16; 95% confidence interval (CI): -0.21-0.53]. There were statistically significant changes in several subtypes; however, glioma incidence (n = 10,664) increased by 0.77% per year (95% CI: 0.29-1.26), embryonal cancer rates (n = 5,423) decreased by 0.88% per year (95% CI: -1.33 to -0.43), and pilocytic astrocytoma rates (n = 6,858) increased by 0.89% per year (95% CI: 0.21-1.58). Of the 1,171 malignant tumors and 450 pilocytic astrocytomas diagnosed in U.S. children in 2013, we estimated 120 excess gliomas, 94 excess pilocytic astrocytomas, and 72 fewer embryonal CNS tumors than would be expected had 1998 rates remained stable. CONCLUSIONS The gradual changes in incidence we observed for specific types of pediatric CNS cancers are likely due to a combination of changes in classification and diagnosis and true changes in CNS cancer. IMPACT Continued surveillance of pediatric CNS tumors should remain a priority, given their significant contribution to pediatric cancer-related deaths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana R Withrow
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, Maryland.
| | | | - Clara J K Lam
- Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, Maryland
| | | | - Meredith S Shiels
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, Maryland
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19
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Su L, Zhao C, Jin Y, Lei Y, Lu L, Chen G. Association between parental occupational exposure to extremely low frequency magnetic fields and childhood nervous system tumors risk: A meta-analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 642:1406-1414. [PMID: 30045521 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Revised: 05/27/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Previous epidemiological studies suggested association between parental occupational exposure to extremely low frequency magnetic fields (ELF-MF) and risk of childhood nervous system tumors, but the results were inconsistent. We conducted a meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies to re-evaluate this association. METHODS Relevant studies were identified by searching PubMed and Web of Science databases as well as by manual searching. Summary odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) were pooled with a fixed-effects or random-effects model. RESULTS A total of 22 eligible articles (21 case-control studies and 1 cohort study) were included for the quantitative analysis. The results showed that parental occupational ELF-MF exposure was significantly associated with an increased risk of childhood nervous system tumors (OR = 1.11, 95% CI = 1.02-1.21), and this association remained in studies on central nervous system (CNS) tumors (OR = 1.13, 95% CI = 1.02-1.27) but not neuroblastoma (OR = 1.02, 95% CI = 0.92-1.14). Furthermore, maternal (OR = 1.14, 95% CI = 1.05-1.23) but not paternal (OR = 1.05, 95% CI = 0.98-1.13) occupational ELF-MF exposure significantly increased risk of childhood nervous system tumors. Increased risk of childhood CNS tumors was significant associated with maternal (OR = 1.16, 95% CI = 1.06-1.26) but not paternal (OR = 1.15, 95% CI = 0.98-1.34) occupational ELF-MF exposure. CONCLUSION In conclusion, our results provide limited evidence for the association between maternal occupational exposure to ELF-MF and increased risk of childhood CNS tumors, which should be explained with cautions. Future studies are needed to further evaluate the association of paternal occupational ELF-MF exposure with risk of childhood CNS tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liling Su
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Jiangxi Medical College, Shangrao, China; Department of Public Health, and Department of Reproductive Endocrinology of Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Chuning Zhao
- Department of Public Health, and Department of Reproductive Endocrinology of Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yumin Jin
- Department of Public Health, and Department of Reproductive Endocrinology of Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ying Lei
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Jiangxi Medical College, Shangrao, China
| | - Liqin Lu
- Department of Oncology, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Guangdi Chen
- Department of Public Health, and Department of Reproductive Endocrinology of Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.
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Lapointe S, Perry A, Butowski NA. Primary brain tumours in adults. Lancet 2018; 392:432-446. [PMID: 30060998 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(18)30990-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 762] [Impact Index Per Article: 127.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Revised: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Primary CNS tumours refer to a heterogeneous group of tumours arising from cells within the CNS, and can be benign or malignant. Malignant primary brain tumours remain among the most difficult cancers to treat, with a 5 year overall survival no greater than 35%. The most common malignant primary brain tumours in adults are gliomas. Recent advances in molecular biology have improved understanding of glioma pathogenesis, and several clinically significant genetic alterations have been described. A number of these (IDH, 1p/19q codeletion, H3 Lys27Met, and RELA-fusion) are now combined with histology in the revised 2016 WHO classification of CNS tumours. It is likely that understanding such molecular alterations will contribute to the diagnosis, grading, and treatment of brain tumours. This progress in genomics, along with significant advances in cancer and CNS immunology, has defined a new era in neuro-oncology and holds promise for diagntic and therapeutic improvement. The challenge at present is to translate these advances into effective treatments. Current efforts are focused on developing molecular targeted therapies, immunotherapies, gene therapies, and novel drug-delivery technologies. Results with single-agent therapies have been disappointing so far, and combination therapies seem to be required to achieve a broad and durable antitumour response. Biomarker-targeted clinical trials could improve efficiencies of therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Lapointe
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Arie Perry
- Division of Neuropathology, Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Nicholas A Butowski
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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21
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Migault L, Piel C, Carles C, Delva F, Lacourt A, Cardis E, Zaros C, de Seze R, Baldi I, Bouvier G. Maternal cumulative exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields and pregnancy outcomes in the Elfe cohort. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 112:165-173. [PMID: 29275242 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2017.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 12/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To study the relations between maternal cumulative exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF EMF) and the risk of moderate prematurity and small for gestational age within the Elfe cohort. METHODS The Elfe study included 18,329 infants born at 33weeks of gestation or more in France in 2011 and was designed to follow the children until 20years of age. Gestational age and anthropometric data at birth were collected in medical records and small for gestational age was defined according to a French customized growth standard. During interviews, mothers were asked to report their job status during pregnancy. If employed, their occupation was coded according to the International Standard Classification of Occupations 1988 and the date on which they stopped their work was recorded. Cumulative exposure to ELF EMF during pregnancy was assessed, for both mothers who worked and those who did not during pregnancy, using a recently-updated job-exposure matrix (JEM). Cumulative exposure was considered as a categorical variable (<17.5, 17.5-23.8, 23.8-36.2, 36.2-61.6 or ≥61.6μT-days), a binary variable (<44.1 and ≥44.1μT-days) and a continuous variable. Associations were analyzed by logistic regression, adjusting for the mother's lifestyle factors, sociodemographic characteristics and some mother's medical history during and before pregnancy. Analyses were restricted to single births and to complete values for the pregnancy outcomes (n=16,733). RESULTS Cumulative exposure was obtained for 96.0% of the mothers. Among them, 37.5% were classified in the 23.8-36.2μT-days category, but high exposures were rare: 1.3% in the ≥61.6μT-days category and 5.5% in the ≥44.1μT-days category. No significant association was observed between maternal cumulative exposure and moderate prematurity and small for gestational age in this exposure range. CONCLUSION This large population-based study does not suggest that maternal exposure to ELF EMF during pregnancy is highly associated with risks of moderate prematurity or small for gestational age.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Migault
- University of Bordeaux, Inserm U1219 EPICENE Team, Bordeaux Population Health Research Center, 146 rue Leo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France.
| | - C Piel
- University of Bordeaux, Inserm U1219 EPICENE Team, Bordeaux Population Health Research Center, 146 rue Leo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France
| | - C Carles
- University of Bordeaux, Inserm U1219 EPICENE Team, Bordeaux Population Health Research Center, 146 rue Leo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France; Bordeaux University Hospital, Service de Médecine du Travail et pathologie professionnelle, 608 avenue Léon Duguit, 33600 Pessac, France
| | - F Delva
- University of Bordeaux, Inserm U1219 EPICENE Team, Bordeaux Population Health Research Center, 146 rue Leo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France
| | - A Lacourt
- University of Bordeaux, Inserm U1219 EPICENE Team, Bordeaux Population Health Research Center, 146 rue Leo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France
| | - E Cardis
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Doctor Aiguader, 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - C Zaros
- Joint research unit Elfe, Ined-Inserm-EFS, 133 Boulevard Davout, 75020 Paris, France
| | - R de Seze
- TOXI PERITOX UMR-I-01 unit, INERIS, Parc ALATA BP2, 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, UPJV, Amiens, France
| | - I Baldi
- University of Bordeaux, Inserm U1219 EPICENE Team, Bordeaux Population Health Research Center, 146 rue Leo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France; Bordeaux University Hospital, Service de Médecine du Travail et pathologie professionnelle, 608 avenue Léon Duguit, 33600 Pessac, France
| | - G Bouvier
- University of Bordeaux, Inserm U1219 EPICENE Team, Bordeaux Population Health Research Center, 146 rue Leo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France
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Eliyahu I, Hareuveny R, Riven M, Kandel S, Kheifets L. 24-h personal monitoring of exposure to Power Frequency Magnetic Fields in adolescents - Results of a National Survey. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2017; 158:295-300. [PMID: 28668520 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Revised: 05/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aim of this exposure assessment study was to gain information about the exposure levels of adolescents in Israel to power frequency (50Hz) magnetic fields (MF) through personal monitoring, and to provide reliable data for national policy development. METHODS 84 adolescents, 6-10th grade students, carried an EMDEX II meter attached to their body for 24h. The meter recorded the MF every 1.5s. The students documented their activities and microenvironments, such as apartment (awake or asleep), school, transportation, open public areas and other indoor environments. RESULTS The geometric mean (GM) of the daily time weighted average (TWA) of all the participants was 0.059 μT (STD = 1.83). This result is similar to those of personal exposure surveys conducted in the UK (GM 0.042-0.054μT), but lower than levels found in the US (GM 0.089 - 0.134μT). The arithmetic mean was 0.073μT, 23% higher than the GM. Fields were lowest at school (GM 0.033μT), and average outdoor exposures were higher than indoor ones. 3.6% of the participants were exposed to daily TWA above 0.2μT. The typical time spent above 0.2μT ranged from few minutes to few hours. The time spent above 0.4μT and 1μT were much shorter, around 1-15min and from few seconds to 2min, respectively. Momentary peaks ever recorded were in the range of 0.35-23.6μT CONCLUSIONS: Exposure of adolescents in Israel is similar to data reported in other countries, being below 0.1μT for the vast majority, with very few average exposures above 0.2μT. Analysis of the different microenvironments allows for a cost-effective and equitable policy development.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Eliyahu
- Soreq Nuclear Research Center, Yavne, Israel.
| | - R Hareuveny
- Soreq Nuclear Research Center, Yavne, Israel
| | - M Riven
- Independent Consultant, Israel
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Su L, Yimaer A, Wei X, Xu Z, Chen G. The effects of 50 Hz magnetic field exposure on DNA damage and cellular functions in various neurogenic cells. JOURNAL OF RADIATION RESEARCH 2017; 58:474-486. [PMID: 28369556 PMCID: PMC5570089 DOI: 10.1093/jrr/rrx012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have indicated a possible association between extremely low-frequency magnetic field (ELF-MF) exposure and the risk of nervous system diseases. However, laboratory studies have not provided consistent results for clarifying this association, despite many years of studies. In this study, we have systematically investigated the effects of 50 Hz MF exposure on DNA damage and cellular functions in both neurogenic tumor cell lines (U251, A172, SH-SY5Y) and primary cultured neurogenic cells from rats (astrocytes, microglia, cortical neurons). The results showed that exposure to a 50 Hz MF at 2.0 mT for up to 24 h did not influence γH2AX foci formation (an early marker of DNA double-strand breaks) in any of six different neurogenic cells. Exposure to a 50 Hz MF did not affect cell cycle progression, cell proliferation or cell viability in neurogenic tumor U251, A172 or SH-SY5Y cells. Furthermore, the MF exposure for 24 h did not significantly affect the secretion of cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 or IL-1β) in astrocytes or microglia, or the phagocytic activity of microglia. In addition, MF exposure for 1 h per day did not significantly influence expression levels of microtubule-associated protein tau, microtubule-associated protein 2, postsynaptic density 95 or gephyrin in cortical neurons, indicating an absence of effects of MF exposure on the development of cortical neurons. In conclusion, our data suggest that exposure to a 50 Hz MF at 2.0 mT did not elicit DNA damage effects or abnormal cellular functions in the neurogenic cells studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liling Su
- Bioelectromagnetics Laboratory, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Jiangxi Medical College, 399 Zhimi Road, Shangrao 331000, China
| | - Aziguli Yimaer
- Bioelectromagnetics Laboratory, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xiaoxia Wei
- Bioelectromagnetics Laboratory, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Zhengping Xu
- Bioelectromagnetics Laboratory, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Institute of Environmental Health, Zhejiang University School of Public Health, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Guangdi Chen
- Bioelectromagnetics Laboratory, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Institute of Environmental Health, Zhejiang University School of Public Health, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Corresponding author. Bioelectromagnetics Laboratory, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou 310058, China. Tel: +86-571-88208169; Fax: +86-571-88208163;
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Abstract
There has been an exponential increase in the use of electronic devices over the past few decades. This has led to increased exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF). Electric fields result from differences in voltage, whereas magnetic fields result from the flow of electric current. Higher-frequency waves of EMF have more energy than lower-frequency waves, and thus generally tend to be more harmful. An EMF activates cellular stress response and also causes breaks in DNA strands. There are many methodological barriers to effectively measuring the associations of EMF and childhood cancers. The consensus from multiple studies is that there is no causal role of extremely low-frequency EMFs in childhood cancers, including brain cancer. A recent study showed a link between EMF radiation and the development of malignant tumors in rats. In light of that study, the American Academy of Pediatrics set out new recommendations to decrease the adverse effects of cellphone exposure on children. [Pediatr Ann. 2017;46(4):e172-e174.].
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Barrington-Trimis JL, Cockburn M, Metayer C, Gauderman WJ, Wiemels J, McKean-Cowdin R. Trends in childhood leukemia incidence over two decades from 1992 to 2013. Int J Cancer 2017; 140:1000-1008. [PMID: 27778348 PMCID: PMC5550103 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.30487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Revised: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Incidence rates of childhood leukemia in the United States have steadily increased over the last several decades, but only recently have disparities in the increase in incidence been recognized. In the current analysis, Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) data were used to evaluate recent trends in the incidence of childhood leukemia diagnosed at age 0-19 years from 1992 to 2013, overall and by age, race/ethnicity, gender and histologic subtype. Hispanic White children were more likely than non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black or non-Hispanic Asian children to be diagnosed with acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) from 2009 to 2013. From 1992 to 2013, a significant increase in ALL incidence was observed for Hispanic White children [annual percent change (APC)Hispanic = 1.08, 95% CI: 0.59, 1.58]; no significant increase was observed for non-Hispanic White, Black or Asian children. ALL incidence increased by about 3% per year from 1992 to 2013 for Hispanic White children diagnosed from 15 to 19 years (APC = 2.67; 95% CI: 0.88, 4.49) and by 2% for those 10-14 years (APC = 2.09; 95% CI: 0.57, 3.63), while no significant increases in incidence were observed in non-Hispanic White, Black, or Asian children of the same age. Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) incidence increased among non-Hispanic White children under 1 year at diagnosis, and among Hispanic White children diagnosed at age 1-4. The increase in incidence rates of childhood ALL appears to be driven by rising rates in older Hispanic children (10-14, and 15-19 years). Future studies are needed to evaluate reasons for the increase in ALL among older Hispanic children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Barrington-Trimis
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Myles Cockburn
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Catherine Metayer
- School of Public Health, University of California Berkeley (UCB), Berkeley, CA
| | - W James Gauderman
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Joseph Wiemels
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, CA
| | - Roberta McKean-Cowdin
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
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Quach P, El Sherif R, Gomes J, Krewksi D. A systematic review of the risk factors associated with the onset and progression of primary brain tumours. Neurotoxicology 2016; 61:214-232. [PMID: 27212451 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2016.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The overall aim of this systematic review was to identify risk factors for onset and natural progression, which were shown to increase, decrease, or have a null association with risk of primary brain tumour. For onset, the project was separated into two phases. The first phase consisted of a systematic search of existing systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Moderate to high methodological quality reviews were incorporated and summarized with relevant observational studies published since 2010, identified from a systematic search performed in phase 2. For natural progression, only the first phase was conducted. Standard systematic review methodology was utilized. Based on this review, various genetic variants, pesticide exposures, occupational farming/hairdressing, cured meat consumption and personal hair dye use appear to be associated with increased risk of onset amongst adults. The specific EGF polymorphsm 61-A allele within Caucasian populations and having a history of allergy was associated with a decreased risk. For progression, M1B-1 antigen was shown to increase the risk. High birth weight, pesticide exposure (childhood exposure, and parental occupational exposure) and maternal consumption of cured meat during pregnancy may also increase the risk of onset of childhood brain tumours. Conversely, maternal intake of pre-natal supplements (folic acid) appeared to decrease risk. Children with neurofibromatosis 2 were considered to have worse overall and relapse free survival compared to neurofibromatosis 1, as were those children who had grade III tumours compared to lesser grades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Quach
- School of Epidemiology, Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
| | - Reem El Sherif
- Department of Family Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - James Gomes
- Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Canada
| | - Daniel Krewksi
- School of Epidemiology, Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada; McLaughlin Centre for Population Health Risk Assessment, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada; Risk Sciences International, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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27
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Pedersen C, Johansen C, Schüz J, Olsen JH, Raaschou-Nielsen O. Residential exposure to extremely low-frequency magnetic fields and risk of childhood leukaemia, CNS tumour and lymphoma in Denmark. Br J Cancer 2015; 113:1370-4. [PMID: 26484412 PMCID: PMC4815792 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2015.365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Revised: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We previously reported that children exposed to elevated extremely low-frequency magnetic fields (ELF-MF) had a five to six times higher risk of leukaemia, central nervous system (CNS) tumour and malignant lymphoma. Here we extend the study from 1968 to 1986 through 2003. METHODS We included 3277 children with leukaemia, CNS tumour or malignant lymphoma during 1968-2003 recorded in the Danish Cancer Registry and 9129 controls randomly selected from the Danish childhood population. ELF-MF from 50 to 400 kV facilities were calculated at the residences. RESULTS For recently diagnosed cases (1987-2003), the relative risk (RR) was 0.88 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.32-2.42), while for the total period (1968-2003) it was 1.63 (95% CI: 0.77-3.46) for leukaemia, CNS tumour and malignant lymphoma combined for exposures ⩾0.4 μT compared with <0.1 μT. These results were based on five cases (recent period) and 11 cases (total period) in the highest exposure group. CONCLUSIONS We did not confirm the previous finding of a five- to six-fold higher risk for leukaemia, CNS tumour and malignant lymphoma when including data from the more recent time period. For the total time period, the results for childhood leukaemia were in line with large pooled analyses showing RRs between 1.5 and 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Pedersen
- Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Strandboulevarden 49, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christoffer Johansen
- Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Strandboulevarden 49, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Oncology Clinic, Finsen Centre, Rigshospitalet 5073, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Joachim Schüz
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Section of Environment and Radiation, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69372 Lyon, France
| | - Jørgen H Olsen
- Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Strandboulevarden 49, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ole Raaschou-Nielsen
- Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Strandboulevarden 49, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, Postbox 358, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
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Lee HC, Hong MN, Jung SH, Kim BC, Suh YJ, Ko YG, Lee YS, Lee BY, Cho YG, Myung SH, Lee JS. Effect of extremely low frequency magnetic fields on cell proliferation and gene expression. Bioelectromagnetics 2015; 36:506-16. [DOI: 10.1002/bem.21932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2013] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Chul Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; College of Medicine, Inha University, Incheon; Korea
| | - Mi-Na Hong
- Research Center for Radio-Senescence; Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences; Seoul Korea
| | - Seung Hee Jung
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; College of Medicine, Inha University, Incheon; Korea
- Research Center for Radio-Senescence; Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences; Seoul Korea
| | - Bong Cho Kim
- Research Center for Radio-Senescence; Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences; Seoul Korea
| | - Young Ju Suh
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; College of Medicine, Inha University, Incheon; Korea
| | - Young-Gyu Ko
- School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology; Korea University; Seoul Korea
| | - Yun-Sil Lee
- College of Pharmacy & Division of Life Science and Pharmaceuticals; Ewha Womans University; Seoul Korea
| | - Byeong-Yoon Lee
- Smart Grid Research Division; Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute; Changwon-si Korea
| | - Yeun-Gyu Cho
- Smart Grid Research Division; Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute; Changwon-si Korea
| | - Sung-Ho Myung
- Smart Grid Research Division; Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute; Changwon-si Korea
| | - Jae-Seon Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; College of Medicine, Inha University, Incheon; Korea
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29
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Khan I, Bangash M, Baeesa S, Jamal A, Carracedo A, Alghamdi F, Qashqari H, Abuzenadah A, AlQahtani M, Damanhouri G, Chaudhary A, Hussein D. Epidemiological trends of histopathologically WHO classified CNS tumors in developing countries: systematic review. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2015; 16:205-16. [PMID: 25640353 DOI: 10.7314/apjcp.2015.16.1.205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Many developing countries are lagging behind in reporting epidemiological data for individual central nervous system (CNS) tumors. This paper aimed to elicit patterns for the epidemiology of individual World Health Organization (WHO) classified CNS tumors in countries registered by WHO as "developing". MATERIALS AND METHODS Cyber search was carried out through 66 cancer networks/registries and 181 PubMed published papers that reported counts of CNS tumors for the period of 2009-2012. The relationship between the natural log of incidence Age Standardized Rate (ASR) reported by Globocan and Latitude/ Longitude was investigated. RESULTS Registries for 21 countries displayed information related to CNS tumors. In contrast tends for classified CNS tumor cases were identified for 38 countries via 181 PubMed publications. Extracted data showed a majority of unclassified reported cases [PubMed (38 countries, 45.7%), registries (21 countries, 96.1%)]. For classified tumors, astrocytic tumors were the most frequently reported type [PubMed (38 countries, 1,245 cases, 15.7%), registries (21 countries, 627 cases, 1.99%]. A significant linear regression relationship emerged between latitudes and reported cases of CNS tumors. CONCLUSIONS Previously unreported trends of frequencies for individually classified CNS tumors were elucidated and a possible link of CNS tumors occurrence with geographical location emerged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ishaq Khan
- Center of Excellence in Genomic Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia E-mail :
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Parodi S, Merlo DF, Ranucci A, Miligi L, Benvenuti A, Rondelli R, Magnani C, Haupt R. Risk of neuroblastoma, maternal characteristics and perinatal exposures: The SETIL study. Cancer Epidemiol 2014; 38:686-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.canep.2014.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2014] [Revised: 09/02/2014] [Accepted: 09/13/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Johnson KJ, Cullen J, Barnholtz-Sloan JS, Ostrom QT, Langer CE, Turner MC, McKean-Cowdin R, Fisher JL, Lupo PJ, Partap S, Schwartzbaum JA, Scheurer ME. Childhood brain tumor epidemiology: a brain tumor epidemiology consortium review. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2014; 23:2716-36. [PMID: 25192704 PMCID: PMC4257885 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-14-0207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 222] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Childhood brain tumors are the most common pediatric solid tumor and include several histologic subtypes. Although progress has been made in improving survival rates for some subtypes, understanding of risk factors for childhood brain tumors remains limited to a few genetic syndromes and ionizing radiation to the head and neck. In this report, we review descriptive and analytical epidemiology childhood brain tumor studies from the past decade and highlight priority areas for future epidemiology investigations and methodological work that is needed to advance our understanding of childhood brain tumor causes. Specifically, we summarize the results of a review of studies published since 2004 that have analyzed incidence and survival in different international regions and that have examined potential genetic, immune system, developmental and birth characteristics, and environmental risk factors. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev; 23(12); 2716-36. ©2014 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly J Johnson
- Brown School Masters of Public Health Program, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Jennifer Cullen
- American Childhood Cancer Organization, Kensington, Maryland
| | - Jill S Barnholtz-Sloan
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Quinn T Ostrom
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Chelsea E Langer
- Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology, Carrer Doctor Aiguader, Barcelona, Spain. Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Plaça de la Mercè, Barcelona, Spain. CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Carrer Casanova, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Michelle C Turner
- Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology, Carrer Doctor Aiguader, Barcelona, Spain. Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Plaça de la Mercè, Barcelona, Spain. CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Carrer Casanova, Barcelona, Spain. McLaughlin Centre for Population Health Risk Assessment, Institute of Population Health, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Roberta McKean-Cowdin
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California, USC/Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, California
| | - James L Fisher
- Division of Epidemiology, College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Philip J Lupo
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Hematology-Oncology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas. Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Sonia Partap
- Division of Neurology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California
| | - Judith A Schwartzbaum
- Division of Epidemiology, College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Michael E Scheurer
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Hematology-Oncology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas. Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.
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Bunch KJ, Keegan TJ, Swanson J, Vincent TJ, Murphy MFG. Residential distance at birth from overhead high-voltage powerlines: childhood cancer risk in Britain 1962-2008. Br J Cancer 2014; 110:1402-8. [PMID: 24504371 PMCID: PMC3950865 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2014.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Revised: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 12/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: We extend our previous study of childhood leukaemia and proximity to high-voltage powerlines by including more recent data and cases and controls from Scotland, by considering 132-kV powerlines as well as 275 and 400 kV and by looking at greater distances from the powerlines. Methods: Case–control study using 53 515 children from the National Registry of Childhood Tumours 1962–2008, matched controls, and calculated distances of mother's address at child's birth to powerlines at 132, 275, and 400 kV in England, Wales and Scotland. Results: Our previous finding of an excess risk for leukaemia at distances out to 600 m declines over time. Relative risk and 95% confidence interval for leukaemia, 0–199 m compared with>1000 m, all voltages: 1960s 4.50 (0.97–20.83), 2000s 0.71 (0.49–1.03), aggregate over whole period 1.12 (0.90–1.38). Increased risk, albeit less strong, may also be present for 132-kV lines. Increased risk does not extend beyond 600 m for lines of any voltage. Conclusions: A risk declining over time is unlikely to arise from any physical effect of the powerlines and is more likely to be the result of changing population characteristics among those living near powerlines.
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Affiliation(s)
- K J Bunch
- Childhood Cancer Research Group, University of Oxford, New Richards Building, Old Road Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 7LG, UK
| | - T J Keegan
- Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Furness Building, Lancaster LA1 4YA, UK
| | - J Swanson
- National Grid, 1-3 Strand, London WC2N 5EH, UK
| | - T J Vincent
- Childhood Cancer Research Group, University of Oxford, New Richards Building, Old Road Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 7LG, UK
| | - M F G Murphy
- Childhood Cancer Research Group, University of Oxford, New Richards Building, Old Road Campus, Headington, Oxford OX3 7LG, UK
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Bae JE, Do JY, Kwon SH, Lee SD, Jung YW, Kim SC, Chae KS. Electromagnetic field-induced converse cell growth during a long-term observation. Int J Radiat Biol 2013; 89:1035-44. [PMID: 23859432 DOI: 10.3109/09553002.2013.825063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Professional and public concern about the potential adverse effects of man-made electromagnetic fields (EMF) on the human body has dramatically expanded in recent years. Despite numerous attempts to investigate this issue, the long-standing challenge of reproducibility surrounding alternating EMF effects on human health remains unresolved. Our chief aim was to investigate a plausible mechanism for this phenomenon. MATERIALS AND METHODS Growth of cultured human cancer cells, DU145 and Jurkat, exposed to power frequency magnetic field (MF) (60 Hz, 1 mT) for 3 days, was determined using a 2-(4-Iodophenyl)- 3-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-(2,4-disulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium (WST-1) assay and a trypan blue exclusion assay. This experiment was repeated at incubators long-term monitoring period up to 5.3 years. A periodogram analysis was performed to investigate periodic patterns in the MF and sham effects on cell growth. RESULTS Unlike conventional assumptions, the MF effect on growth in both cell types was promotive or suppressive in a period-dependent manner. The converse cell growth induced by the MF was consistent in incubators, with little variation. CONCLUSIONS Spatiotemporal evidence suggests that the period-dependent converse cell growth by the MF may contribute to the poor reproducibility and explain the adverse effects observed in previous experimental and epidemiological investigations. Additionally, the novel approach of this study may be applied to design features required to experimentally determine the effects of EMF on living organisms in a convincing manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Eun Bae
- Department of Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
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Villarini M, Ambrosini MV, Moretti M, Dominici L, Taha E, Piobbico D, Gambelunghe C, Mariucci G. Brain hsp70 expression and DNA damage in mice exposed to extremely low frequency magnetic fields: A dose-response study. Int J Radiat Biol 2013; 89:562-70. [DOI: 10.3109/09553002.2013.782449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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35
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Childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia and birthweight: Insights from a pooled analysis of case–control data from Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States. Eur J Cancer 2013; 49:1437-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2012.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2012] [Revised: 11/14/2012] [Accepted: 11/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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36
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Stratton D, Lange S, Inal JM. Pulsed extremely low-frequency magnetic fields stimulate microvesicle release from human monocytic leukaemia cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2012; 430:470-5. [PMID: 23237811 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2012] [Accepted: 12/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Microvesicles are released from cell surfaces constitutively during early apoptosis or upon activation with various stimuli including sublytic membrane attack complex (MAC). This study shows that an alternating current, pulsed, extremely low-frequency electromagnetic field (0.3 μT at 10 Hz, 6V AC) induced transient plasma membrane damage that allowed calcium influx. This in turn caused a release of stimulated microvesicles (sMV). When extracellular calcium was chelated with EGTA, sMV biogenesis initiated by ELFMF was markedly reduced and the reduction was less than when the stimulation was the deposition of sublytic MAC. This suggested that pulsed ELFMF resulted in transcellular membrane pores causing organelles to leak additional calcium into the cytoplasm (which EGTA would not chelate) which itself can lead to sMV release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Stratton
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology Research Centre, School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, 166-220 Holloway Road, London N7 8DB, UK
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Li CY, Liu CC, Chang YH, Chou LP, Ko MC. A population-based case-control study of radiofrequency exposure in relation to childhood neoplasm. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2012; 435-436:472-478. [PMID: 22885353 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.06.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2012] [Revised: 06/20/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
This population-based case-control study in Taiwan considered incident cases aged 15 years or less and admitted in 2003 to 2007 for all neoplasm (ICD-9-CM: 140-239) (n=2606), including 939 leukemia and 394 brain neoplasm cases. Controls were randomly selected, with a case/control ratio of 1:30 and matched on year of birth, from all non-neoplasm children insured in the same year when the index case was admitted. Annual summarized power (ASP, watt-year) was calculated for each of the 71,185 mobile phone base stations (MPBS) in service between 1998 and 2007. Then, the annual power density (APD, watt-year/km(2)) of each township (n=367) was computed as a ratio of the total ASP of all MPBS in a township to the area of that particular township. Exposure of each study subject to radio frequency (RF) was indicated by the averaged APD within 5 years prior to the neoplasm diagnosis (cases) or July 1st of the year when the index case was admitted (controls) in the township where the subject lived. Unconditional logistic regression model with generalized estimation equation was employed to calculate the covariate-adjusted odds ratio [AOR] of childhood neoplasm in relation to RF exposure. A higher than median averaged APD (approximately 168 WYs/km(2)) was significantly associated with an increased AOR for all neoplasms (1.13; 1.01 to 1.28), but not for leukemia (1.23; 0.99 to 1.52) or brain neoplasm (1.14, 0.83 to 1.55). This study noted a significantly increased risk of all neoplasms in children with higher-than-median RF exposure to MPBS. The slightly elevated risk was seen for leukemia and brain neoplasm, but was not statistically significant. These results may occur due to several methodological limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chung-Yi Li
- Department and Graduate Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
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Schüz J. Exposure to extremely low-frequency magnetic fields and the risk of childhood cancer: update of the epidemiological evidence. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2011; 107:339-42. [PMID: 21946043 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2011.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2011] [Accepted: 09/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
There is an ongoing scientific controversy whether the observed association between exposure to residential extremely low-frequency magnetic fields (ELF-MF) and the risk of childhood leukaemia observed in epidemiological studies is causal or due to methodological shortcomings of those studies. Recent pooled analysis confirm results from previous studies, namely an approximately two-fold risk increase at ELF-MF exposures ≥0.4 μT, and demonstrate consistency of studies across countries, with different design, different methods of exposure assessment, and different systems of power transmission and distribution. On the other hand, recent pooled analyses for childhood brain tumour show little evidence for an association with ELF-MF, also at exposures ≥0.4 μT. Overall, the assessment that ELF-MF are a possible carcinogen and may cause childhood leukaemia remains valid. Ongoing research activities, mainly experimental and few new epidemiological studies, hopefully provide additional insight to bring clarity to a research area that has remained inconclusive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Schüz
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Section of Environment and Radiation, Lyon, France.
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Indoor environment and children's health: recent developments in chemical, biological, physical and social aspects. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2011; 215:1-18. [PMID: 21889403 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2011.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2011] [Revised: 07/22/2011] [Accepted: 07/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Much research is being carried out into indoor exposure to harmful agents. This review focused on the impact on children's health, taking a broad approach to the indoor environment and including chemical, microbial, physical and social aspects. Papers published from 2006 onwards were reviewed, with regards to scientific context. Most of publications dealt with chemical exposure. Apart from the ongoing issue of combustion by-products, most of these papers concerned semi volatile organic compounds (such as phthalates). These may be associated with neurotoxic, reprotoxic or respiratory effects and may, therefore, be of particular interest so far as children are concerned. In a lesser extent, volatile organic compounds (such as aldehydes) that have mainly respiratory effects are still studied. Assessing exposure to metals is still of concern, with increasing interest in bioaccessibility. Most of the papers on microbial exposure focused on respiratory tract infections, especially asthma linked to allergens and bio-aerosols. Physical exposure includes noise and electromagnetic fields, and articles dealt with the auditory and non auditory effects of noise. Articles on radiofrequency electromagnetic fields mainly concerned questions about non-thermal effects and papers on extremely low-frequency magnetic fields focused on the characterization of exposure. The impact of the indoor environment on children's health cannot be assessed merely by considering the effect of these different types of exposure: this review highlights new findings and also discusses the interactions between agents in indoor environments and also with social aspects.
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Milham S. Re: "A pooled analysis of extremely low-frequency magnetic fields and childhood brain tumors". Am J Epidemiol 2011; 173:360, reply 360-1. [PMID: 21186235 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwq413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Kheifets L, Ahlbom A, Crespi CM, Feychting M, Johansen C, Monroe J, Schuz J, Murphy MFG, Oksuzyan S, Preston-Martin S, Roman E, Saito T, Savitz D, Simpson J, Swanson J, Tynes T, Verkasalo P, Mezei G. THE AUTHORS REPLY. Am J Epidemiol 2010. [DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwq414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Maslanyj M, Lightfoot T, Schüz J, Sienkiewicz Z, McKinlay A. A precautionary public health protection strategy for the possible risk of childhood leukaemia from exposure to power frequency magnetic fields. BMC Public Health 2010; 10:673. [PMID: 21054823 PMCID: PMC3091578 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-10-673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2010] [Accepted: 11/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Epidemiological evidence showing a consistent association between the risk of childhood leukaemia and exposure to power frequency magnetic fields has been accumulating. This debate considers the additional precautionary intervention needed to manage this risk, when it exceeds the protection afforded by the exposure guidelines as recommended by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. Methods The Bradford-Hill Criteria are guidelines for evaluating the scientific evidence that low frequency magnetic fields cause childhood leukaemia. The criteria are used for assessing the strength of scientific evidence and here have been applied to considering the strength of evidence that exposures to extremely low frequency magnetic fields may increase the risk of childhood leukaemia. The applicability of precaution is considered using the risk management framework outlined in a European Commission (EC) communication on the Precautionary Principle. That communication advises that measures should be proportionate, non-discriminatory, consistent with similar measures already taken, based on an examination of the benefits and costs of action and inaction, and subject to review in the light of new scientific findings. Results The main evidence for a risk is an epidemiological association observed in several studies and meta-analyses; however, the number of highly exposed children is small and the association could be due to a combination of selection bias, confounding and chance. Corroborating experimental evidence is limited insofar as there is no clear indication of harm at the field levels implicated; however, the aetiology of childhood leukaemia is poorly understood. Taking a precautionary approach suggests that low-cost intervention to reduce exposure is appropriate. This assumes that if the risk is real, its impact is likely to be small. It also recognises the consequential cost of any major intervention. The recommendation is controversial in that other interpretations of the data are possible, and low-cost intervention may not fully alleviate the risk. Conclusions The debate shows how the EC risk management framework can be used to apply the Precautionary Principle to small and uncertain public health risks. However, despite the need for evidence-based policy making, many of the decisions remain value driven and therefore subjective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myron Maslanyj
- Health Protection Agency, Chilton, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX110RQ, UK.
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