Zbtb20 defines a hippocampal neuronal identity through direct repression of genes that control projection neuron development in the isocortex

Development of Differential Sublaminar Feedforward Inhibitory Circuits in CA1 Hippocampus Requires Satb2

Pyramidal cells (PCs) in CA1 hippocampus can be classified by their radial position as deep or superficial and organize into subtype-specific circuits necessary for differential information processing. Specifically, superficial PCs receive fewer inhibitory synapses from parvalbumin (PV)-expressing interneurons than deep PCs, resulting in weaker feedforward inhibition of input from CA3 Schaffer collaterals. Using mice, we investigated mechanisms underlying CA1 PC differentiation and the development of this inhibitory circuit motif. We found that the transcriptional regulator SATB2, which is necessary for pyramidal cell differentiation in the neocortex, is selectively expressed in superficial PCs during early postnatal development. To investigate its role in CA1, we conditionally knocked out Satb2 from pyramidal cells during embryonic development using both male and female Emx1IRES-Cre; Satb2flox/flox mice. Loss of Satb2 resulted in increased feedforward inhibition of CA3 Schaffer collateral input to superficial PCs, which matched that observed to deep PCs in control mice. Using paired whole-cell recordings between PCs and PV+ interneurons, we found this was due to an increase in the strength of unitary inhibitory synaptic connections from PV+ interneurons to mutant superficial PCs. Regulation of synapse strength was restricted to inhibitory synapses; excitatory synaptic connections from CA3 to CA1 PCs and CA1 PCs to PV+ interneurons were not affected by loss of Satb2 Finally, we show that SATB2 expression in superficial PCs is necessary to suppress the formation of synapses from PV+ interneurons during synaptogenesis. Thus, early postnatal expression of SATB2 in superficial PCs is necessary for the development of biased feedforward inhibition in CA1.

Development of differential sublaminar feedforward inhibitory circuits in CA1 hippocampus requires Satb2

Pyramidal cells (PCs) in CA1 hippocampus can be classified by their radial position as deep or superficial and organize into subtype-specific circuits necessary for differential information processing. Specifically, superficial PCs receive fewer inhibitory synapses from parvalbumin (PV)-expressing interneurons than deep PCs, resulting in weaker feedforward inhibition of input from CA3 Schaffer collaterals. Using mice, we investigated mechanisms underlying PC differentiation and the development of this inhibitory circuit motif. We found that expression of the transcriptional regulator SATB2 is biased towards superficial PCs during early postnatal development and necessary to suppress PV+ interneuron synapse formation. In the absence of SATB2, the number of PV+ interneuron synaptic puncta surrounding superficial PCs increases during development to match deep PCs. This results in equivalent inhibitory current strength observed in paired whole-cell recordings, and equivalent feedforward inhibition of Schaffer collateral input. Thus, SATB2 is necessary for superficial PC differentiation and biased feedforward inhibition in CA1.

Age-Dependent Modulation of Layer V Pyramidal Neuron Excitability in the Mouse Primary Motor Cortex by D1 Receptor Agonists and Antagonists

The primary motor cortex (M1) receives dopaminergic (DAergic) projections from the midbrain which play a key role in modulating motor and cognitive processes, such as motor skill learning. However, little is known at the level of individual neurons about how dopamine (DA) and its receptors modulate the intrinsic properties of the different neuronal subpopulations in M1 and if this modulation depends on age. Using immunohistochemistry, we first mapped the cells expressing the DA D1 receptor across the different layers in M1, and quantified the number of pyramidal neurons (PNs) expressing the D1 receptor in the different layers, in young and adult mice. This work reveals that the spatial distribution and the molecular profile of D1 receptor-expressing neurons (D1+) across M1 layers do not change with age. Then, combining whole-cell patch-clamp recordings and pharmacology, we explored ex vivo in young and adult mice the impact of activation or blockade of D1 receptors on D1+ PN intrinsic properties. While the bath application of the D1 receptor agonist induced an increase in the excitability of layer V PNs both in young and adult, we identified a distinct modulation of intrinsic electrical properties of layer V D1+ PNs by D1 receptor antagonist depending on the age of the animal.

Evaluation of Clinical and Immunological Alterations Associated with ICF Syndrome

PURPOSE

Immunodeficiency with centromeric instability and facial anomalies (ICF) syndrome is a rare autosomal recessive combined immunodeficiency. The detailed immune responses are not explored widely. We investigated known and novel immune alterations in lymphocyte subpopulations and their association with clinical symptoms in a well-defined ICF cohort.

METHODS

We recruited the clinical findings from twelve ICF1 and ICF2 patients. We performed detailed immunological evaluation, including lymphocyte subset analyses, upregulation, and proliferation of T cells. We also determined the frequency of circulating T follicular helper (cTFH) and regulatory T (Treg) cells and their subtypes by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

There were ten ICF1 and two ICF2 patients. We identified two novel homozygous missense mutations in the ZBTB24 gene. Respiratory tract infections were the most common recurrent infections among the patients. Gastrointestinal system (GIS) involvements were observed in seven patients. All patients received intravenous immunoglobulin replacement therapy and antibacterial prophylaxis; two died during the follow-up period. Immunologically, CD4+ T-cell counts, percentages of recent thymic emigrant T cells, and naive CD4+ T decreased in two, five, and four patients, respectively. Impaired T-cell proliferation and reduced CD25 upregulation were detected in all patients. These changes were more prominent in CD8+ T cells. GIS involvements negatively correlated with CD3+ T-, CD3+CD4+ T-, CD16+CD56+ NK-cell counts, and CD4+/CD8+ T-cell ratios. Further, we observed expanded cTFH cells and reduced Treg and follicular regulatory T cells with a skewing to a TH2-like phenotype in all tested subpopulations.

CONCLUSION

The ICF syndrome encompasses various manifestations affecting multiple end organs. Perturbed T-cell responses with increased cTFH and decreased Treg cells may provide further insight into the immune aberrations observed in ICF syndrome.

Machine learning analyses reveal circadian clock features predictive of anxiety among UK biobank participants

Mood disorders, including depression and anxiety, affect almost one-fifth of the world's adult population and are becoming increasingly prevalent. Mutations in circadian clock genes have previously been associated with mood disorders both directly and indirectly through alterations in circadian phase, suggesting that the circadian clock influences multiple molecular pathways involved in mood. By targeting previously identified single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that have been implicated in anxiety and depressive disorders, we use a combination of statistical and machine learning techniques to investigate associations with the generalized anxiety disorder assessment (GAD-7) scores in a UK Biobank sample of 90,882 individuals. As in previous studies, we observed that females exhibited higher GAD-7 scores than males regardless of genotype. Interestingly, we found no significant effects on anxiety from individual circadian gene variants; only circadian genotypes with multiple SNP variants showed significant associations with anxiety. For both sexes, severe anxiety is associated with a 120-fold increase in odds for individuals with CRY2_AG(rs1083852)/ZBTB20_TT(rs1394593) genotypes and is associated with a near 40-fold reduction in odds for individuals with PER3-A_CG(rs228697)/ZBTB20_TT(rs1394593) genotypes. We also report several sex-specific associations with anxiety. In females, the CRY2/ZBTB20 genotype combination showed a > 200-fold increase in odds of anxiety and PER3/ZBTB20 and CRY1 /PER3-A genotype combinations also appeared as female risk factors. In males, CRY1/PER3-A and PER3-B/ZBTB20 genotype combinations were associated with anxiety risk. Mediation analysis revealed direct associations of CRY2/ZBTB20 variant genotypes with moderate anxiety in females and CRY1/PER3-A variant genotypes with severe anxiety in males. The association of CRY1/PER3-A variant genotypes with severe anxiety in females was partially mediated by extreme evening chronotype. Our results reinforce existing findings that females exhibit stronger anxiety outcomes than males, and provide evidence for circadian gene associations with anxiety, particularly in females. Our analyses only identified significant associations using two-gene combinations, underscoring the importance of combined gene effects on anxiety risk. We describe novel, robust associations between gene combinations involving the ZBTB20 SNP (rs1394593) and risk of anxiety symptoms in a large population sample. Our findings also support previous findings that the ZBTB20 SNP is an important factor in mood disorders, including seasonal affective disorder. Our results suggest that reduced expression of this gene significantly modulates the risk of anxiety symptoms through direct influences on mood-related pathways. Together, these observations provide novel links between the circadian clockwork and anxiety symptoms and identify potential molecular pathways through which clock genes may influence anxiety risk.

Transcription Factor Zbtb20 as a Regulator of Malignancy and Its Practical Applications

Zbtb20 (zinc finger and BTB domain-containing protein 20) is a transcription factor with a zinc finger DNA binding domain and a BTB domain responsible for protein-protein interaction. Recently, this TF has received attention because new data showed its pivotal involvement in normal neural development and its regulatory effects on proliferation and differentiation in different tissues. Zbtb20 was shown to increase proliferation and migration and confer resistance to apoptosis in the contexts of many malignant tumors like hepatocellular carcinoma, non-small-cell lung carcinoma, gastric adenocarcinoma, glioblastoma multiforme, breast cancer, and acute myeloid leukemia. The involvement of Zbtb20 in tumor biology is best studied in hepatocellular carcinoma, where it is a promising candidate as an immunohistochemical tumor marker or may be used in patient screening. Here we review the current data connecting Zbtb20 with malignant tumors.

FOXG1 drives transcriptomic networks to specify principal neuron subtypes during the development of the medial pallium

The medial pallium (MP) is the major forebrain region underlying learning and memory, spatial navigation, and emotion; however, the mechanisms underlying the specification of its principal neuron subtypes remain largely unexplored. Here, by postmitotic deletion of FOXG1 (a transcription factor linked to autism spectrum disorders and FOXG1 syndrome) and single-cell RNA sequencing of E17.5 MP in mice, we found that FOXG1 controls the specification of upper-layer retrosplenial cortical pyramidal neurons [RSC-PyNs (UL)], subiculum PyNs (SubC-PyNs), CA1-PyNs, CA3-PyNs, and dentate gyrus granule cells (DG-GCs) in the MP. We uncovered subtype-specific and subtype-shared FOXG1-regulated transcriptomic networks orchestrating MP neuron specification. We further demonstrated that FOXG1 transcriptionally represses Zbtb20, Prox1, and Epha4 to prevent CA3-PyN and DG-GC identities during the specification of RSC-PyNs (UL) and SubC-PyNs; FOXG1 directly activates Nr4a2 to promote SubC-PyN identity. We showed that TBR1, controlled by FOXG1 during CA1-PyN specification, was down-regulated. Thus, our study illuminates MP principal neuron subtype specification and related neuropathogenesis.

De novo 3q13.13q21.2 interstitial deletion and paternal 12p13.3 microdeletion in a fetus with dysplasia of the corpus callosum and ventriculomegaly: A case report

Chromosome 3q syndrome is a well-known genetic condition caused by interstitial deletion in the long arm of chromosome 3. The phenotype of this syndrome is variable and the great variability in the extent of these deletions leads to a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations. Terminal 12p deletion represents one of the rarest subtelomeric imbalances; patients with distal monosomy 12p present different phenotypes ranging from muscular hypotonia to autism spectrum disorders. The present study reported a prenatal diagnosis of a male fetus presenting ultrasound evidence of corpus callosum dysplasia and ventriculomegaly showing a 3q13q21.2 deletion and a 12p13.33 microdeletion paternally inherited. Among several features previously attributed to the terminal deletion of 3q, corpus callosum dysplasia and ventriculomegaly have rarely been reported together. As the 12p13.33 microdeletion in the father was associated only with muscular hypotonia and joint laxity, the involvement of terminal 12p deletions in the clinical features of the fetus was not possible to verify during the prenatal period. The present case report may provide a reference for prenatal diagnosis and genetic counseling in patients who present 3q13q21.2 deletions and 12p13.33 microdeletion.

Development of subdomains in the medial pallium of Xenopus laevis and Trachemys scripta: Insights into the anamniote-amniote transition

In all vertebrates, the most dorsal region of the telencephalon gives rise to the pallium, which in turn, is formed by at least four evolutionarily conserved histogenetic domains. Particularly in mammals, the medial pallium generates the hippocampal formation. Although this region is structurally different among amniotes, its functions, attributed to spatial memory and social behavior, as well as the specification of the histogenetic domain, appears to be conserved. Thus, the aim of the present study was to analyze this region by comparative analysis of the expression patterns of conserved markers in two vertebrate models: one anamniote, the amphibian Xenopus laevis; and the other amniote, the turtle Trachemys scripta elegans, during development and in adulthood. Our results show that, the histogenetic specification of both models is comparable, despite significant cytoarchitectonic differences, in particular the layered cortical arrangement present in the turtle, not found in anurans. Two subdivisions were observed in the medial pallium of these species: a Prox1 + and another Er81/Lmo4 +, comparable to the dentate gyrus and the mammalian cornu ammonis region, respectively. The expression pattern of additional markers supports this subdivision, which together with its functional involvement in spatial memory tasks, provides evidence supporting the existence of a basic program in the specification and functionality of the medial pallium at the base of tetrapods. These results further suggest that the anatomical differences found in different vertebrates may be due to divergences and adaptations during evolution.

Laminin 511 and WNT signalling sustain prolonged expansion of hiPSC-derived hippocampal progenitors

Using the timely re-activation of WNT signalling in neuralizing human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs), we have produced neural progenitor cells with a gene expression profile typical of human embryonic dentate gyrus (DG) cells. Notably, in addition to continuous WNT signalling, a specific laminin isoform is crucial to prolonging the neural stem state and to extending progenitor cell proliferation for over 200 days in vitro. Laminin 511 is indeed specifically required to support proliferation and to inhibit differentiation of hippocampal progenitor cells for extended time periods when compared with a number of different laminin isoforms assayed. Global gene expression profiles of these cells suggest that a niche of laminin 511 and WNT signalling is sufficient to maintain their capability to undergo typical hippocampal neurogenesis. Moreover, laminin 511 signalling sustains the expression of a set of genes responsible for the maintenance of a hippocampal neurogenic niche. Finally, xenograft of human DG progenitors into the DG of adult immunosuppressed host mice produces efficient integration of neurons that innervate CA3 layer cells spanning the same area of endogenous hippocampal neuron synapses.

BAF (mSWI/SNF) complex regulates mediolateral cortical patterning in the developing forebrain

Early forebrain patterning entails the correct regional designation of the neuroepithelium, and appropriate specification, generation, and distribution of neural cells during brain development. Specific signaling and transcription factors are known to tightly regulate patterning of the dorsal telencephalon to afford proper structural/functional cortical arealization and morphogenesis. Nevertheless, whether and how changes of the chromatin structure link to the transcriptional program(s) that control cortical patterning remains elusive. Here, we report that the BAF chromatin remodeling complex regulates the spatiotemporal patterning of the mouse dorsal telencephalon. To determine whether and how the BAF complex regulates cortical patterning, we conditionally deleted the BAF complex scaffolding subunits BAF155 and BAF170 in the mouse dorsal telencephalic neuroepithelium. Morphological and cellular changes in the BAF mutant forebrain were examined using immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. RNA sequencing, Co-immunoprecipitation, and mass spectrometry were used to investigate the molecular basis of BAF complex involvement in forebrain patterning. We found that conditional ablation of BAF complex in the dorsal telencephalon neuroepithelium caused expansion of the cortical hem and medial cortex beyond their developmental boundaries. Consequently, the hippocampal primordium is not specified, the mediolateral cortical patterning is compromised, and the cortical identity is disturbed in the absence of BAF complex. The BAF complex was found to interact with the cortical hem suppressor LHX2. The BAF complex suppresses cortical hem fate to permit proper forebrain patterning. We provide evidence that BAF complex modulates mediolateral cortical patterning possibly by interacting with the transcription factor LHX2 to drive the LHX2-dependent transcriptional program essential for dorsal telencephalon patterning. Our data suggest a putative mechanistic synergy between BAF chromatin remodeling complex and LHX2 in regulating forebrain patterning and ontogeny.

Expression of Transcription Factor ZBTB20 in the Adult Primate Neurogenic Niche under Physiological Conditions or after Ischemia

The Zbtb20 gene encodes for a transcription factor that plays an important role in mammalian cortical development. Recently, its expression was reported in the adult mouse subventricular zone (SVZ), a major neurogenic niche containing neural stem cells throughout life. Here, we analyzed its expression in the adult primate anterior SVZ (SVZa) and rostral migratory stream (RMS) using macaque monkeys (Macaca fuscata). We report that the majority of Ki67+ cells, 71.4% in the SVZa and 85.7% in the RMS, co-label for ZBTB20. Nearly all neuroblasts, identified by their Doublecortin expression, were positive for ZBTB20 in both regions. Nearly all GFAP+ neural stem cells/astrocytes were also positive for ZBTB20. Analysis of images derived from a public database of gene expression in control/ischemic monkey SVZa, showed evidence for ZBTB20 upregulation in postischemic monkey SVZa. Furthermore, the co-localization of ZBTB20 with Doublecortin and Ki67 was increased in the postischemic SVZa. Our results suggest that ZBTB20 expression is evolutionarily conserved in the mammalian neurogenic niche and is reactive to ischemia. This opens the possibility for further functional studies on the role of this transcription factor in neurogenesis in primates.

FOXG1 sequentially orchestrates subtype specification of postmitotic cortical projection neurons

The mammalian neocortex is a highly organized six-layered structure with four major cortical neuron subtypes: corticothalamic projection neurons (CThPNs), subcerebral projection neurons (SCPNs), deep callosal projection neurons (CPNs), and superficial CPNs. Here, careful examination of multiple conditional knockout model mouse lines showed that the transcription factor FOXG1 functions as a master regulator of postmitotic cortical neuron specification and found that mice lacking functional FOXG1 exhibited projection deficits. Before embryonic day 14.5 (E14.5), FOXG1 enforces deep CPN identity in postmitotic neurons by activating Satb2 but repressing Bcl11b and Tbr1. After E14.5, FOXG1 exerts specification functions in distinct layers via differential regulation of Bcl11b and Tbr1, including specification of superficial versus deep CPNs and enforcement of CThPN identity. FOXG1 controls CThPN versus SCPN fate by fine-tuning Fezf2 levels through diverse interactions with multiple SOX family proteins. Thus, our study supports a developmental model to explain the postmitotic specification of four cortical projection neuron subtypes and sheds light on neuropathogenesis.

The genetic basis of spatial cognitive variation in a food-caching bird

Spatial cognition is used by most organisms to navigate their environment. Some species rely particularly heavily on specialized spatial cognition to survive, suggesting that a heritable component of cognition may be under natural selection. This idea remains largely untested outside of humans, perhaps because cognition in general is known to be strongly affected by learning and experience.^1-4 We investigated the genetic basis of individual variation in spatial cognition used by non-migratory food-caching birds to recover food stores and survive harsh montane winters. Comparing the genomes of wild, free-living birds ranging from best to worst in their performance on a spatial cognitive task revealed significant associations with genes involved in neuron growth and development and hippocampal function. These results identify candidate genes associated with differences in spatial cognition and provide a critical link connecting individual variation in spatial cognition with natural selection.

Brain erythropoietin fine-tunes a counterbalance between neurodifferentiation and microglia in the adult hippocampus

In adult cornu ammonis hippocampi, erythropoietin (EPO) expression drives the differentiation of new neurons, independent of DNA synthesis, and increases dendritic spine density. This substantial brain hardware upgrade is part of a regulatory circle: during motor-cognitive challenge, neurons experience "functional" hypoxia, triggering neuronal EPO production, which in turn promotes improved performance. Here, we show an unexpected involvement of resident microglia. During EPO upregulation and stimulated neurodifferentiation, either by functional or inspiratory hypoxia, microglia numbers decrease. Treating mice with recombinant human (rh)EPO or exposure to hypoxia recapitulates these changes and reveals the involvement of neuronally expressed IL-34 and microglial CSF1R. Surprisingly, EPO affects microglia in phases, initially by inducing apoptosis, later by reducing proliferation, and overall dampens microglia activity and metabolism, as verified by selective genetic targeting of either the microglial or pyramidal neuronal EPO receptor. We suggest that during accelerating neuronal differentiation, EPO acts as regulator of the CSF1R-dependent microglia.

Molecular networks of the FOXP2 transcription factor in the brain

The discovery of the FOXP2 transcription factor, and its implication in a rare severe human speech and language disorder, has led to two decades of empirical studies focused on uncovering its roles in the brain using a range of in vitro and in vivo methods. Here, we discuss what we have learned about the regulation of FOXP2, its downstream effectors, and its modes of action as a transcription factor in brain development and function, providing an integrated overview of what is currently known about the critical molecular networks.

Selective removal of astrocytic APOE4 strongly protects against tau-mediated neurodegeneration and decreases synaptic phagocytosis by microglia

The apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene is the strongest genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease and directly influences tauopathy and tau-mediated neurodegeneration. ApoE4 has strong deleterious effects on both parameters. In the brain, apoE is produced and secreted primarily by astrocytes and by activated microglia. The cell-specific role of each form of apoE in the setting of neurodegeneration has not been determined. We generated P301S Tau/Aldh1l1-CreERT2/apoE3flox/flox or Tau/Aldh1l1-CreERT2/apoE4flox/flox mice. At 5.5 months of age, after the onset of tau pathology, we administered tamoxifen or vehicle and compared mice at 9.5 months of age. Removing astrocytic APOE4 markedly reduced tau-mediated neurodegeneration and decreased phosphorylated tau (pTau) pathology. Single-nucleus RNA sequencing analysis revealed striking gene expression changes in all cell types, with astrocytic APOE4 removal decreasing disease-associated gene signatures in neurons, oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and microglia. Removal of astrocytic APOE4 decreased tau-induced synaptic loss and microglial phagocytosis of synaptic elements, suggesting a key role for astrocytic apoE in synaptic degeneration.

Human iPSC-Derived Hippocampal Spheroids: An Innovative Tool for Stratifying Alzheimer Disease Patient-Specific Cellular Phenotypes and Developing Therapies

The hippocampus is important for memory formation and is severely affected in the brain with Alzheimer disease (AD). Our understanding of early pathogenic processes occurring in hippocampi in AD is limited due to tissue unavailability. Here, we report a chemical approach to rapidly generate free-floating hippocampal spheroids (HSs), from human induced pluripotent stem cells. When used to model AD, both APP and atypical PS1 variant HSs displayed increased Aβ42/Aβ40 peptide ratios and decreased synaptic protein levels, which are common features of AD. However, the two variants differed in tau hyperphosphorylation, protein aggregation, and protein network alterations. NeuroD1-mediated gene therapy in HSs-derived progenitors resulted in modulation of expression of numerous genes, including those involved in synaptic transmission. Thus, HSs can be harnessed to unravel the mechanisms underlying early pathogenic changes in the hippocampi of AD patients, and provide a robust platform for the development of therapeutic strategies targeting early stage AD.

Satb2 is required for the regionalization of retrosplenial cortex

The retrosplenial cortex (Rsp) is a transitional cortex located between the neocortex and archicortex, but the molecular mechanism specifying Rsp from the archicortex remains elusive. We here report that the transcription factor Satb2 is required for specifying Rsp identity during its morphogenesis. In Satb2 CKO mice, the boundary between the Rsp and archicortex [i.e., subiculum (SubC)] disappears as early as E17.5, and Rsp efferent projection is aberrant. Rsp-specific genes are lost, whereas SubC-specific genes are ectopically expressed in Rsp of Satb2 CKO mice. Furthermore, cell-autonomous role of Satb2 in maintaining Rsp neuron identity is revealed by inactivation of Satb2 in Rsp neurons. Finally, Satb2 represses the transcription of Nr4a2. The misexpression of Nr4a2 together with Ctip2 induces expression of SubC-specific genes in wild-type Rsp, and simultaneous knockdown of these two genes in Rsp Satb2-mutant cells prevents their fate transition to SubC identity. Thus, Satb2 serves as a determinant gene in the Rsp regionalization by repressing Nr4a2 and Ctip2 during cortical development.

SUMOylation controls the neurodevelopmental function of the transcription factor Zbtb20

SUMOylation is a dynamic post-translational protein modification that primarily takes place in cell nuclei, where it plays a key role in multiple DNA-related processes. In neurons, the SUMOylation-dependent control of a subset of neuronal transcription factors is known to regulate various aspects of nerve cell differentiation, development, and function. In an unbiased screen for endogenous SUMOylation targets in the developing mouse brain, based on a His₆ -HA-SUMO1 knock-in mouse line, we previously identified the transcription factor Zinc finger and BTB domain-containing 20 (Zbtb20) as a new SUMO1-conjugate. We show here that the three key SUMO paralogues SUMO1, SUMO2, and SUMO3 can all be conjugated to Zbtb20 in vitro in HEK293FT cells, and we confirm the SUMOylation of Zbtb20 in vivo in mouse brain. Using primary hippocampal neurons from wild-type and Zbtb20 knock-out (KO) mice as a model system, we then demonstrate that the expression of Zbtb20 is required for proper nerve cell development and neurite growth and branching. Furthermore, we show that the SUMOylation of Zbtb20 is essential for its function in this context, and provide evidence indicating that SUMOylation affects the Zbtb20-dependent transcriptional profile of neurons. Our data highlight the role of SUMOylation in the regulation of neuronal transcription factors that determine nerve cell development, and they demonstrate that key functions of the transcription factor Zbtb20 in neuronal development and neurite growth are under obligatory SUMOylation control.

Novel de novo ZBTB20 mutations in three cases with Primrose syndrome and constant corpus callosum anomalies

Corpus callosum (CC) is the major brain commissure connecting homologous areas of cerebral hemispheres. CC anomalies (CCAs) are the most frequent brain anomalies leading to variable neurodevelopmental outcomes making genetic counseling difficult in the absence of a known etiology that might inform the prognosis. Here, we used whole exome sequencing, and a targeted capture panel of syndromic CCA known causal and candidate genes to screen a cohort of 64 fetuses with CCA observed upon autopsy, and 34 children with CCA and intellectual disability. In one fetus and two patients, we identified three novel de novo mutations in ZBTB20, which was previously shown to be causal in Primrose syndrome. In addition to CCA, all cases presented with additional features of Primrose syndrome including facial dysmorphism and macrocephaly or megalencephaly. All three variations occurred within two out of the five zinc finger domains of the transcriptional repressor ZBTB20. Through homology modeling, these variants are predicted to result in local destabilization of each zinc finger domain suggesting subsequent abnormal repression of ZBTB20 target genes. Neurohistopathological analysis of the fetal case showed abnormal regionalization of the hippocampal formation as well as a reduced density of cortical upper layers where originate most callosal projections. Here, we report novel de novo ZBTB20 mutations in three independent cases with characteristic features of Primrose syndrome including constant CCA. Neurohistopathological findings in fetal case corroborate the observed key role of ZBTB20 during hippocampal and neocortical development. Finally, this study highlights the crucial role of ZBTB20 in CC development in human.

Neonatal amygdalae and hippocampi are influenced by genotype and prenatal environment, and reflected in the neonatal DNA methylome

The amygdala and hippocampus undergo rapid development in early life. The relative contribution of genetic and environmental factors to the establishment of their developmental trajectories has yet to be examined. We performed imaging on neonates and examined how the observed variation in volume and microstructure of the amygdala and hippocampus varied by genotype, and compared with prenatal maternal mental health and socioeconomic status. Gene × Environment models outcompeted models containing genotype or environment only to best explain the majority of measures but some, especially of the amygdaloid microstructure, were best explained by genotype only. Models including DNA methylation measured in the neonate umbilical cords outcompeted the Gene and Gene × Environment models for the majority of amygdaloid measures and minority of hippocampal measures. This study identified brain region-specific gene networks associated with individual differences in fetal brain development. In particular, genetic and epigenetic variation within CUX1 was highlighted.

What do DNA methylation studies tell us about depression? A systematic review

There has been a limited number of systematic reviews conducted to summarize the overview of the relationship between DNA methylation and depression, and to critically appraise the roles of major study characteristics in the accuracy of study findings. This systematic review aims to critically appraise the impact of study characteristics on the association between DNA methylation and depression, and summarize the overview of this association. Electronic databases and gray literatures until December 2017 were searched for English-language studies with standard diagnostic criteria of depression. A total of 67 studies were included in this review along with a summary of their study characteristics. We grouped the findings into etiological and treatment studies. Majority of these selected studies were recently published and from developed countries. Whole blood samples were the most studied common tissues. Bisulfite conversion, along with pyrosequencing, was widely used to test the DNA methylation level across all the studies. High heterogeneity existed among the studies in terms of experimental and statistical methodologies and study designs. As recommended by the Cochrane guideline, a systematic review without meta-analysis should be undertaken. This review has, in general, found that DNA methylation modifications were associated with depression. Subgroup analyses showed that most studies found BDNF and SLC6A4 hypermethylations to be associated with MDD or depression in general. In contrast, studies on NR3C1, OXTR, and other genes, which were tested by only few studies, reported mixed findings. More longitudinal studies using standardized experimental and laboratory methodologies are needed in future studies to enable more systematical comparisons and quantitative synthesis.

Neurodevelopmental disorder-associated ZBTB20 gene variants affect dendritic and synaptic structure

Dendritic spine morphology and dendritic arborization are key determinants of neuronal connectivity and play critical roles in learning, memory and behavior function. Recently, defects of ZBTB20, a BTB and zinc finger domain containing transcriptional repressor, have been implicated in a wide range of neurodevelopmental disorders, including intellectual disability and autism. Here we show distinct effects of expression of two major isoforms, long and short, of ZBTB20, and its neurodevelopmental disorder-linked variants, on dendritic architecture of cultured rat cortical pyramidal neurons. The N-terminal of ZBTB20 showed a role in regulating dendritic spine morphology. Two ZBTB20 single nucleotide variants, located at the N-terminal and central regions of the protein and potentially conferring autism risk, altered dendritic spine morphology. In contrast, a single nucleotide variant identified in patients with intellectual disability and located at the C-terminus of ZBTB20 affected dendritic arborization and dendritic length but had no effect on dendritic spine morphology. Furthermore, truncation of the extreme C-terminus of ZBTB20 caused spine and dendritic morphological changes that were similar but distinct from those caused by the C-terminal variant. Taken together, our study suggests ZBTB20's role in dendritic and synaptic structure and provide possible mechanisms of its effect in neurodevelopmental disorders.

Genome-wide association study of seasonal affective disorder

Family and twin studies have shown a genetic component to seasonal affective disorder (SAD). A number of candidate gene studies have examined the role of variations within biologically relevant genes in SAD susceptibility, but few genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have been performed to date. The authors aimed to identify genetic risk variants for SAD through GWAS. The authors performed a GWAS for SAD in 1380 cases and 2937 controls of European-American (EA) origin, selected from samples for GWAS of major depressive disorder and of bipolar disorder. Further bioinformatic analyses were conducted to examine additional genomic and biological evidence associated with the top GWAS signals. No susceptibility loci for SAD were identified at a genome-wide significant level. The strongest association was at an intronic variant (rs139459337) within ZBTB20 (odds ratio (OR) = 1.63, p = 8.4 × 10-7), which encodes a transcriptional repressor that has roles in neurogenesis and in adult brain. Expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) analysis showed that the risk allele "T" of rs139459337 is associated with reduced mRNA expression of ZBTB20 in human temporal cortex (p = 0.028). Zbtb20 is required for normal murine circadian rhythm and for entrainment to a shortened day. Of the 330 human orthologs of murine genes directly repressed by Zbtb20, there were 32 associated with SAD in our sample (at p < 0.05), representing a significant enrichment of ZBTB20 targets among our SAD genetic association signals (fold = 1.93, p = 0.001). ZBTB20 is a candidate susceptibility gene for SAD, based on a convergence of genetic, genomic, and biological evidence. Further studies are necessary to confirm its role in SAD.

Dynamic Expression Patterns of Progenitor and Neuron Layer Markers in the Developing Human Dentate Gyrus and Fimbria

The molecular mechanisms that orchestrate the development of the human dentate gyrus are not known. In this study, we characterized the formation of human dentate and fimbrial progenitors and postmitotic neurons from 9 gestational weeks (GW9) to GW25. PAX6+ progenitor cells remained proliferative until GW16 in the dentate ventricular zone. By GW11, the secondary dentate matrix had developed in the intermediate zone, surrounding the dentate anlage and streaming toward the subpial layer. This secondary matrix contained proliferating PAX6+ and/or TBR2+ progenitors. In parallel, SOX2+ and PAX6+ fimbrial cells were detected approaching the dentate anlage, representing a possible source of extra-dentate progenitors. By GW16, when the granule cell layer could be delineated, a hilar matrix containing PAX6+ and some TBR2+ progenitors had become identifiable. By GW25, when the 2 limbs of the granule cell layer had formed, the secondary dentate matrix was reduced to a pool of progenitors at the fimbrio-dentate junction. Although human dentate development recapitulates key steps previously described in rodents, differences seemed to emerge in neuron layer markers expression. Further studies are necessary to better elucidate their role in dentate formation and connectivity.

Loss of ZBTB20 impairs circadian output and leads to unimodal behavioral rhythms

Many animals display morning and evening bimodal activities in the day/night cycle. However, little is known regarding the potential components involved in the regulation of bimodal behavioral rhythms in mammals. Here, we identified that the zinc finger protein gene Zbtb20 plays a crucial role in the regulation of bimodal activities in mice. Depletion of Zbtb20 in nerve system resulted in the loss of early evening activity, but the increase of morning activity. We found that Zbtb20-deficient mice exhibited a pronounced decrease in the expression of Prokr2 and resembled phenotypes of Prok2 and Prokr2-knockout mice. Injection of adeno-associated virus-double-floxed Prokr2 in suprachiasmatic nucleus could partly restore evening activity in Nestin-Cre; Zbtb20fl/fl (NS-ZB20KO) mice. Furthermore, loss of Zbtb20 in Foxg1 loci, but intact in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, was not responsible for the unimodal activity of NS-ZB20KO mice. Our study provides evidence that ZBTB20-mediated PROKR2 signaling is critical for the evening behavioral rhythms.

Zbtb20 modulates the sequential generation of neuronal layers in developing cortex

Background

During corticogenesis, genetic programs encoded in progenitor cells at different developmental stages and inherited in postmitotic neurons specify distinct layer and area identities. Transcription factor Zbtb20 has been shown to play a role for hippocampal development but whether it is implicated in mammalian neocortical morphogenesis remains unknown.

Results

Here, we report that during embyogenesis transcription factor Zbtb20 has a dynamic spatio-temporal expression pattern in mitotic cortical progenitors through which it modulates the sequential generation of cortical neuronal layer identities. Zbtb20 knock out mice exhibited enhanced populations of early born L6-L4 neuronal subtypes and a dramatic reduction of the late born L3/L2 neurons. This defect was due to a temporal misbalance in the production of earlier versus later born neurons, leading to a progressive diminishing of the progenitor pool for the generation of L3-L2 neurons. Zbtb20 implements these temporal effects in part by binding to promoter of the orphan nuclear receptor CoupTF1/Nr2f1. In addition to its effects exerted in cortical progenitors, the postmitotic expression of Zbtb20 in L3/L2 neurons starting at birth may contribute to their proper differentiation and migration.

Conclusions

Our findings reveal Zbtb20 as a novel temporal regulator for the generation of layer-specific neuronal identities.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13041-016-0242-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Zbtb20 promotes astrocytogenesis during neocortical development

Multipotent neural precursor cells (NPCs) generate astrocytes at late stages of mammalian neocortical development. Many signalling pathways that regulate astrocytogenesis directly induce the expression of GFAP, a marker of terminally differentiated astrocytes. However, astrocyte specification occurs before GFAP expression and essential factors for the specification step have remained elusive. Here we show that Zbtb20 regulates astrocyte specification in the mouse neocortex. Zbtb20 is highly expressed in late-stage NPCs and their astrocytic progeny. Overexpression and knockdown of Zbtb20 promote and suppress astrocytogenesis, respectively, although Zbtb20 does not directly activate the Gfap promoter. Astrocyte induction by Zbtb20 is suppressed by knockdown of Sox9 or NFIA. Furthermore, in the astrocyte lineage, Zbtb20 directly represses the expression of Brn2, which encodes a protein necessary for upper-layer neuron specification. Zbtb20 is thus a key determinant of astrocytogenesis, in which it collaborates with Sox9 and NFIA, and acts in part through direct repression of Brn2 expression.

Astrocytes in the brain are derived from neural precursor cells (NPCs). Here, Motoshi Nagao and colleagues show that the transcription repressor Zbtb20 regulates astrocyte specification in the mouse neocortex.

Genetic, Cellular and Clinical Features of ICF Syndrome: a French National Survey

PURPOSE

Autosomal recessive deficiencies of DNMT3B or ZBTB24 account for two-thirds of cases of immunodeficiency, centromeric instability and facial dysmorphism (ICF syndrome). This primary immunodeficiency (PID) is characterized mainly by an antibody deficiency, facial abnormalities and centromeric instability. We analyzed the national cohort of patients with ICF syndrome with the aim of providing a more detailed description of the phenotype and management of patients with ICF syndrome.

METHODS

Demographic, genetic, immunological, and clinical features were recorded for each patient.

RESULTS

In the French cohort, seven of the nine patients carried DNMT3B mutations, six of which had never been described before. One patient had compound heterozygous ZBTB24 mutations. All patients were found to lack CD19(+)CD27(+) memory B cells. This feature is a major diagnostic criterion for both ICF1 and ICF2. Patients suffered both bacterial and viral infections, and three patients developed bronchiectasis. Autoimmune manifestations (hepatitis, nephritis and thyroiditis) not previously reported in ICF1 patients were also detected in two of our ICF1 patients. The mode of treatment and outcome of the French patients are reported, by genetic defect, and compared with those for 68 previously reported ICF patients. Immunoglobulin (Ig) replacement treatment was administered to all nine French patients. One ICF1 patient presented severe autoimmune manifestations and pancytopenia and underwent allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), but she died from unknown causes 6 years post-transplant.

CONCLUSION

Autoimmune signs are uncommon in ICF syndrome, but, when present, they affect patient outcome and require immunosuppressive treatment. The long-term outcome of ICF patients has been improved by the combination of IgG replacement and antibiotic prophylaxis.

Genetics of structural connectivity and information processing in the brain

Understanding the genetic factors underlying brain structural connectivity is a major challenge in imaging genetics. Here, we present results from genome-wide association studies (GWASs) of whole-brain white matter (WM) fractional anisotropy (FA), an index of microstructural coherence measured using diffusion tensor imaging. Data from independent GWASs of 355 Swedish and 250 Norwegian healthy adults were integrated by meta-analysis to enhance power. Complementary GWASs on behavioral data reflecting processing speed, which is related to microstructural properties of WM pathways, were performed and integrated with WM FA results via multimodal analysis to identify shared genetic associations. One locus on chromosome 17 (rs145994492) showed genome-wide significant association with WM FA (meta P value = 1.87 × 10^-08). Suggestive associations (Meta P value <1 × 10^-06) were observed for 12 loci, including one containing ZFPM2 (lowest meta P value = 7.44 × 10^-08). This locus was also implicated in multimodal analysis of WM FA and processing speed (lowest Fisher P value = 8.56 × 10^-07). ZFPM2 is relevant in specification of corticothalamic neurons during brain development. Analysis of SNPs associated with processing speed revealed association with a locus that included SSPO (lowest meta P value = 4.37 × 10^-08), which has been linked to commissural axon growth. An intergenic SNP (rs183854424) 14 kb downstream of CSMD1, which is implicated in schizophrenia, showed suggestive evidence of association in the WM FA meta-analysis (meta P value = 1.43 × 10^-07) and the multimodal analysis (Fisher P value = 1 × 10^-07). These findings provide novel data on the genetics of WM pathways and processing speed, and highlight a role of ZFPM2 and CSMD1 in information processing in the brain.

Ctip2-, Satb2-, Prox1-, and GAD65-Expressing Neurons in Rat Cultures: Preponderance of Single- and Double-Positive Cells, and Cell Type-Specific Expression of Neuron-Specific Gene Family Members, Nsg-1 (NEEP21) and Nsg-2 (P19)

The brain consists of many distinct neuronal cell types, but which cell types are present in widely used primary cultures of embryonic rodent brain is often not known. We characterized how abundantly four cell type markers (Ctip2, Satb2, Prox1, GAD65) were represented in cultured rat neurons, how easily neurons expressing different markers can be transfected with commonly used plasmids, and whether neuronal-enriched endosomal proteins Nsg-1 (NEEP21) and Nsg-2 (P19) are ubiquitously expressed in all types of cultured neurons. We found that cultured neurons stably maintain cell type identities that are reflective of cell types in vivo. This includes neurons maintaining simultaneous expression of two transcription factors, such as Ctip2+/Satb2+ or Prox1+/Ctip2+ double-positive cells, which have also been described in vivo. Secondly, we established the superior efficiency of CAG promoters for both Lipofectamine-mediated transfection as well as for electroporation. Thirdly, we discovered that Nsg-1 and Nsg-2 were not expressed equally in all neurons: whereas high levels of both Nsg-1 and Nsg-2 were found in Satb2-, Ctip2-, and GAD65-positive neurons, Prox1-positive neurons in hippocampal cultures expressed low levels of both. Our findings thus highlight the importance of identifying neuronal cell types for doing cell biology in cultured neurons: Keeping track of neuronal cell type might uncover effects in assays that might otherwise be masked by the mixture of responsive and non-responsive neurons in the dish.

Female patient with autistic disorder, intellectual disability, and co-morbid anxiety disorder: Expanding the phenotype associated with the recurrent 3q13.2-q13.31 microdeletion

In recent years, the advent of comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays and its use as a first genetic test for the diagnosis of patients with neurodevelopmental phenotypes has allowed the identification of novel submicroscopic chromosomal abnormalities (namely, copy number variants or CNVs), imperceptible by conventional cytogenetic techniques. The 3q13.31 microdeletion syndrome (OMIM #615433) has been defined as a genomic disorder mainly characterized by developmental delay, postnatal overgrowth, hypotonia, genital abnormalities in males, and characteristic craniofacial features. Although the 3q13.31 CNVs are variable in size, a 3.4 Mb recurrently altered region at 3q13.2-q13.31 has been recently described and non-allelic homologous recombination (NAHR) mediated by flanking human endogenous retrovirus (HERV-H) elements has been suggested as the mechanism of deletion formation. We expand the phenotypic spectrum associated with this recurrent deletion performing the clinical description of a 9-year-old female patient with autistic disorder, total absence of language, intellectual disability, anxiety disorder and disruptive, and compulsive eating behaviors. The array-based molecular karyotyping allowed the identification of a de novo recurrent 3q13.2-q13.31 deletion encompassing 25 genes. In addition, we compare her clinical phenotype with previous reports of patients with neurodevelopmental and behavioral disorders and proximal 3q microdeletions. Finally, we also review the candidate genes proposed so far for these phenotypes.

Possible functional links among brain- and skull-related genes selected in modern humans

The sequencing of the genomes from extinct hominins has revealed that changes in some brain-related genes have been selected after the split between anatomically-modern humans and Neanderthals/Denisovans. To date, no coherent view of these changes has been provided. Following a line of research we initiated in Boeckx and Benítez-Burraco (2014a), we hypothesize functional links among most of these genes and their products, based on the existing literature for each of the gene discussed. The genes we focus on are found mutated in different cognitive disorders affecting modern populations and their products are involved in skull and brain morphology, and neural connectivity. If our hypothesis turns out to be on the right track, it means that the changes affecting most of these proteins resulted in a more globular brain and ultimately brought about modern cognition, with its characteristic generativity and capacity to form and exploit cross-modular concepts, properties most clearly manifested in language.

A hypothesis for the evolution of the upper layers of the neocortex through co-option of the olfactory cortex developmental program

The neocortex is unique to mammals and its evolutionary origin is still highly debated. The neocortex is generated by the dorsal pallium ventricular zone, a germinative domain that in reptiles give rise to the dorsal cortex. Whether this latter allocortical structure contains homologs of all neocortical cell types it is unclear. Recently we described a population of DCX+/Tbr1+ cells that is specifically associated with the layer II of higher order areas of both the neocortex and of the more evolutionary conserved piriform cortex. In a reptile similar cells are present in the layer II of the olfactory cortex and the DVR but not in the dorsal cortex. These data are consistent with the proposal that the reptilian dorsal cortex is homologous only to the deep layers of the neocortex while the upper layers are a mammalian innovation. Based on our observations we extended these ideas by hypothesizing that this innovation was obtained by co-opting a lateral and/or ventral pallium developmental program. Interestingly, an analysis in the Allen brain atlas revealed a striking similarity in gene expression between neocortical layers II/III and piriform cortex. We thus propose a model in which the early neocortical column originated by the superposition of the lateral olfactory and dorsal cortex. This model is consistent with the fossil record and may account not only for the topological position of the neocortex, but also for its basic cytoarchitectural and hodological features. This idea is also consistent with previous hypotheses that the peri-allocortex represents the more ancient neocortical part. The great advances in deciphering the molecular logic of the amniote pallium developmental programs will hopefully enable to directly test our hypotheses in the next future.

Neuronal migration and its disorders affecting the CA3 region

In this review, we focus on CA3 neuronal migration disorders in the rodent. We begin by introducing the main steps of hippocampal development, and we summarize characteristic hippocampal malformations in human. We then describe various mouse mutants showing structural hippocampal defects. Notably, genes identified in human cortical neuronal migration disorders consistently give rise to a CA3 phenotype when mutated in the mouse. We successively describe their molecular, physiological and behavioral phenotypes that together contribute to a better understanding of CA3-dependent functions. We finally discuss potential factors underlying the CA3 vulnerability revealed by these mouse mutants and that may also contribute to other human neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Recurrent HERV-H-mediated 3q13.2-q13.31 deletions cause a syndrome of hypotonia and motor, language, and cognitive delays

We describe the molecular and clinical characterization of nine individuals with recurrent, 3.4-Mb, de novo deletions of 3q13.2-q13.31 detected by chromosomal microarray analysis. All individuals have hypotonia and language and motor delays; they variably express mild to moderate cognitive delays (8/9), abnormal behavior (7/9), and autism spectrum disorders (3/9). Common facial features include downslanting palpebral fissures with epicanthal folds, a slightly bulbous nose, and relative macrocephaly. Twenty-eight genes map to the deleted region, including four strong candidate genes, DRD3, ZBTB20, GAP43, and BOC, with important roles in neural and/or muscular development. Analysis of the breakpoint regions based on array data revealed directly oriented human endogenous retrovirus (HERV-H) elements of ~5 kb in size and of >95% DNA sequence identity flanking the deletion. Subsequent DNA sequencing revealed different deletion breakpoints and suggested nonallelic homologous recombination (NAHR) between HERV-H elements as a mechanism of deletion formation, analogous to HERV-I-flanked and NAHR-mediated AZFa deletions. We propose that similar HERV elements may also mediate other recurrent deletion and duplication events on a genome-wide scale. Observation of rare recurrent chromosomal events such as these deletions helps to further the understanding of mechanisms behind naturally occurring variation in the human genome and its contribution to genetic disease.