Immunomodulating Activity of Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 in Mice and in Human Volunteers

Experimental Models in Unraveling the Biological Mechanisms of Mushroom-Derived Bioactives against Aging- and Lifestyle-Related Diseases: A Review

Mushrooms have garnered considerable interest among researchers due to their immense nutritional and therapeutic properties. The presence of biologically active primary and secondary metabolites, which includes several micronutrients, including vitamins, essential minerals, and other dietary fibers, makes them an excellent functional food. Moreover, the dietary inclusion of mushrooms has been reported to reduce the incidence of aging- and lifestyle-related diseases, such as cancer, obesity, and stroke, as well as to provide overall health benefits by promoting immunomodulation, antioxidant activity, and enhancement of gut microbial flora. The multifunctional activities of several mushroom extracts have been evaluated by both in vitro and in vivo studies using cell lines along with invertebrate and vertebrate model systems to address human diseases and disorders at functional and molecular levels. Although each model has its own strengths as well as lacunas, various studies have generated a plethora of data regarding the regulating players that are modulated in order to provide various protective activities; hence, this review intends to compile and provide an overview of the plausible mechanism of action of mushroom-derived bioactives, which will be helpful in future medicinal explorations.

Effects of Outdoor-Grown Royal Sun Medicinal Mushroom Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 (Agaricomycetes) Fruiting Body on Canine Malassezia Dermatitis

Brazil-grown outdoor-cultivated Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 fruiting body (KA21) significantly increases the production of serum anti-beta-glucan antibody. Therefore, KA21 ingestion may be useful for the prevention and alleviation of fungal infections. This study aimed to determine the effects of KA21 in fungal infections in animals. KA21 was administered to nine dogs infected with Malassezia. Notably, the anti-beta-glucan antibody titer remained unchanged or tended to decrease in the oral steroid arm, whereas in the non-steroid arm, antibody titer increased in almost all animals after KA21 ingestion. Dogs showing improved clinical symptoms exhibited increased anti-beta-glucan antibody titers. The results of this study suggest that KA21 ingestion may alleviate the symptoms of Malassezia and other fungal infections and that continuous ingestion may help prolong recurrence-free intervals. Additionally, the ingestion of KA21 during oral steroid dosage reduction or discontinuation may enable smoother steroid withdrawal.

Chemically Sulfated Polysaccharides from Agaricus blazei Murill: Synthesis, Characterization and Anti-HIV Activity

AIDS, caused by HIV-1, is one of the most dangerous infectious diseases in the world. Therefore, it is necessary to develop new drugs with more potent bioactivities, less toxicity and higher tolerability for controlling the viral load, particularly by using the raw materials that are widely available. Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM), known in China as jisongrong, is of great importance as a food source and as a health-promoting supplement for immunomodulation. The polysaccharides of AbM exhibit various biological activities, such as regulating cellular immunity and providing anti-oxidative, anti-infective, and anti-inflammatory effects. At present, to our knowledge, no report has explored the chemically sulfated and anti-HIV-1 activity of AbM polysaccharides. Herein, the sulfated AbM polysaccharides with different sulfur contents were prepared by the chlorosulfonic acid-pyridine method. The characteristics of sulfated derivatives were established by the determination of the sulfur content, the relative molecular weight, and the Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The anti-HIV activities of the sulfated AbM polysaccharides were evaluated by CCK-8 and the single-cycle pseudovirus infection (TZM-bl) assay. The sulfated AbM polysaccharides had strong antiviral properties, and the half-maximal inhibitory concentrations approached that of the positive control, azidothymidine. Sulfated modification of AbM polysaccharides can increase their anti-HIV pharmacological activity, which makes them promising alternative candidates as bioactive macromolecules for biomedical applications in HIV/AIDS.

Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 May Prevent Diet-Induced Nash Through Its Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Anti-Fibrotic Activities in the Liver

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a progressive disease that occurs in the liver. As the number of people with NASH has increased, effective prevention and treatment strategies are needed. Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 (AGA) is a mushroom native to Brazil and is considered a healthy food because of its purported health benefits, including its antioxidant properties. In this study, we focused on the oxidative stress that accompanies the onset of NASH and examined whether AGA can prevent NASH development through its antioxidant activity. We used a mouse model of NASH in which pathogenesis was promoted by dietary induction. Supplementation with AGA attenuated the development of hepatic fibrosis, which is a characteristic feature of late-stage NASH. This effect appeared to be mechanistically linked to an AGA-promoted reduction in hepatic oxidative stress. These results demonstrate a novel role for AGA in NASH prevention.

Influence of the Culture Substrate on the Agaricus blazei Murrill Mushrooms Vitamins Content

The vitamin content of cultivated mushrooms differs from one species to another, depending on their stage of development, the nutrient substrate used to produce them, and the microclimate in the culture space. Agaricus blazei Murrill is one of the most popular cultivated medicinal mushrooms, with scientifically proven therapeutic properties. Considering that the Agaricus spp. mushrooms culture substrate can be produced using various raw materials, in this paper we have studied the influence of the culture substrate using four types of substrate with different protein additions on the vitamin content of mushrooms. The food qualities of the Agaricus blazei Murrill mushrooms, evaluated by the chemical composition, generally revealed the product obtained on the classic compost, improved with the addition of proteinaceous of corn flour. Mushrooms harvested on this substrate have the highest levels of B1 (1151 μg 100g-1 dm), B9 (671 μg 100g-1 dm), B12 (906 μg 100g-1 dm), PP (55.33 μg 100g-1 dm), and C vitamins (21.67 μg 100g-1 dm). The content of ergosterol, as a precursor of D2 vitamin, has higher values ​​in the product obtained on the classic compost, with the addition of wheat bran (90.17 mg 100g-1 dm) and the addition of corn flour (94 mg 100g-1 dm).

Effects of Euglena gracilis EOD-1 Ingestion on Salivary IgA Reactivity and Health-Related Quality of Life in Humans

Euglena gracilis EOD-1, a microalgal strain known for high yields of the β-1, 3-glucan paramylon, is suggested to function as a dietary fiber and enhance immunity. Here, we aimed to investigate the effects of E. gracilis EOD-1 biomass (EOD1BM) ingestion on immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibody titers in saliva, its reactivity, and the health-related quality of life (QOL) in humans. Reacting human immunoglobulin preparations and saliva with paramylon granules revealed the presence of anti-paramylon antibodies in the blood and saliva. We conducted a placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover study involving 13 healthy subjects who ingested the placebo or EOD1BM for 4 weeks. Saliva was collected from each subject before and after ingestion, and IgA titers and E. gracilis EOD-1 paramylon (EOD1PM) reactivity were compared. In the EOD1BM Ingestion group, the anti-EOD1PM IgA content and titer increased after EOD1BM ingestion. No such change was observed in the Placebo group. Furthermore, the health-related QOL, especially mental health, increased in the EOD1BM Ingestion group. Thus, EOD1BM ingestion led to the production of paramylon (PM)-specific IgA antibody and increased salivary IgA antibody titers. We demonstrate that EOD1BM ingestion enhanced the immunity in the mucosal surface, evoked an antigen-specific response, and increased the health-related QOL, thereby contributing to health improvement.

Immunomodulatory, Apoptosis Induction and Antitumor Activities of Aqueous and Methanolic Extract of Calvatia Craniiformis in Mice Transfected with Murine Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

OBJECTIVES:

To evaluate the Immunomodulatory, apoptosis induction and antitumor effects of aqueous and methanolic extracts of Calvatia craniiformis regarding the size of tumour mass, caspase-8 expression and apoptotic index (AI%) in mice transfected with murine hepatocellular carcinoma cell line (H22) as an experimental therapeutic system for human hepatocellular carcinoma.

MATERIAL AND METHODS:

Forty-eight Balb/C albino mice were transfected in legs with H22 cells. Tumour size was measured twice a week. Caspase-8 protein expression and apoptotic index determination evaluated by Immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS:

Tumor size significantly differed between the two groups of mice transfected with H22 cells; the first was treated with C. craniiformis aqueous extract (0.3, 0.6, 1.2) mg/kg and the second group was treated with C. craniiformis methanolic extract (0.25, 0.5, 1.0) mg/kg compared with control group. The inhibitory activity of aqueous and methanolic extracts was dose and duration dependent. The size of the tumour mass was reduced up to 87.9% when treated with 1.2 mg/kg aqueous extract and 1 mg/kg for methanolic extract. Caspase-8 expression was increased in a dose-dependent manner among H22 bearing mice treated with C. craniiformis aqueous extract (0.3, 0.6, 1.2) mg/kg. At 0.3 mg/kg, the intensity of expression was strong in (33.33%) and very strong in (66.67%). While at 0.6 mg/kg and 1.2 mg/kg the intensity of expression was strong in (33.33%) and very strong in (100%) with a significant difference (P ≤ 0.001). H22 bearing mice treated with (0.25, 0.5, 1.0) mg/kg C. craniiformis methanolic extract shows increased caspase-8 expression in a dose-dependent manner. At 0.25 mg/kg, the intensity of expression was strong in (33.33%) and very strong in (66.67%). While at 0.5 mg/kg, the intensity of expression was strong in (33.33%) and very strong in (100%). At 1.0 mg/kg, the intensity of expression was strong in (16.67%) and very strong in (83.33%) with significant difference (P ≤ 0.001). AI% of H22 bearing mice treated with C. craniiformis aqueous and methanolic extracts were significantly increased (P ≤ 0.05) compared with the untreated control group. No significant difference was reported in AI% between aqueous and methanolic extracts treated groups.

CONCLUSIONS:

Extracts of C. craniiformis were highly efficient in tumour growth inhibition, causing a reduction in the tumour size clinically and increase the expression of caspase-8 gene product in tumour tissue, causing increase apoptotic index of H22 cells taken from the legs of inoculated mice leading to loss of legs due to bone necrosis. Antitumor activity of C. craniiformis aqueous, and the methanolic extract was dose and duration dependent.

Ganoderma lucidum and Auricularia polytricha Mushrooms Protect against Carbofuran-Induced Toxicity in Rats

The current study aimed to investigate the ameliorative effects of two types of mushrooms, Ganoderma lucidum (GL) and Auricularia polytricha (AP), against carbofuran- (CF) induced toxicity in rats. Male Wistar rats (n = 42) were divided into six equal groups. The rats in the negative control group received oral administration of CF at 1 mg/kg with the normal diet for 28 days. The treatment groups received oral administration of ethanolic extract of GL or AP at 100 mg/kg followed by coadministration of CF at 1 mg/kg with the normal diet for the same experimental period, respectively. In the CF alone treated group, there were significant decreases in the erythrocytic and thrombocytic indices but increases in the concentrations of the total leukocytes, including the agranulocytes. A significant increase in all of the liver function biomarkers except albumin, in lipid profiles except high-density lipoprotein, and in the kidney function markers occurred in the negative control group compared to the rats of the normal control and positive control groups. The coadministration of mushroom extracts significantly ameliorated the toxic effects of the CF. The GL mushroom extract was more efficacious than that of the AP mushroom, possibly due to the presence of high levels of phenolic compounds and other antioxidants in the GL mushroom.

In vitro Anti-Influenza Virus Activity of Agaricus brasiliensis KA21

　Agaricus is known to have immunostimulatory and anti-tumor effects. However, the antiviral effects of Agaricus have not yet been examined. In the present study, the antiviral effects of an extract of Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 (AE) on the H1N1 influenza virus (PR8 strain) were investigated.　The anti-influenza virus effects of AE were examined by using the plaque formation inhibition test. AE inhibited the plaque formation of PR8 in a dose-dependent manner: 98 and 50% (IC₅₀) inhibition at 2.5 and 0.99 mg/mL, respectively. To elucidate the mechanisms of AE, the direct actions and adsorption and invasion inhibition of AE were examined, and were found to have no inhibitory effect on PR8 infection. Thus, in vitro antiviral effects may somehow inhibit PR8 after the viral invasion of cells. These results demonstrated that it is expected that AE can effectively prevent the spread of the influenza virus.

High molecular weight of polysaccharides from Hericium erinaceus against amyloid beta-induced neurotoxicity

Background

Hericium erinaceus (HE) is a well-known mushroom in traditional Chinese food and medicine. HE extracts from the fruiting body and mycelia not only exhibit immunomodulatory, antimutagenic and antitumor activity but also have neuroprotective properties. Here, we purified HE polysaccharides (HEPS), composed of two high molecular weight polysaccharides (1.7 × 10⁵ Da and 1.1 × 10⁵ Da), and evaluated their protective effects on amyloid beta (Aβ)-induced neurotoxicity in rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells.

Methods

HEPS were prepared and purified using a 95 % ethanol extraction method. The components of HEPS were analyzed and the molecular weights of the polysaccharides were determined using high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). The neuroprotective effects of the polysaccharides were evaluated through a 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay and an MTT assay and by quantifying reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial membrane potentials (MMP) of Aβ-induced neurotoxicity in cells.

Result

Our results showed that 250 μg/ml HEPS was harmless and promoted cell viability with 1.2 μM Aβ treatment. We observed that the free radical scavenging rate exceeded 90 % when the concentration of HEPS was higher than 1 mg/mL in cells. The HEPS decreased the production of ROS from 80 to 58 % in a dose-dependent manner. Cell pretreatment with 250 μg/mL HEPS significantly reduced Aβ-induced high MMPs from 74 to 51 % and 94 to 62 % at 24 and 48 h, respectively. Finally, 250 μg/mL of HEPS prevented Aβ-induced cell shrinkage and nuclear degradation of PC12 cells.

Conclusion

Our results demonstrate that HEPS exhibit antioxidant and neuroprotective effects on Aβ-induced neurotoxicity in neurons.

Effect of mushroom Agaricus blazei on immune response and development of experimental cerebral malaria

BACKGROUND

Cerebral malaria (CM) is debilitating and sometimes fatal. Disease severity has been associated with poor treatment access, therapeutic complexity and drug resistance and, thus, alternative therapies are increasingly necessary. In this study, the effect of the administration of Agaricus blazei, a mushroom of Brazilian origin in a model of CM caused by Plasmodium berghei, strain ANKA, was investigated in mice.

METHODS

C57BL/6 mice were pre-treated with aqueous extract or fractions of A. blazei, or chloroquine, infected with P. berghei ANKA and then followed by daily administration of A. blazei or chloroquine. Parasitaemia, body weight, survival and clinical signs of the disease were evaluated periodically. The concentration of pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines, histopathology and in vitro analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Mice treated with A. blazei aqueous extract or fraction C, that shows antioxidant activity, displayed lower parasitaemia, increased survival, reduced weight loss and protection against the development of CM. The administration of A. blazei resulted in reduced levels of TNF, IL-1β and IL-6 production when compared to untreated P. berghei-infected mice. Agaricus blazei (aqueous extract or fraction C) treated infected mice displayed reduction of brain lesions. Although chloroquine treatment reduced parasitaemia, there was increased production of proinflammatory cytokines and damage in the CNS not observed with A. blazei treatment. Moreover, the in vitro pretreatment of infected erythrocytes followed by in vivo infection resulted in lower parasitaemia, increased survival, and little evidence of clinical signs of disease.

CONCLUSIONS

This study strongly suggests that the administration of A. blazei (aqueous extract or fraction C) was effective in improving the consequences of CM in mice and may provide novel therapeutic strategies.

Aqueous Extract of Agaricus blazei Murrill Prevents Age-Related Changes in the Myenteric Plexus of the Jejunum in Rats

This study evaluated the effects of the supplementation with aqueous extract of Agaricus blazei Murrill (ABM) on biometric and blood parameters and quantitative morphology of the myenteric plexus and jejunal wall in aging Wistar rats. The animals were euthanized at 7 (C7), 12 (C12 and CA12), and 23 months of age (C23 and CA23). The CA12 and CA23 groups received a daily dose of ABM extract (26 mg/animal) via gavage, beginning at 7 months of age. A reduction in food intake was observed with aging, with increases in the Lee index, retroperitoneal fat, intestinal length, and levels of total cholesterol and total proteins. Aging led to a reduction of the total wall thickness, mucosa tunic, villus height, crypt depth, and number of goblet cells. In the myenteric plexus, aging quantitatively decreased the population of HuC/D(+) neuronal and S100(+) glial cells, with maintenance of the nNOS(+) nitrergic subpopulation and increase in the cell body area of these populations. Supplementation with the ABM extract preserved the myenteric plexus in old animals, in which no differences were detected in the density and cell body profile of neurons and glial cells in the CA12 and CA23 groups, compared with C7 group. The supplementation with the aqueous extract of ABM efficiently maintained myenteric plexus homeostasis, which positively influenced the physiology and prevented the death of the neurons and glial cells.

Differences in antioxidant activities of outdoor- and indoor-cultivated Agaricus brasiliensis, and protective effects against carbon tetrachloride-induced acute hepatic injury in mice

Background

Agaricus brasiliensis (A. brasiliensis) is a medicinal mushroom that exerts various pharmacological actions. We previously demonstrated that different cultivation conditions altered the activity of the polyphenol-related enzymes from this mushroom. However, the influence of cultivation conditions on the antioxidant activity of the fruiting bodies remains unclear. Therefore, in this study we compared the antioxidative effects of fruiting bodies of A. brasiliensis cultivated outdoors and indoors. In addition, we assessed whether different cultivation methods affected the hepatoprotective effects against CCl₄-induced liver injury.

Methods

We assessed the antioxidative effects of mushrooms cultivated in open-air or indoors using the DPPH radical-scavenging assay. Furthermore, we prepared experimental feeds containing outdoor- or indoor-cultivated A. brasiliensis. Acute liver injury was induced by CCl₄ injection in mice that consumed feed containing outdoor- or indoor-cultivated A. brasiliensis. The hepatoprotective effects of these mushrooms were then evaluated by monitoring the reduction in the circulating levels of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and lactate dehydrogenase. The significance of the differences between the means was assessed using Student’s t-test. Finally, histopathological analysis of liver was performed.

Results

In the DPPH assay, the antioxidant activity of outdoor-cultivated A. brasiliensis was higher than that of indoor-cultivated mushroom. Moreover, in the mouse model of CCl₄-induced hepatitis, the oral administration of outdoor-cultivated A. brasiliensis reduced liver damage significantly, but indoor-cultivated mushrooms failed to inhibit hepatitis. The hepatoprotective effects of outdoor-cultivated A. brasiliensis were observed even when ingestion commenced only 1 day before CCl₄ injection, and these effects were not affected by excessive heat treatment.

Conclusions

Outdoor cultivation significantly enhanced the antioxidative activity of A. brasiliensis fruiting bodies. In addition, outdoor-cultivated A. brasiliensis was more effective at protecting against CCl₄-induced liver injury in mice than mushrooms grown in a greenhouse.

Antioxidant Activity of Agaricus brasiliensis Basidiocarps on Different Maturation Phases

Different maturation phases of basidiocarp could affect the bioactivity and concentration of some active substances. A. brasiliensis Wasser et al. (A. blazei Murrill) has shown antitumor activity that could be related to the antioxidant activity. However there is no information of the best basidiocarp maturation phase for extracting antioxidant substances in order to determine the moment of harvesting in mushroom cultivation. The objective of this work was to evaluate the antioxidant activity of A. brasiliensis strains on different basidiocarp maturation phases. The best condition for extraction of A. brasiliensis antioxidants is with methanol as solvent at 60 °C for 60 min. Strains with closed basidiocarp have higher antioxidant activity than with opened basidiocarp. Antioxidant activity varies in each strain. It was concluded that A. brasiliensis is a natural source of antioxidant compounds. Also there is higher antioxidant activity in closed than opened caps and consequently higher functional activity. It reinforces the synergic action among different A. brasiliensis compounds as a functional food and the importance of further investigation for isolation and characterization of antioxidant substances of A. brasiliensis. It also determines the best harvest period in order to obtain the highest antioxidant activity from basidiocarp.

Immunomodulating compounds in Basidiomycetes

Mushrooms are distinguished as important food containing immunomodulating and anticancer agents. These compounds belong mostly to polysaccharides especially β-d-glucans. Among them, β-1,3-glucan with side chain β-1,6-glucose residues have more important roles in immunomodulating and antitumor activities. In this review, we have introduced polysaccharide mainly from Lentinula edodes and Agaricus blazei Murill with immunomodulating and antitumor activities. In addition, the mechanism of activation of immune response and signal cascade are also reviewed.

Brefeldin A is an estrogenic, Erk1/2-activating component in the extract of Agaricus blazei mycelia

We purified an Erk1/2-activating component in Agaricus blazei and identified it as brefeldin A (BFA). The extract of A. blazei mycelia (ABE) previously showed an estrogenic gene-expression profile and positive effects in patients with cardiovascular symptoms. Here, we demonstrate that BFA has estrogenic activity in reporter gene assays and stimulates an estrogen-receptor pathway revealed by activation of Erk1/2, although BFA had no growth-stimulating activity in breast cancer MCF-7 cells. The presence of estrogenic activity without any explicit growth-stimulating effect is unique to BFA, and such components are termed here "silent estrogens". To test this hypothesis, we examined the target-gene transcription and signaling pathways induced by BFA. Furthermore, BFA was found in the mycelium but not fruiting body of A. blazei, suggesting the potential use of ABE for therapeutics and its supplementary use in traditional medicines and functional foods.

Preservation of Agaricus subrufescens strains at low temperature by using cultures on sorghum grains

BACKGROUND

One of the main problems for the preservation of genetics resources of Agaricus subrufescens is to maintain the viability of the strains because the mycelium is very sensitive to cooling and therefore it ages rapidly.

AIMS

Evaluate the viability of A. subrufescens strains stored as cultures on sorghum grain (spawn) at different temperatures.

METHODS

Eighteen strains of A. subrufescens and three strains of Agaricus bisporus were studied. Spawn's viability was evaluated under the following conditions: (1) control at 25°C (C), (2) cooling to 4°C (R) and (3) freezing in liquid nitrogen at -196°C (LN). Samples were recovered from week 4 every 2 weeks until week 12 and week 24 in C and R, whereas in LN samples were recovered at 4, 12 and 24 weeks. Viability was evaluated in 50 seeds, by strain and condition, recovering the mycelium in Petri dishes with potato dextrose agar medium (PDA). Mycelium growth was also evaluated on PDA after 14 days of recovery.

RESULTS

Most strains showed 100% viability and they were recovered usually in 1 day. In LN the viability ranged between 84 and 100% depending on the strain, but in some cases recovery took more than 10 days. Mycelial growth decreased gradually over time and although the results show significant differences between treatments C and R, the decline is associated with ageing of the mycelium rather than the treatment itself.

CONCLUSIONS

Culture on sorghum grain and storage at low temperature is an interesting way to preserve genetic resources of A. subrufescens.

Agaricus brasiliensis-derived β-glucans exert immunoenhancing effects via a dectin-1-dependent pathway

Agaricus brasiliensis is a well-known medicinal mushroom. We have previously demonstrated that Agaricus-derived polysaccharides exhibit potent antitumor effects; however, the underlying mechanism(s) have not been elucidated yet. In this study, we examined the immunoenhancing activities of Agaricus extracts. Agaricus-derived polysaccharides were characterized as 1,6-β-glucan with a small amount of 1,3-β-glucan using anti-β-glucan antibody and nuclear magnetic resonance analysis. These polysaccharides strongly induced the production of various cytokines from both murine splenocytes and bone marrow-derived dendritic cells in the presence of exogenous granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Polysaccharide-induced cytokine production was significantly reduced in bone marrow-derived dendritic cells derived from dectin-1-deficient mice. Furthermore, a binding assay revealed that the Agaricus-derived polysaccharides can be recognized by dectin-1, a pivotal receptor for 1,3-β-glucan. Taken together, our results clearly indicate that the immunostimulation induced by Agaricus-derived polysaccharides is exerted, at least in part, via dectin-1 in combination with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor.

The effect of enzymatically polymerised polyphenols on CD4 binding and cytokine production in murine splenocytes

High-molecular weight polymerised polyphenols have been shown to exhibit anti-influenza virus, anti-HIV, and anti-cancer activities. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the immunomodulating activities of enzymatically polymerised polyphenols, and to clarify the underlying mechanisms of their effects. The cytokine-inducing activity of the enzymatically polymerised polyphenols derived from caffeic acid (CA), ferulic acid (FA), and p-coumaric acid (CoA) was investigated using murine splenocytes. Polymerised polyphenols, but not non-polymerised polyphenols, induced cytokine synthesis in murine splenocytes. Polymerised polyphenols induced several cytokines in murine splenocytes, with interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) being the most prominent. The underlying mechanisms of the effects of the polymerised polyphenols were then studied using neutralising antibodies and fluorescent-activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis. Our results show that polymerised polyphenols increased IFN-γ and GM-CSF production in splenocytes. In addition, the anti-CD4 neutralised monoclonal antibody (mAb) inhibited polymerised polyphenol-induced IFN-γ and GM-CSF secretion. Moreover, polymerised polyphenols bound directly to a recombinant CD4 protein, and FACS analysis confirmed that interaction occurs between polymerised polyphenols and CD4 molecules expressed on the cell surface. In this study, we clearly demonstrated that enzymatic polymerisation confers immunoactivating potential to phenylpropanoic acids, and CD4 plays a key role in their cytokine-inducing activity.

Agaricus subrufescens: A review

Medicinal mushrooms have currently become a hot issue due to their various therapeutic properties. Of these, Agaricus subrufescens, also known as the "almond mushroom", has long been valued by many societies (i.e., Brazil, China, France, and USA). Since its discovery in 1893, this mushroom has been cultivated throughout the world, especially in Brazil where several strains of A. subrufescens have been developed and used as health food and alternative medicine. This article presents up-to-date information on this mushroom including its taxonomy and health promoting benefits. Medicinal properties of A. subrufescens are emphasized in several studies which are reviewed here. In addition, safety issues concerning the use of this fungus will be discussed.

Effect of Agaricus brasiliensis-derived cold water extract on Toll-like receptor 2-dependent cytokine production in vitro

Agaricus brasiliensis (Agaricus blazei Murrill) is well known as a medicinal mushroom. Fruit body of A. brasiliensis is rich in β-glucan and has shown benefits for various diseases. Both hot and cold water extraction are traditional methods for intake of this mushroom extract. In the present study, we prepared cold water extract of the fruit body of A. brasiliensis (ACWS). The 1,3-β-glucan segment of this fraction was too small and did not interact with the 1,3-β-glucan receptor, dectin-1. However, ACWS could induce production of various cytokines including IL-6 from murine splenocytes. Therefore, we aimed to identify the receptor that modulates IL-6 production using ACWS. We focused our attention on Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and examined them as follows. (i) The interaction between TLRs and ACWS was screened using HEK293 cells transfected with TLR plasmid. (ii) IL-6 production from splenocytes induced by ACWS was inhibited by treatment of anti-TLR antibodies. (iii) Direct binding activity between TLR protein and ACWS was assessed by ELISA-like assay. ACWS was found to activate HEK293 cells via TLR2, 4 and 5. However, only anti-TLR2 monoclonal antibody suppressed IL-6 production from splenocytes. In addition, ACWS has the ability to bind directly to TLR2 protein. Accordingly, we suggest that fruit body of A. brasiliensis has some water-soluble TLR ligand complexes, and TLR2 on splenocytes strongly induces IL-6 production.

Production flush of Agaricus blazei on Brazilian casing layers

This study aimed to verify the biological efficiency and production flushes of Agaricus blazei strains on different casing layers during 90 cultivation days. Four casing layers were used: mixture of subsoil and charcoal (VCS), lime schist (LSC), São Paulo peat (SPP) and Santa Catarina peat (SCP); and two genetically distant A. blazei strains. The fungus was grown in composted substratum and, after total colonization, a pasteurized casing layer was added over the substratum, and fructification was induced. Mushrooms were picked up daily when the basidiocarp veil was stretched, but before the lamella were exposed. The biological efficiency (BE) was determined by the fresh basidiocarp mass divided by the substratum dry mass, expressed in percentage. The production flushes were also determined over time production. The BE and production flushes during 90 days were affected by the strains as well as by the casing layers. The ABL26 and LSC produced the best BE of 60.4%. Although VCS is the most used casing layer in Brazil, it is inferior to other casing layers, for all strains, throughout cultivation time. The strain, not the casing layer, is responsible for eventual variations of the average mushroom mass. In average, circa 50% of the mushroom production occurs around the first month, 30% in the second month, and 20% in third month. The casing layer water management depends on the casing layer type and the strain. Production flush responds better to water reposition, mainly with ABL26, and better porosity to LSC and SCP casing layers.

Phase I Clinical Study of the Dietary Supplement, Agaricus blazei Murill, in Cancer Patients in Remission

Although many cancer patients use complementary and alternative medicine, including Agaricus blazei Murill (ABM), safety is not yet well understood. Cancer survivors took 1.8, 3.6, or 5.4 g ABM granulated powder (Kyowa Wellness Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) per day orally for 6 months. Adverse events were defined by subjective/objective symptoms and laboratory data according to the National Cancer Institute Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events version 3.0 (NCI-CTCAE v3.0). Seventy-eight patients were assessed for safety of ABM (30/24/24 subjects at 1/2/3 packs per day, resp.). Adverse events were observed in 9 patients (12%). Most were digestive in nature such as nausea and diarrhea, and one patient developed a liver dysfunction-related food allergy, drug lymphocyte product. However, none of these adverse events occurred in a dose-dependent manner. This study shows that ABM does not cause problems in most patients within laboratory parameters at the dosages tested over 6 months. This trial supports previous evidence that the ABM product is generally safe, excluding possible allergic reaction.

Ipomoea batatas and Agarics blazei ameliorate diabetic disorders with therapeutic antioxidant potential in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Ipomoea batatas, Agaricus blazei and Smallanthus sonchifolius are known to favorably influence diabetes mellitus. To clarify their antidiabetic efficacy and hypoglycemic mechanisms, we treated streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats with daily oral feeding of powdered Ipomoea batatas (5 g kg⁻¹ d⁻¹), Agaricus blazei (1 g kg⁻¹ d⁻¹) or Smallanthus sonchifolius (4 g kg⁻¹ d⁻¹) for 2 months. Treatments with Ipomoea batatas or Agaricus blazei, but not Smallanthus sonchifolius, significantly suppressed the increases of fasting plasma glucose and hemoglobin A1c levels, and restored body weight loss during diabetes. Serum insulin levels after oral glucose administration tests increased along the treatments of Ipomoea batatas or Agaricus blazei. Moreover, Ipomoea batatas and Agaricus blazei reduced superoxide production from leukocytes and vascular homogenates, serum 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine, and vascular nitrotyrosine formation of diabetic rats to comparable levels of normal control animals. Stress- and inflammation-related p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activity and tumor necrosis factor-α production of diabetic rats were significantly depressed by Ipomoea batatas administration. Histological examination also exhibited improvement of pancreatic β-cells mass after treatments with Ipomoea batatas or Agaricus blazei. These results suggest that hypoglycemic effects of Ipomoea batatas or Agaricus blazei result from their suppression of oxidative stress and proinflammatory cytokine production followed by improvement of pancreatic β-cells mass.

Immunostimulation-Mediated Anti-tumor Activity of Bamboo (Sasa senanensis) Leaf Extracts Obtained Under 'Vigorous' Condition

Traditional Japanese medicine uses the leaves of Kumaizasa bamboo extracted in hot water at 100°C. For this study, we developed a new, 'vigorous' extraction method involving steps at 100, 121 and 196°C. This procedure not only yielded greater amounts of extract but also with significant increase in immunostimulating activity, which induces activation of human natural killer (NK) cells, macrophages and potent induction of IL-2, IL-12 and IFN-γ in tumor bearing mice. The efficacy of the extract to facilitate phagocytosis and nitric oxide production by mouse peritoneal macrophages was determined and compared with that of 1,3-β-glucan. Anti-tumor activity was evaluated in vivo in several mouse tumor models (S-180, C38 and Meth-A). Oral administration of the extracts was carried out when tumor reached size of approximately 6 mm at concentrations of 0.05% or higher. The extracts significantly suppressed tumor growth in S-180 and C38 tumor models. Overall survival was significantly prolonged in the treatment group than that of control. Activation of macrophages and NK cells by the extracts suggests that the anti-tumor efficacy of the extract is mediated by immunopotentiation. The extracts resolved into three major fractions (F-I, F-II and F-III) in Sephadex gel chromatography. Fraction F-I consists of 1,3-β-glucan and stimulated both macrophages and NK cells suggesting that it may be the primary immunopotentiating factor in suppressing cancer. Fraction F-III has potent free radical scavenging effects and may play an important role in cancer prevention. These results warrant further translation and clinical investigations.

Oral Treatment with Extract of Agaricus blazei Murill Enhanced Th1 Response through Intestinal Epithelial Cells and Suppressed OVA-Sensitized Allergy in Mice

To clarify the mechanism of the antiallergic activity of Agaricus blazei Murill extract (ABME), the present paper used an in vivo allergy model and an in vitro intestinal gut model. During OVA sensitization, the serum IgE levels decreased significantly in ABME group. Interleukin (IL)-4 and -5 produced from OVA-restimulated splenocytes was significantly decreased, and anti-CD3ε/CD28 antibody treatment also reduced IL-10, -4, and -5 production and increased IFN-γ production in ABME group. These results suggest that oral administration of ABME improves Th1/Th2 balance. Moreover, a coculture system constructed of Caco-2 cells and splenocytes from OT-II mice or RAW 264.7 cells indicated that the significant increases in IFN-γ production by ABME treatment. Therefore, it was concluded that the antiallergic activity of ABME was due to the activation of macrophages by epithelial cells and the promotion of the differentiation of naïve T cells into Th1 cells in the immune.

Effects of Agaricus brasiliensis mushroom in Walker-256 tumor-bearing rats

Agaricus brasiliensis is a mushroom native to São Paulo State, Brazil, that is studied for its medicinal proprieties. This work aimed to investigate the antitumoral activity of A. brasiliensis extracts and pure powdered basidiocarp preparation using Walker-256 (W256) tumor-bearing rats, a model for cancer-related cachexia studies. The rats were treated for 14 days by gavage (136 mg/kg) and at the end of the experiment tumors were collected to calculate mass and volume. Blood was collected for determination of plasma glucose, albumin, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). Hepatic and tumor enzymes indicating oxidative stress were also evaluated. The results showed that all 4 treatments (pure powdered basidiocarp and aqueous, acid, and alkaline extracts) significantly reduced tumor size and promoted gain in body weight. Plasmatic analysis showed a reduction in AST level and increased glycemia in the treated rats. Pure basidiocarp preparations improved the liver catalase and superoxide dismutase activity, but did not change the glutathione S-transferase activity. The data collected from the W256 tumor-bearing rats revealed the beneficial effects of A. brasiliensis in tumor treatment, mainly related to cachexia. The benefits can be partly related to antioxidant activity and to reduction of weight loss and tumor growth.

Alternative to peat for Agaricus brasiliensis yield

Casing layer is one of the most important components of Agaricus spp. production and it directly affects mushroom productivity, size and mass. The aim of this study was to evaluate potential raw materials as a casing layer and their effect on Agaricus brasiliensis productivity. Raw materials from Brazil with potential use were selected and characterized, and the most promising ones were tested as casing layers for mushroom yield. Evaluated raw materials included lime schist, vermiculite, eucalyptus sawdust, sand, São Paulo peat, Santa Catarina peat, subsoil and charcoal. Particle size, porosity and water absorption in relation to mushroom yield for casing layers were determined. Lime schist, an alternate casing layer to peat, is presented and the effects of the casing layer on the mushroom yield are discussed.

Antineoplasic activity of Agaricus brasiliensis basidiocarps on different maturation phases

The fungus Agaricus brasiliensis is a Basidiomycete studied because of its immunomodulation and/or antitumor substances. The objective of this study was to verify the Agaricus brasiliensis antineoplasic activity in vivo on different basidiocarp maturation phases on Sarcoma 180 cells implanted in mice. Sarcoma cells were implanted in mice and after seven days mice were divided in three groups. The first group was treated with saline solution, the second group was treated with closed basidiocarp extract solution and the third group was treated with opened basidiocarp extract solution. After 30 days of being daily orally treated with these three solutions all animals suffered euthanasia, and the splenic index, tumor mass and volume were determined. No significant differences of the tumor growth inhibition in function of the different basidiocarp maturation phases for the Agaricus brasiliensis strain were observed. The in vivo basidiocarp antineoplasic average activity was 89.22%.