Communication is key: Extracellular vesicles as mediators of infection and defence during host-microbe interactions in animals and plants

Unravelling exosome paradigm: Therapeutic, diagnostic and theranostics application and regulatory consideration

In the recent decade, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been released from nearly all the kingdoms, modulating intercellular communication and maintaining the human body's homeostasis by regulating different cellular processes. Among EVs, exosomes are the emerging field in biopharmaceuticals. They have lipid bilayer ranging from 30 to 150 nm in size and encompass DNA, RNA, protein lipids, etc. Their sources are widespread, easy to acquire, and cost-effective in manufacturing. This review focuses on the detailed classification of exosomes existing in nature, knowledge and application of omics, therapeutic, diagnostic and theranostic application of exosomes. It covers diseases such as cancer, infectious diseases (viral, bacterial, fungal infections), neurodegenerative diseases, metabolic diseases, lifestyle diseases (diabetes, cardiovascular, gastric disorder (IBD)), autoimmune disorders and their biodistribution. This article unfolds the recent progress in the exosomes arena and covers all the regulatory considerations (FDA, EMA, and other nations) involved with it. Moreover, a detailed discussion about clinical trials and its manifestation with exosomes and challenges associated with their isolation procedures, reproducibility, and safety concerns.

When Extracellular Vesicles Go Viral: A Bird's Eye View

The science of extracellular vesicles (EVs) is a rapidly growing field that spans multiple aspects of normal physiology and pathophysiology. EVs play a critical role in most basic biological processes of cell-cell communications under normal conditions and in disease. EVs have "gone viral" not only in terms of research popularity, but also in our realization that they exhibit an elaborate crosstalk with viruses, particularly with the enveloped ones, which are also extracellular vesicles that are released by cells as a part of their virulence cycle yet are replicative. Here, we highlight some of the complexities underlying EV-virus crosstalk and pathways and provide our insights on key challenges from the viewpoint of EV biology.

Trypanosomatid Extracellular Vesicles as Potential Immunogens for Chagas Disease

Chagas disease remains a significant public health concern, with limited treatment options and an urgent need for novel preventive strategies. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) from Trypanosoma cruzi have been shown to modulate host immune responses, often favoring parasite persistence. In this study, we characterized EVs derived from the non-pathogenic trypanosomatids Trypanosoma rangeli and Phytomonas serpens and evaluated their potential as immunogens capable of inducing cross-protection against T. cruzi infection. Isolated EVs were characterized by Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis (NTA) and electron microscopy. A comparative proteomic analysis of EVs was performed using Mass Spectrometry-Based Proteomic Analysis (LC-MS/MS). The effects of EVs on immunomodulation and T. cruzi infection were assessed through in vitro and in vivo assays, using peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and BALB/c mice. The proteomic analysis identified shared proteins between the EVs of T. rangeli, P. serpens, and T. cruzi, including immunogenic candidates such as calpain-like cysteine peptidase and elongation factor 2. In vitro, pre-stimulation with the T. rangeli EVs reduced infection rates of the host cells by T. cruzi. In vivo, immunization with the EVs from T. rangeli and P. serpens led to a significant reduction in parasitemia in the BALB/c mice challenged with T. cruzi, though this did not translate into improved survival compared to controls. Interestingly, the EVs from T. cruzi also reduced parasitemia but did not confer protection against mortality. These findings suggest that while non-pathogenic trypanosomatid EVs exhibit potential immunogenic properties and can reduce parasitic load, their efficacy in preventing disease progression remains limited. Further research is needed to explore the mechanisms underlying these effects and to optimize EV-based strategies for protective immunity against Chagas disease.

Establishment of an experimental system to analyse extracellular vesicles during apoplastic fungal pathogenesis

Phoma stem canker disease of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) is caused by the extracellular fungal pathogen Leptosphaeria maculans. Although this pathogen resides exclusively in apoplastic spaces surrounding plant cells, the significance of extracellular vesicles (EVs) has not been assessed. Here, we show a method to collect apoplastic fluids (AFs) from infected leaves or cotyledons for collection of EVs during the process of host colonisation. The 15,000 × g supernatants of AFs were shown to contain ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase (RuBisCO) at 7 days post-inoculation with L. maculans, a protein that was absent from unchallenged cotyledons. RuBisCO release coincided with the switch from biotrophy to necrotrophy, suggesting the involvement of host cell death. However, RuBisCO release did not differ between compatible and incompatible interactions, suggesting necrotrophic host cell death might not be the only process involved. EVs were also collected from axenic fungal cultures and characterised for their particle size distribution using nanoparticle tracking analysis and transmission electron microscopy. The protein composition of EV-enriched fractions was analysed using SDS-PAGE and proteomics. Enrichment analysis of gene ontology terms provided evidence for involvement of glucan and chitin metabolism as well as catalase and peptidase activities. Most of the proteins identified have previously been found in EV studies and/or EV databases, and for most of the proteins evidence was found for an involvement in pathogenicity/virulence.

Host cell responses to Candida albicans biofilm-derived extracellular vesicles

Candida albicans is a prevalent fungal pathogen responsible for infections in humans. As described recently, nanometer-sized extracellular vesicles (EVs) produced by C. albicans play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of infection by facilitating host inflammatory responses and intercellular communication. This study investigates the functional properties of EVs released by biofilms formed by two C. albicans strains-3147 (ATCC 10231) and SC5314-in eliciting host responses. We demonstrate the capability of C. albicans EVs to trigger reactions in human epithelial and immune cells. The involvement of EVs in pathogenesis was evidenced from the initial stages of infection, specifically in adherence to epithelial cells. We further established the capacity of these EVs to induce cytokine production in the epithelial A549 cell line, THP-1 macrophage-like cells, and blood-derived monocytes differentiated into macrophages. Internalization of EVs by THP-1 macrophage-like cells was confirmed, identifying macropinocytosis and phagocytosis as the most probable mechanisms, as demonstrated using various inhibitors that target potential vesicle uptake pathways in human cells. Additionally, C. albicans EVs and their cargo were identified as chemoattractants for blood-derived neutrophils. After verification of the in vivo effect of biofilm-derived EVs on the host, using Galleria mellonella larvae as an alternative model, it was demonstrated that vesicles from C. albicans SC5314 increased mortality in the injected larvae. In conclusion, for both types of EVs a predominantly pro-inflammatory effect on host was observed, highlighting their significant role in the inflammatory response during C. albicans infection.

Extracellular vesicles from L. paracasei improve neuroinflammation, GABA neurotransmission and motor incoordination in hyperammonemic rats

Patients with liver cirrhosis may show minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE) with motor incoordination and cognitive impairment that reduce life quality and span. Motor incoordination is due to neuroinflammation and enhanced GABAergic neurotransmission in cerebellum. Recent reports support that probiotics, including L. casei, may improve cognitive function in different pathologies and MHE in cirrhotic patients. Extracellular vesicles (EV) are small cell-derived membrane vesicles that carry bioactive molecules released from cells, including bacteria. We hypothesized that EV from Lacticaseibacillus paracasei (LC-EV) could improve neuroinflammation, GABAergic neurotransmission and motor function in MHE. We show that LC-EV treatment reverses glial activation and neuroinflammation in cerebellum and restore motor coordination in hyperammonemic rats. Moreover, ex vivo treatment of cerebellar slices from hyperammonemic rats with LC-EV also reverses glial activation and neuroinflammation, and the enhancement of the TNFR1-S1PR2-BDNF-TrkB and TNFR1-TrkB-pAKT-NFκB-glutaminase-GAT3 pathways and of GABAergic neurotransmission. The results reported support that LC-EV may be used as a therapeutic tool to improve motor incoordination in patients with MHE.

Exogenous dsRNA-Mediated RNAi: Mechanisms, Applications, Delivery Methods and Challenges in the Induction of Viral Disease Resistance in Plants

The increasing challenges posed by plant viral diseases demand innovative and sustainable management strategies to minimize agricultural losses. Exogenous double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-mediated RNA interference (RNAi) represents a transformative approach to combat plant viral pathogens without the need for genetic transformation. This review explores the mechanisms underlying dsRNA-induced RNAi, highlighting its ability to silence specific viral genes through small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). Key advancements in dsRNA production, including cost-effective microbial synthesis and in vitro methods, are examined alongside delivery techniques such as spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) and nanocarrier-based systems. Strategies for enhancing dsRNA stability, including the use of nanomaterials like layered double hydroxide nanosheets and carbon dots, are discussed to address environmental degradation challenges. Practical applications of this technology against various plant viruses and its potential to ensure food security are emphasized. The review also delves into regulatory considerations, risk assessments, and the challenges associated with off-target effects and pathogen resistance. By evaluating both opportunities and limitations, this review underscores the role of exogenous dsRNA as a sustainable solution for achieving viral disease resistance in plants.

Exploring and exploiting the rice phytobiome to tackle climate change challenges

The future of agriculture is uncertain under the current climate change scenario. Climate change directly and indirectly affects the biotic and abiotic elements that control agroecosystems, jeopardizing the safety of the world's food supply. A new area that focuses on characterizing the phytobiome is emerging. The phytobiome comprises plants and their immediate surroundings, involving numerous interdependent microscopic and macroscopic organisms that affect the health and productivity of plants. Phytobiome studies primarily focus on the microbial communities associated with plants, which are referred to as the plant microbiome. The development of high-throughput sequencing technologies over the past 10 years has dramatically advanced our understanding of the structure, functionality, and dynamics of the phytobiome; however, comprehensive methods for using this knowledge are lacking, particularly for major crops such as rice. Considering the impact of rice production on world food security, gaining fresh perspectives on the interdependent and interrelated components of the rice phytobiome could enhance rice production and crop health, sustain rice ecosystem function, and combat the effects of climate change. Our review re-conceptualizes the complex dynamics of the microscopic and macroscopic components in the rice phytobiome as influenced by human interventions and changing environmental conditions driven by climate change. We also discuss interdisciplinary and systematic approaches to decipher and reprogram the sophisticated interactions in the rice phytobiome using novel strategies and cutting-edge technology. Merging the gigantic datasets and complex information on the rice phytobiome and their application in the context of regenerative agriculture could lead to sustainable rice farming practices that are resilient to the impacts of climate change.

Extracellular Vesicles in Viral Liver Diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are bilayer vesicles released by cells in the microenvironment of the liver including parenchymal and non-parenchymal cells. They are the third important mechanism in the communications between cells, besides the secretion of cytokines and chemokines and the direct cell-to-cell contact. The aim of this review is to discuss the important role of EVs in viral liver disease, as there is increasing evidence that the transportation of viral proteins, all types of RNA, and viral particles including complete virions is implicated in the pathogenesis of both viral cirrhosis and viral-related hepatocellular carcinoma. The biogenesis of EVs is discussed and their role in the pathogenesis of viral liver diseases is presented. Their use as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers is also analyzed. Most importantly, the significance of possible novel treatment strategies for liver fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma is presented, although available data are based on experimental evidence and clinical trials have not been reported.

Electron-Transferring Flavoprotein and Its Dehydrogenase Required for Fungal Pathogenicity in Arthrobotrys oligospora

Electron transfer flavoprotein (ETF) plays an important function in fatty acid beta oxidation and the amino acid metabolic pathway. It can provide pathogenicity to some opportunistic fungi via modulating cellular metabolite composition. Arthrobotrys oligospora is a typical invasion fungus to nematodes. Its ETF characterization is still unknown. Here, we showed that the mutations of A. oligospora ETF (Aoetfα and Aoetfβ) and its dehydrogenase (Aoetfdh) led to severe defects in mitochondrial integrity and blocked fatty acid metabolism. The pathogenicity-associated trap structures were completely suppressed when exposed to nematode-derived ascarosides and nutrition signals, including ammonia and urea. Compared to the wild-type strain, the nematode predatory activity was significantly reduced and delayed. But surprisingly, the rich nutrition could restore the massive trap and robust predatory activity in the mutant Aoetfβ beyond all induction cues. Moreover, the deletion of Aoetfβ has led to the accumulation of butyrate-like smell, which has a strong attraction to Caenorhabditis elegans nematodes. Ultimately, ETF and its dehydrogenase play a crucial role in nematode-trapping fungi, highlighting mitochondrial metabolite fluctuations that are connected to pathogenesis and further regulating the interactions between fungi and nematodes.

Phloem sap from melon plants contains extracellular vesicles that carry active proteasomes which increase in response to aphid infestation

The morphogenesis of higher plants requires communication among distant organs throughout vascular tissues (xylem and phloem). Numerous investigations have demonstrated that phloem also act as a distribution route for signalling molecules being observed that different macromolecules translocated by the sap, including nucleic acids and proteins, change under stress situations. The participation of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in this communication has been suggested, although little is known about their role. In fact, in the last decade, the presence of EVs in plants has originated a great controversy, where major concerns arose from their origin, isolation methods, and even the appropriate nomenclature for plant nanovesicles. Phloem sap exudates from melon plants, either aphid-free or infested with Aphis gossypii, were collected by stem incision. After sap concentration (Amicon), phloem EVs (PhlEVs) were isolated by size exclusion chromatography. PhlEVs were characterised using Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis, Transmission electron microscopy and proteomic analysis. Here we confirm the presence of EVs in phloem sap in vivo and the detection of changes in the particles/protein ratio and composition of PhlEVs in response to insect feeding, revealing the presence of typical defence proteins in their cargo as well as components of the proteasome complex. PhlEVs from infested plants showed lower particles/protein ratio and almost two times more proteolytic activity than PhlEVs from aphid-free plants. In both cases, such activity was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by the proteasome inhibitor MG132. Our results suggest that plants may use this mechanism to prepare themselves to receive infectious agents and open up the possibility of an evolutionary conserved mechanism of defence against pathogens/stresses in eukaryotic organisms.

Cross-Kingdom RNA Transport Based on Extracellular Vesicles Provides Innovative Tools for Plant Protection

RNA interference (RNAi) shows great potential in plant defense against pathogens through RNA-mediated sequence-specific gene silencing. Among RNAi-based plant protection strategies, spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) is considered a more promising approach because it utilizes the transfer of exogenous RNA between plants and microbes to silence target pathogen genes. The application of nanovesicles significantly enhances RNA stability and delivery efficiency, thereby improving the effectiveness of SIGS and further enhancing plant resistance to diseases and pathogens. This review explores the role of RNAi in plant protection, focusing on the cross-kingdom transport of small RNAs (sRNAs) via extracellular vesicles. It also explores the potential of nanotechnology to further optimize RNA-based plant protection, offering innovative tools and methods in modern plant biotechnology.

From Microbes to Microbiomes: Applications for Plant Health and Sustainable Agriculture

Plant-microbe interaction research has had a transformative trajectory, from individual microbial isolate studies to comprehensive analyses of plant microbiomes within the broader phytobiome framework. Acknowledging the indispensable role of plant microbiomes in shaping plant health, agriculture, and ecosystem resilience, we underscore the urgent need for sustainable crop production strategies in the face of contemporary challenges. We discuss how the synergies between advancements in 'omics technologies and artificial intelligence can help advance the profound potential of plant microbiomes. Furthermore, we propose a multifaceted approach encompassing translational considerations, transdisciplinary research initiatives, public-private partnerships, regulatory policy development, and pragmatic expectations for the practical application of plant microbiome knowledge across diverse agricultural landscapes. We advocate for strategic collaboration and intentional transdisciplinary efforts to unlock the benefits offered by plant microbiomes and address pressing global issues in food security. By emphasizing a nuanced understanding of plant microbiome complexities and fostering realistic expectations, we encourage the scientific community to navigate the transformative journey from discoveries in the laboratory to field applications. As companies specializing in agricultural microbes and microbiomes undergo shifts, we highlight the necessity of understanding how to approach sustainable agriculture with site-specific management solutions. While cautioning against overpromising, we underscore the excitement of exploring the many impacts of microbiome-plant interactions. We emphasize the importance of collaborative endeavors with societal partners to accelerate our collective capacity to harness the diverse and yet-to-be-discovered beneficial activities of plant microbiomes.

Bacteria extracellular vesicle as nanopharmaceuticals for versatile biomedical potential

Bacteria extracellular vesicles (BEVs), characterized as the lipid bilayer membrane-surrounded nanoparticles filled with molecular cargo from parent cells, play fundamental roles in the bacteria growth and pathogenesis, as well as facilitating essential interaction between bacteria and host systems. Notably, benefiting from their unique biological functions, BEVs hold great promise as novel nanopharmaceuticals for diverse biomedical potential, attracting significant interest from both industry and academia. Typically, BEVs are evaluated as promising drug delivery platforms, on account of their intrinsic cell-targeting capability, ease of versatile cargo engineering, and capability to penetrate physiological barriers. Moreover, attributing to considerable intrinsic immunogenicity, BEVs are able to interact with the host immune system to boost immunotherapy as the novel nanovaccine against a wide range of diseases. Towards these significant directions, in this review, we elucidate the nature of BEVs and their role in activating host immune response for a better understanding of BEV-based nanopharmaceuticals' development. Additionally, we also systematically summarize recent advances in BEVs for achieving the target delivery of genetic material, therapeutic agents, and functional materials. Furthermore, vaccination strategies using BEVs are carefully covered, illustrating their flexible therapeutic potential in combating bacterial infections, viral infections, and cancer. Finally, the current hurdles and further outlook of these BEV-based nanopharmaceuticals will also be provided.

Recognition on pharmacodynamic ingredients of natural products

Natural products (NPs) play an irreplaceable role in the intervention of various diseases and have been considered a critical source of drug development. Many new pharmacodynamic compounds with potential clinical applications have recently been derived from NPs. These compounds range from small molecules to polysaccharides, polypeptides, proteins, self-assembled nanoparticles, and extracellular vesicles. This review summarizes various active substances found in NPs. The investigation of active substances in NPs can potentiate new drug development and promote the in-depth comprehension of the mechanism of action of NPs that can be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of human diseases.

An In Vitro System Mimics the Intestinal Microbiota of Striped Beakfish (Oplegnathus fasciatus) and Inhibits Vibrio alginolyticus by Limosilactobacillus reuteri-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are functional substances secreted by microbes and host cells, and it has been discovered that they participate in the interactions between different microorganisms. Our recent findings indicate that Limosilactobacillus reuteri-derived EVs have the potential to improve the intestinal microbiota of Oplegnathus fasciatus fish and inhibit pathogenic bacteria. Previous research has reported that the host intestinal cells play a regulatory role in the intestinal microbiota. This suggested that to investigate the mechanisms through which L. reuteri-derived EVs regulate the intestinal microbiota, a system that excludes interference from host intestinal cells should be established. In this study, an in vitro cultured intestinal bacteria system, without host factors, was used to simulate the intestinal microbiota of O. fasciatus fish. After adding L. reuteri-derived EVs to the system, the changes in the microbiota were analyzed. The results showed that L. reuteri-derived EVs effectively reduced the abundance of Vibrio spp. In the results of the in vitro experiments, it was also observed that L. reuteri-derived EVs have the ability to inhibit Vibrio alginolyticus. We further sequenced the small RNA contained in L. reuteri-derived EVs and found that these small RNAs can interfere with genes (LysR, pirin, MIpA/OmpV, CatB, and aspartate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase) related to the growth of V. alginolyticus. Taken together, the results indicate that in the absence of host involvement, the small RNAs present in L. reuteri-derived EVs have the function of inhibiting pathogenic bacteria and exhibit the potential to regulate the intestinal microbiota.

Exosomes target HBV-host interactions to remodel the hepatic immune microenvironment

Chronic hepatitis B poses a significant global burden, modulating immune cells, leading to chronic inflammation and long-term damage. Due to its hepatotropism, the hepatitis B virus (HBV) cannot infect other cells. The mechanisms underlying the intercellular communication among different liver cells in HBV-infected individuals and the immune microenvironment imbalance remain elusive. Exosomes, as important intercellular communication and cargo transportation tools between HBV-infected hepatocytes and immune cells, have been shown to assist in HBV cargo transportation and regulate the immune microenvironment. However, the role of exosomes in hepatitis B has only gradually received attention in recent years. Minimal literature has systematically elaborated on the role of exosomes in reshaping the immune microenvironment of the liver. This review unfolds sequentially based on the biological processes of exosomes: exosomes' biogenesis, release, transport, uptake by recipient cells, and their impact on recipient cells. We delineate how HBV influences the biogenesis of exosomes, utilizing exosomal covert transmission, and reshapes the hepatic immune microenvironment. And based on the characteristics and functions of exosomes, potential applications of exosomes in hepatitis B are summarized and predicted.

TGF-β1 induces formation of TSG-6-enriched extracellular vesicles in fibroblasts which can prevent myofibroblast transformation by modulating Erk1/2 phosphorylation

Extracellular vesicles have emerged as important mediators of cell-to-cell communication in the pathophysiology of fibrotic diseases. One such disease is Peyronie's disease (PD), a fibrotic disorder of the penis caused by uncontrolled transformation of resident fibroblasts to alpha-smooth muscle actin positive myofibroblasts. These cells produce large amounts of extracellular matrix, leading to formation of a plaque in the penile tunica albuginea (TA), causing pain, penile curvature, and erectile dysfunction. We have used primary fibroblasts derived from the TA of PD patients to explore the role of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), a key signalling factor in this process. TGF-β1 treatment elicited a range of responses from the myofibroblasts: (i) they secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs) that were more numerous and differed in size and shape from those secreted by fibroblasts, (ii) these EVs prevented TGF-β1-induced transformation of fibroblasts in a manner that was dependent on vesicle uptake and (iii) they prevented phosphorylation of Erk1/2, a critical component in modulating fibrogenic phenotypic responses, but did not affect TGF-β1-induced Smad-signalling. We posit that this effect could be linked to enrichment of TSG-6 in myofibroblast-derived EVs. The ability of myofibroblast-derived vesicles to prevent further myofibroblast transformation may establish them as part of an anti-fibrotic negative feedback loop, with potential to be exploited for future therapeutic approaches.

Comparative Proteome Profiling of Extracellular Vesicles from Three Growth Phases of Haematococcus pluvialis under High Light and Sodium Acetate Stresses

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano-sized particles involved in intercellular communications that intrinsically possess many attributes as a modern drug delivery platform. Haematococcus pluvialis-derived EVs (HpEVs) can be potentially exploited as a high-value-added bioproduct during astaxanthin production. The encapsulation of HpEV cargo is a crucial key for the determination of their biological functions and therapeutic potentials. However, little is known about the composition of HpEVs, limiting insights into their biological properties and application characteristics. This study examined the protein composition of HpEVs from three growth phases of H. pluvialis grown under high light (350 µmol·m-2·s-1) and sodium acetate (45 mM) stresses. A total of 2038 proteins were identified, the majority of which were associated with biological processes including signal transduction, cell proliferation, cell metabolism, and the cell response to stress. Comparative analysis indicated that H. pluvialis cells sort variant proteins into HpEVs at different physiological states. It was revealed that HpEVs from the early growth stage of H. pluvialis contain more proteins associated with cellular functions involved in primary metabolite, cell division, and cellular energy metabolism, while HpEVs from the late growth stage of H. pluvialis were enriched in proteins involved in cell wall synthesis and secondary metabolism. This is the first study to report and compare the protein composition of HpEVs from different growth stages of H. pluvialis, providing important information on the development and production of functional microalgal-derived EVs.

Micro Trojan horses: Engineering extracellular vesicles crossing biological barriers for drug delivery

The biological barriers of the body, such as the blood-brain, placental, intestinal, skin, and air-blood, protect against invading viruses and bacteria while providing necessary physical support. However, these barriers also hinder the delivery of drugs to target tissues, reducing their therapeutic efficacy. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), nanostructures with a diameter ranging from 30 nm to 10 μm secreted by cells, offer a potential solution to this challenge. These natural vesicles can effectively pass through various biological barriers, facilitating intercellular communication. As a result, artificially engineered EVs that mimic or are superior to the natural ones have emerged as a promising drug delivery vehicle, capable of delivering drugs to almost any body part to treat various diseases. This review first provides an overview of the formation and cross-species uptake of natural EVs from different organisms, including animals, plants, and bacteria. Later, it explores the current clinical applications, perspectives, and challenges associated with using engineered EVs as a drug delivery platform. Finally, it aims to inspire further research to help bioengineered EVs effectively cross biological barriers to treat diseases.

Transcriptomics of temperature-sensitive R gene-mediated resistance identifies a WAKL10 protein interaction network

Understanding temperature-sensitivity of R gene-mediated resistance against apoplastic pathogens is important for sustainable food production in the face of global warming. Here, we show that resistance of Brassica napus cotyledons against Leptosphaeria maculans was temperature-sensitive in introgression line Topas-Rlm7 but temperature-resilient in Topas-Rlm4. A set of 1,646 host genes was differentially expressed in Topas-Rlm4 and Topas-Rlm7 in response to temperature. Amongst these were three WAKL10 genes, including BnaA07g20220D, representing the temperature-sensitive Rlm7-1 allele and Rlm4. Network analysis identified a WAKL10 protein interaction cluster specifically for Topas-Rlm7 at 25 °C. Diffusion analysis of the Topas-Rlm4 network identified WRKY22 as a putative regulatory target of the ESCRT-III complex-associated protein VPS60.1, which belongs to the WAKL10 protein interaction community. Combined enrichment analysis of gene ontology terms considering gene expression and network data linked vesicle-mediated transport to defence. Thus, dysregulation of effector-triggered defence in Topas-Rlm7 disrupts vesicle-associated resistance against the apoplastic pathogen L. maculans.

Bioactive compounds and biological functions of medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny lipid bilayer-enclosed membrane particles released from a variety of cell types into the surrounding environment. These EVs have massive participated in cell-to-cell communication and interspecies communication. In recent years, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) and "exosome-like" EVs populations found in distinct plants have attracted widespread attention. Especially, research on medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles (MPDEVs) are increasing, which are considered a kind of promising natural compound. This review summarizes current knowledge on MPDEVs in terms of bioactive compounds, including small RNA, protein, lipid, and metabolite, have been found on the surface and/or in the lumen of MPDEVs. Moreover, both in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that MPDEVs exert broad biomedical functions, such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, modulate microbiota, etc. MPDEVs may be a better substitute than animal-derived extracellular vesicles (ADEVs) because of safety and biocompatibility in the future.

Role of Exosomes in Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a fundamental process driving cancer metastasis, transforming non-motile cells into a motile population that migrates to distant organs and forms secondary tumors. In recent years, cancer research has revealed a strong connection between exosomes and the EMT. Exosomes, a subpopulation of extracellular vesicles, facilitate cellular communication and dynamically regulate various aspects of cancer metastasis, including immune cell suppression, extracellular matrix remodeling, metastasis initiation, EMT initiation, and organ-specific metastasis. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) and their molecular cargo, comprising proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates, are essential components that promote EMT in cancer. TEXs miRNAs play a crucial role in reprogramming the tumor microenvironment, while TEX surface integrins contribute to organ-specific metastasis. Exosome-based cancer metastasis research offers a deeper understanding about cancer and an effective theranostic platform development. Additionally, various therapeutic sources of exosomes are paving the way for innovative cancer treatment development. In this Review, we spotlight the role of exosomes in EMT and their theranostic impact, aiming to inspire cancer researchers worldwide to explore this fascinating field in more innovative ways.

Cellular Uptake of Engineered Extracellular Vesicles: Biomechanisms, Engineered Strategies, and Disease Treatment

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), lipid-enclosed nanosized membrane vesicles, are regarded as new vehicles and therapeutic agents in intercellular communication. During internal circulation, if EVs are not effectively taken up by recipient cells, they will be cleared as "cellular waste" and unable to deliver therapeutic components. It can be seen that cells uptake EVs are the prerequisite premise for sharing intercellular biological information. However, natural EVs have a low rate of absorption by their recipient cells, off-target delivery, and rapid clearance from circulation, which seriously reduces the utilization rate. Affecting the uptake rate of EVs through engineering technologies is essential for therapeutic applications. Engineering strategies for customizing EV uptake can potentially overcome these limitations and enable desirable therapeutic uses of EVs. In this review, the mechanism and influencing factors of natural EV uptake will be described in detail. Targeting each EV uptake mechanism, the strategies of engineered EVs and their application in diseases will be emphatically discussed. Finally, the future challenges and perspectives of engineered EVs are presented multidimensionally.

The multiple frontiers in the study of extracellular vesicles produced by fungi

The production of extracellular vesicles (EVs) by fungi has been recognized for about a decade. Here we discuss the roles played by fungal EVs in biofilm formation, antifungal resistance, and release of immunogens with vaccine potential. We also explore their significance in promoting international collaboration and understanding of fungal biology.

Gut microbiome as therapeutic target for diabesity management: opportunity for nanonutraceuticals and associated challenges

Diabesity is showing rising prevalence. Current treatment modalities include pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches, yet associated with various drawbacks. Recently, gut microbial dysbiosis is documented as a crucial factor in the pathogenesis of diabesity. Targeting gut microbiome using modulators shows promising therapeutic strategy for diabesity management. In this line, nanonutraceuticals represent new class of gut microbial modulators. The present article explores the potential of nanonutraceuticals including nanoprobiotics, nanoprebiotics, and plant-derived nanovesicles that are fabricated on the ecofriendly food based scaffold with gut microbial modulatory potential for diabesity management. A number of compelling evidences from different studies support Bifidobacterium, Enterococcus, and Bacteroides genera and Lactobacillus plantarum and Akkermansia muciniphila species significant in diabesity management. The probable mechanisms reported for gut microbial dysbiosis-induced diabesity are mentioned. The review findings suggest gut microbiome as significant therapeutic target for diabesity management. Moreover, ecofriendly nanonutraceuticals developed using natural products including food-grade materials are efficient modulators of gut microbiome and indicate next-generation diabesity therapeutics. Clinical studies are imperative as further exploration may provide new dimensions to the future research.

Plant-derived nanovesicles as an emerging platform for cancer therapy

Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) derived from natural green products have emerged as an attractive nanoplatform in biomedical application. They are usually characterized by unique structural and biological functions, such as the bioactive lipids/proteins/nucleic acids as therapeutics and targeting groups, immune-modulation, and long-term circulation. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, materials, and synthetic chemistry, PDNVs can be engineered with multiple functions for efficient drug delivery and specific killing of diseased cells, which represent an innovative biomaterial with high biocompatibility for fighting against cancer. In this review, we provide an overview of the state-of-the-art studies concerning the development of PDNVs for cancer therapy. The original sources, methods for obtaining PDNVs, composition and structure are introduced systematically. With an emphasis on the featured application, the inherent anticancer properties of PDNVs as well as the strategies in constructing multifunctional PDNVs-based nanomaterials will be discussed in detail. Finally, some scientific issues and technical challenges of PDNVs as promising options in improving anticancer therapy will be discussed, which are expected to promote the further development of PDNVs in clinical translation.

Stress Conditions Affect the Immunomodulatory Potential of Candida albicans Extracellular Vesicles and Their Impact on Cytokine Release by THP-1 Human Macrophages

Human immune cells possess the ability to react complexly and effectively after contact with microbial virulence factors, including those transported in cell-derived structures of nanometer sizes termed extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs are produced by organisms of all kingdoms, including fungi pathogenic to humans. In this work, the immunomodulatory properties of EVs produced under oxidative stress conditions or at host concentrations of CO2 by the fungal pathogen Candida albicans were investigated. The interaction of EVs with human pro-monocytes of the U-937 cell line was established, and the most notable effect was attributed to oxidative stress-related EVs. The immunomodulatory potential of tested EVs against human THP-1 macrophages was verified using cytotoxicity assay, ROS-production assay, and the measurement of cytokine production. All fungal EVs tested did not show a significant cytotoxic effect on THP-1 cells, although a slight pro-oxidative impact was indicated for EVs released by C. albicans cells grown under oxidative stress. Furthermore, for all tested types of EVs, the pro-inflammatory properties related to increased IL-8 and TNF-α production and decreased IL-10 secretion were demonstrated, with the most significant effect observed for EVs released under oxidative stress conditions.

Extracellular RNAs released by plant-associated fungi: from fundamental mechanisms to biotechnological applications

Extracellular RNAs are an emerging research topic in fungal-plant interactions. Fungal plant pathogens and symbionts release small RNAs that enter host cells to manipulate plant physiology and immunity. This communication via extracellular RNAs between fungi and plants is bidirectional. On the one hand, plants release RNAs encapsulated inside extracellular vesicles as a defense response as well as for intercellular and inter-organismal communication. On the other hand, recent reports suggest that also full-length mRNAs are transported within fungal EVs into plants, and these fungal mRNAs might get translated inside host cells. In this review article, we summarize the current views and fundamental concepts of extracellular RNAs released by plant-associated fungi, and we discuss new strategies to apply extracellular RNAs in crop protection against fungal pathogens. KEY POINTS: • Extracellular RNAs are an emerging topic in plant-fungal communication. • Fungi utilize RNAs to manipulate host plants for colonization. • Extracellular RNAs can be engineered to protect plants against fungal pathogens.

Interplay of transport vesicles during plant-fungal pathogen interaction

Vesicle trafficking is an essential cellular process upon which many physiological processes of eukaryotic cells rely. It is usually the 'language' of communication among the components of the endomembrane system within a cell, between cells and between a cell and its external environment. Generally, cells have the potential to internalize membrane-bound vesicles from external sources by endocytosis. Plants constantly interact with both mutualistic and pathogenic microbes. A large part of this interaction involves the exchange of transport vesicles between the plant cells and the microbes. Usually, in a pathogenic interaction, the pathogen releases vesicles containing bioactive molecules that can modulate the host immunity when absorbed by the host cells. In response to this attack, the host cells similarly mobilize some vesicles containing pathogenesis-related compounds to the pathogen infection site to destroy the pathogen, prevent it from penetrating the host cell or annul its influence. In fact, vesicle trafficking is involved in nearly all the strategies of phytopathogen attack subsequent plant immune responses. However, this field of plant-pathogen interaction is still at its infancy when narrowed down to plant-fungal pathogen interaction in relation to exchange of transport vesicles. Herein, we summarized some recent and novel findings unveiling the involvement of transport vesicles as a crosstalk in plant-fungal phytopathogen interaction, discussed their significance and identified some knowledge gaps to direct future research in the field. The roles of vesicles trafficking in the development of both organisms are also established.

Plant-derived nanovesicles: Further exploration of biomedical function and application potential

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are phospholipid bilayer vesicles actively secreted by cells, that contain a variety of functional nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, and are important mediums of intercellular communication. Based on their natural properties, EVs can not only retain the pharmacological effects of their source cells but also serve as natural delivery carriers. Among them, plant-derived nanovesicles (PNVs) are characterized as natural disease therapeutics with many advantages such as simplicity, safety, eco-friendliness, low cost, and low toxicity due to their abundant resources, large yield, and low risk of immunogenicity in vivo. This review systematically introduces the biogenesis, isolation methods, physical characterization, and components of PNVs, and describes their administration and cellular uptake as therapeutic agents. We highlight the therapeutic potential of PNVs as therapeutic agents and drug delivery carriers, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, wound healing, regeneration, and antiaging properties as well as their potential use in the treatment of liver disease and COVID-19. Finally, the toxicity and immunogenicity, the current clinical application, and the possible challenges in the future development of PNVs were analyzed. We expect the functions of PNVs to be further explored to promote clinical translation, thereby facilitating the development of a new framework for the treatment of human diseases.

Metabolomic Analysis of Extracellular Vesicles from the Cereal Fungal Pathogen Fusarium graminearum

Fusarium graminearum (F. graminearum) is a filamentous fungus that infects cereals such as corn, wheat, and barley, with serious impact on yield as well as quality when the grain is contaminated with mycotoxins. Despite the huge impact of F. graminearum on food security and mammalian health, the mechanisms used by F. graminearum to export virulence factors during infection are not fully understood and may involve non-classical secretory pathways. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bound compartments produced by cells of all kingdoms that transport several classes of macromolecules and are implicated in cell-cell communication. EVs produced by human fungal pathogens carry cargo that facilitate infection, leading us to ask whether plant fungal pathogens also deliver molecules that increase virulence via EVs. We examined the metabolome of the EVs produced by F. graminearum to determine whether they carry small molecules that could modulate plant-pathogen interactions. We discovered that EVs from F. graminearum were produced in liquid medium-containing inducers of trichothecene production, but in lower quantities compared to other media. Nanoparticle tracking analysis and cryo-electron microscopy revealed that the EVs were morphologically similar to EVs from other organisms; hence, the EVs were metabolically profiled using LC-ESI-MS/MS. This analysis revealed that EVs carry 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone (BP-1) and metabolites that have been suggested by others to have a role in host-pathogen interactions. BP-1 reduced the growth of F. graminearum in an in vitro assay, suggesting that F. graminearum might use EVs to limit metabolite self-toxicity.

Extracellular Vesicles as Delivery Shippers for Noncoding RNA-Based Modulation of Angiogenesis: Insights from Ischemic Stroke and Cancer

Ischemic stroke and systemic cancer are two of the leading causes of mortality. Hypoxia is a central pathophysiological component in ischemic stroke and cancer, representing a joint medical function. This function includes angiogenesis regulation. Vascular remodeling coupled with axonal outgrowth following cerebral ischemia is critical in improving poststroke neurological functional recovery. Antiangiogenic strategies can inhibit cancer vascularization and play a vital role in impeding cancer growth, invasion, and metastasis. Although there are significant differences in the cause of angiogenesis across both pathophysiological conditions, emerging evidence states that common signaling structures, such as extracellular vesicles (EVs) and noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), are involved in this context. EVs, heterogeneous membrane vesicles encapsulating proteomic genetic information from parental cells, act as multifunctional regulators of intercellular communication. Among the multifaceted roles in modulating biological responses, exhaustive evidence shows that ncRNAs are selectively sorted into EVs, modulating common specific aspects of cancer development and stroke prognosis, namely, angiogenesis. This review will discuss recent advancements in the EV-facilitated/inhibited progression of specific elements of angiogenesis with a particular concern about ncRNAs within these vesicles. The review is concluded by underlining the clinical opportunities of EV-derived ncRNAs as diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic agents.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in nanomedicine for human disease and therapeutic modalities

BACKGROUND

The past few years have witnessed a significant increase in research related to plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in biological and medical applications. Using biochemical technologies, multiple independent groups have demonstrated the important roles of PDEVs as potential mediators involved in cell-cell communication and the exchange of bio-information between species. Recently, several contents have been well identified in PDEVs, including nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and other active substances. These cargoes carried by PDEVs could be transferred into recipient cells and remarkably influence their biological behaviors associated with human diseases, such as cancers and inflammatory diseases. This review summarizes the latest updates regarding PDEVs and focuses on its important role in nanomedicine applications, as well as the potential of PDEVs as drug delivery strategies to develop diagnostic and therapeutic agents for the clinical management of diseases, especially like cancers.

CONCLUSION

Considering its unique advantages, especially high stability, intrinsic bioactivity and easy absorption, further elaboration on molecular mechanisms and biological factors driving the function of PDEVs will provide new horizons for the treatment of human disease.

Plant-Derived Exosome-like Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications and Regenerative Therapy

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PDENs) comprise various bioactive biomolecules. As an alternative cell-free therapeutic approach, they have the potential to deliver nano-bioactive compounds to the human body, and thus lead to various anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-tumor benefits. Moreover, it is known that Indonesia is one of the herbal centers of the world, with an abundance of unexplored sources of PDENs. This encouraged further research in biomedical science to develop natural richness in plants as a source for human welfare. This study aims to verify the potential of PDENs for biomedical purposes, especially for regenerative therapy applications, by collecting and analyzing data from the latest relevant research and developments.

Small Cellular Particles from European Spruce Needle Homogenate

Small cellular particles (SCPs) are being considered for their role in cell-to-cell communication. We harvested and characterized SCPs from spruce needle homogenate. SCPs were isolated by differential ultracentrifugation. They were imaged by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and cryogenic transmission electron microscope (cryo TEM), assessed for their number density and hydrodynamic diameter by interferometric light microscopy (ILM) and flow cytometry (FCM), total phenolic content (TPC) by UV-vis spectroscopy, and terpene content by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The supernatant after ultracentrifugation at 50,000× g contained bilayer-enclosed vesicles whereas in the isolate we observed small particles of other types and only a few vesicles. The number density of cell-sized particles (CSPs) (larger than 2 μm) and meso-sized particles (MSPs) (cca 400 nm-2 µm) was about four orders of magnitude lower than the number density of SCPs (sized below 500 nm). The average hydrodynamic diameter of SCPs measured in 10,029 SCPs was 161 ± 133 nm. TCP decreased considerably due to 5-day aging. Volatile terpenoid content was found in the pellet after 300× g. The above results indicate that spruce needle homogenate is a source of vesicles to be explored for potential delivery use.

SERS-Based Biosensors Combined with Machine Learning for Medical Application

Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has shown strength in non-invasive, rapid, trace analysis and has been used in many fields in medicine. Machine learning (ML) is an algorithm that can imitate human learning styles and structure existing content with the knowledge to effectively improve learning efficiency. Integrating SERS and ML can have a promising future in the medical field. In this review, we summarize the applications of SERS combined with ML in recent years, such as the recognition of biological molecules, rapid diagnosis of diseases, developing of new immunoassay techniques, and enhancing SERS capabilities in semi-quantitative measurements. Ultimately, the possible opportunities and challenges of combining SERS with ML are addressed.

Advances in Purification, Modification, and Application of Extracellular Vesicles for Novel Clinical Treatments

Extracellular vesicles (EV) are membrane vesicles surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane and include microvesicles, apoptotic bodies, exosomes, and exomeres. Exosome-encapsulated microRNAs (miRNAs) released from cancer cells are involved in the proliferation and metastasis of tumor cells via angiogenesis. On the other hand, mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) therapy, which is being employed in regenerative medicine owing to the ability of MSCs to differentiate into various cells, is due to humoral factors, including messenger RNA (mRNA), miRNAs, proteins, and lipids, which are encapsulated in exosomes derived from transplanted cells. New treatments that advocate cell-free therapy using MSC-derived exosomes will significantly improve clinical practice. Therefore, using highly purified exosomes that perform their original functions is desirable. In this review, we summarized advances in the purification, modification, and application of EVs as novel strategies to treat some diseases.

Plant microProteins: Small but powerful modulators of plant development

MicroProteins (miPs) are small and single-domain containing proteins of less than 20 kDa. This domain allows microProteins to interact with compatible domains of evolutionary-related proteins and fine-tuning the key physiological pathways in several organisms. Since the first report of a microProtein in mice, numerous microProteins have been identified in plants by computational approaches. However, only a few candidates have been functionally characterized, primarily in Arabidopsis. The recent success of synthetic microProteins in modulating physiological activities in crops makes these proteins interesting candidates for crop engineering. Here, we comprehensively summarise the synthesis, mode of action, and functional roles of microProteins in plants. We also discuss different approaches used to identify plant microProteins. Additionally, we discuss novel approaches to design synthetic microProteins that can be used to target proteins regulating plant growth and development. We finally highlight the prospects and challenges of utilizing microProteins in future crop improvement programs.

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MicroProteins (miPs) are small-sized proteins with a molecular weight of 5–20 kDa

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MiPs can be detected through multiomics and computational approaches

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MiPs are crucial regulators of plant growth and development

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MiPs as condensates, synthetic miPs, and limitations

Bacterial extracellular vesicle applications in cancer immunotherapy

Cancer therapy is undergoing a paradigm shift toward immunotherapy focusing on various approaches to activate the host immune system. As research to identify appropriate immune cells and activate anti-tumor immunity continues to expand, scientists are looking at microbial sources given their inherent ability to elicit an immune response. Bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) are actively studied to control systemic humoral and cellular immune responses instead of using whole microorganisms or other types of extracellular vesicles (EVs). BEVs also provide the opportunity as versatile drug delivery carriers. Unlike mammalian EVs, BEVs have already made it to the clinic with the meningococcal vaccine (Bexsero®). However, there are still many unanswered questions in the use of BEVs, especially for chronic systemically administered immunotherapies. In this review, we address the opportunities and challenges in the use of BEVs for cancer immunotherapy and provide an outlook towards development of BEV products that can ultimately translate to the clinic.

Molecular Docking and Intracellular Translocation of Extracellular Vesicles for Efficient Drug Delivery

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, mediate intercellular communication by delivering their contents, such as nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, to distant target cells. EVs play a role in the progression of several diseases. In particular, programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) levels in exosomes are associated with cancer progression. Furthermore, exosomes are being used for new drug-delivery systems by modifying their membrane peptides to promote their intracellular transduction via micropinocytosis. In this review, we aim to show that an efficient drug-delivery system and a useful therapeutic strategy can be established by controlling the molecular docking and intracellular translocation of exosomes. We summarise the mechanisms of molecular docking of exosomes, the biological effects of exosomes transmitted into target cells, and the current state of exosomes as drug delivery systems.

Spotlight on plant RNA-containing extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) carrying RNA have attracted growing attention in plant cell biology. For a long time, EV release or uptake through the rigid plant cell wall was considered to be impossible and RNA outside cells to be unstable. Identified EV biomarkers have brought new insights into functional roles of EVs to transport their RNA cargo for systemic spread in plants and into plant-invading pathogens. RNA-binding proteins supposedly take over key functions in EV-mediated RNA secretion and transport, but the mechanisms of RNA sorting and EV translocation through the plant cell wall and plasma membrane are not understood. Characterizing the molecular players and the cellular mechanisms of plant RNA-containing EVs will create new knowledge in cell-to-cell and inter-organismal communication.

Extracellular vesicles isolated from dsRNA-sprayed barley plants exhibit no growth inhibition or gene silencing in Fusarium graminearum

Numerous reports have shown that incorporating a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-expressing transgene into plants or applying dsRNA by spraying it onto their leaves successfully protects them against invading pathogens exploiting the mechanism of RNA interference (RNAi). How dsRNAs or siRNAs are transferred between donor host cells and recipient fungal cells is largely unknown. It is speculated that plant extracellular vesicles (EVs) function as RNA shuttles between plants and their pathogens. Recently, we found that EVs isolated from host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) or spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) plants contained dsRNA-derived siRNAs. In this study, we evaluated whether isolated EVs from dsRNA-sprayed barley (Hordeum vulgare) plants affected the growth of the phytopathogenic ascomycete Fusarium graminearum. Encouraged by our previous finding that dropping barley-derived EVs on F. graminearum cultures caused fungal stress phenotypes, we conducted an in vitro growth experiment in microtiter plates where we co-cultivated F. graminearum with plant EVs isolated from dsRNA-sprayed barley leaves. We observed that co-cultivation of F. graminearum macroconidia with barley EVs did not affect fungal growth. Furthermore, plant EVs containing SIGS-derived siRNA appeared not to affect F. graminearum growth and showed no gene silencing activity on F. graminearum CYP51 genes. Based on our findings, we concluded that either the amount of SIGS-derived siRNA was insufficient to induce target gene silencing in F. graminearum, indicating that the role of EVs in SIGS is minor, or that F. graminearum uptake of plant EVs from liquid cultures was inefficient or impossible.

The Emerging Role of Plant-Derived Exosomes-Like Nanoparticles in Immune Regulation and Periodontitis Treatment

Periodontitis is an infectious oral disease, which leads to the destruction of periodontal tissues and tooth loss. Although the treatment of periodontitis has improved recently, the effective treatment of periodontitis and the periodontitis-affected periodontal tissues is still a challenge. Therefore, it is urgent to explore new therapeutic strategies for periodontitis. Natural products show anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and bone protective effects to periodontitis and most of these natural products are safe and cost-effective. Among these, the plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs), a type of natural nanocarriers repleted with lipids, proteins, RNAs, and other active molecules, show the ability to enter mammalian cells and regulate cellular activities. Reports from the literature indicate the great potential of PELNs in the regulation of immune functions, inflammation, microbiome, and tissue regeneration. Moreover, PELNs can also be used as drug carriers to enhance drug stability and cellular uptake in vivo. Since regulation of immune function, inflammation, microbiome, and tissue regeneration are the key phenomena usually targeted during periodontitis treatment, the PELNs hold the promising potential for periodontitis treatment. This review summarizes the recent advances in PELNs-related research that are related to the treatment of periodontitis and regeneration of periodontitis-destructed tissues and the underlying mechanisms. We also discuss the existing challenges and prospects of the application of PELNs-based therapeutic approaches for periodontitis treatment.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles: a novel nanomedicine approach with advantages and challenges

BACKGROUND

Many eukaryote cells produce membrane-enclosed extracellular vesicles (EVs) to establish cell-to-cell communication. Plant-derived EVs (P-EVs) contain proteins, RNAs, lipids, and other metabolites that can be isolated from the juice, the flesh, and roots of many species.

METHODS

In the present review study, we studied numerous articles over the past two decades published on the role of P-EVs in plant physiology as well as on the application of these vesicles in different diseases.

RESULTS

Different types of EVs have been identified in plants that have multiple functions including reorganization of cell structure, development, facilitating crosstalk between plants and fungi, plant immunity, defense against pathogens. Purified from several edible species, these EVs are more biocompatible, biodegradable, and extremely available from many plants, making them useful for cell-free therapy. Emerging evidence of clinical and preclinical studies suggest that P-EVs have numerous benefits over conventional synthetic carriers, opening novel frontiers for the novel drug-delivery system. Exciting new opportunities, including designing drug-loaded P-EVs to improve the drug-delivery systems, are already being examined, however clinical translation of P-EVs-based therapies faces challenges.

CONCLUSION

P-EVs hold great promise for clinical application in the treatment of different diseases. In addition, despite enthusiastic results, further scrutiny should focus on unravelling the detailed mechanism behind P-EVs biogenesis and trafficking as well as their therapeutic applications. Video Abstract.

Momordica. charantia-Derived Extracellular Vesicles-Like Nanovesicles Protect Cardiomyocytes Against Radiation Injury via Attenuating DNA Damage and Mitochondria Dysfunction

Thoracic radiotherapy patients have higher risks of developing radiation-induced heart disease (RIHD). Ionizing radiation generates excessive reactive oxygens species (ROS) causing oxidative stress, while Momordica. charantia and its extract have antioxidant activity. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) is emerging as novel therapeutic agent. Therefore, we explored the protective effects of Momordica. charantia-derived EVs-like nanovesicles (MCELNs) against RIHD. Using density gradient centrifugation, we successfully isolated MCELNs with similar shape, size, and markers as EVs. Confocal imaging revealed that rat cardiomyocytes H9C2 cells internalized PKH67 labeled MCELNs time-dependently. In vitro assay identified that MCELNs promoted cell proliferation, suppressed cell apoptosis, and alleviated the DNA damage in irradiated (16 Gy, X-ray) H9C2 cells. Moreover, elevated mitochondria ROS in irradiated H9C2 cells were scavenged by MCELNs, protecting mitochondria function with re-balanced mitochondria membrane potential. Furthermore, the phosphorylation of ROS-related proteins was recovered with increased ratios of p-AKT/AKT and p-ERK/ERK in MCELNs treated irradiated H9C2 cells. Last, intraperitoneal administration of MCELNs mitigated myocardial injury and fibrosis in a thoracic radiation mice model. Our data demonstrated the potential protective effects of MCELNs against RIHD. The MCELNs shed light on preventive regime development for radiation-related toxicity.

Synthetic Poly(lactic-co-glycolic Acid) Microvesicles as a Feasible Carbon Monoxide-Releasing Platform for Cancer Treatment

Biogenic microvesicles (MVs) play a pivotal role in intercellular signal communication, thus initiating critical biological responses such as the proliferation of cancer cells, gene and protein transport, and chemo-drug resistance. In addition, they have been recognized as having great potential in drug delivery applications. However, the productivity of biologically produced MVs is not sufficient for clinical applications. In this study, synthetic poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) MVs were prepared via a double emulsion method. The PLGA MVs had a biogenic MV-mimic vesicular structure with a hydrophilic core/surface and hydrophobic interior of the shell, showing great potential for drug delivery. We successfully embedded hydrophobic iron carbonyl (IC), a carbon monoxide (CO) donor, in the PLGA shell region, enabling the delivery of IC in an aqueous solution. Because of the intrinsic properties of PLGA, it was susceptible to temperature, and the MVs could easily collapse in a warm environment, leading to the decomposition of IC into CO. The in vitro result indicated that the cell viability of A549 lung carcinoma cells significantly decreased to 14% after treatment with IC-loaded PLGA MVs for 24 h, suggesting that these synthetic PLGA MVs constitute an excellent drug delivery platform.