Functional microRNAs and target sites are created by lineage-specific transposition

Retrotransposon: an insight into neurological disorders from perspectives of neurodevelopment and aging

Neurological disorders present considerable challenges in diagnosis and treatment due to their complex and diverse etiology. Retrotransposons are a type of mobile genetic element that are increasingly revealed to play a role in these diseases. This review provides a detailed overview of recent developments in the study of retrotransposons in neurodevelopment, neuroaging, and neurological diseases. Retrotransposons, including long interspersed nuclear elements-1, Alu, SINE-VNTR-Alu, and endogenous retrovirus, play important regulatory roles in the development and aging of the nervous system. They have also been implicated in the pathological processes of several neurological diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, autism spectrum disorder, and schizophrenia. Retrotransposons provide a new perspective for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying neurological diseases and provide insights into diagnostic and therapeutic strategies of these diseases.

Modulation of the Oncogenic LINE-1 Regulatory Network in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer by Exosomal miRNAs

Several microRNAs (miRNAs), including miR-221-5p, Let-7b-5p, miR-21-5p, miR-9-5p, miR-126-3p, and miR-222-3p, were recently found to be enriched in circulating exosomes of patients with non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLCs). These miRNAs distinguished cancer cases from controls with high precision and were predicted to modulate the expression of genes within the oncogenic LINE-1 regulatory network. To test this hypothesis, plasma exosomes from controls, early, and late-stage NSCLC patients were co-cultured with non-tumorigenic lung epithelial cells for 72 h and processed for measurements of gene expression. Exosomes from late-stage NSCLC patients markedly increased the mRNA levels of LINE-1 ORF1 and ORF2, as well as the levels of target miRNAs in naïve recipient cells compared to saline or control exosomes. Late-stage exosomes also modulated the expression of oncogenic targets within the LINE-1 regulatory network, namely, ICAM1, AGL, RGS3, RGS13, VCAM1, and TGFβ1. In sharp contrast, exosomes from controls or early-stage NSCLC patients inhibited LINE-1 expression, along with many of the genetic targets within the LINE-1 regulatory network. Thus, late-stage NSCLC exosomes activate LINE-1 and miRNA-regulated oncogenic signaling in non-tumorigenic, recipient lung bronchial epithelial cells. These findings raise important questions regarding lung cancer progression and metastasis and open the door for the exploration of new therapeutic interventions.

The regulatory roles of small nucleolar RNAs within their host locus

Small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) are a class of conserved noncoding RNAs forming complexes with proteins to catalyse site-specific modifications on ribosomal RNA. Besides this canonical role, several snoRNAs are now known to regulate diverse levels of gene expression. While these functions are carried out in trans by mature snoRNAs, evidence has also been emerging of regulatory roles of snoRNAs in cis, either within their genomic locus or as longer transcription intermediates during their maturation. Herein, we review recent findings that snoRNAs can interact in cis with their intron to regulate the expression of their host gene. We also explore the ever-growing diversity of longer host-derived snoRNA extensions and their functional impact across the transcriptome. Finally, we discuss the role of snoRNA duplications into forging these new layers of snoRNA-mediated regulation, as well as their involvement in the genomic imprinting of their host locus.

The Landscape of microRNAs in Bone Tumor: A Comprehensive Review in Recent Studies

Cancer, the second greatest cause of mortality worldwide, frequently causes bone metastases in patients with advanced-stage carcinomas such as prostate, breast, and lung cancer. The existence of these metastases contributes to the occurrence of skeletal-related events (SREs), which are defined by excessive pain, pathological fractures, hypercalcemia, and spinal cord compression. These injurious incidents leave uncomfortably in each of the cancer patient's life quality. Primary bone cancers, including osteosarcoma (OS), chondrosarcoma (CS), and Ewing's sarcoma (ES), have unclear origins. MicroRNA (miRNA) expression patterns have been changed in primary bone cancers such as OS, CS, and ES, indicating a role in tumor development, invasion, metastasis, and treatment response. These miRNAs are persistent in circulation and exhibit distinct patterns in many forms of bone tumors, making them potential biomarkers for early detection and treatment of such diseases. Given their crucial regulatory functions in various biological processes and conditions, including cancer, this study aims to look at miRNAs' activities and possible contributions to bone malignancies, focusing on OS, CS, and ES. In conclusion, miRNAs are valuable tools for diagnosing, monitoring, and predicting OS, CS, and ES outcomes. Further research is required to fully comprehend the intricate involvement of miRNAs in these bone cancers and to develop effective miRNA-based treatments.

Alu RNA fold links splicing with signal recognition particle proteins

Transcriptomic diversity in primates was considerably expanded by exonizations of intronic Alu elements. To better understand their cellular mechanisms we have used structure-based mutagenesis coupled with functional and proteomic assays to study the impact of successive primate mutations and their combinations on inclusion of a sense-oriented AluJ exon in the human F8 gene. We show that the splicing outcome was better predicted by consecutive RNA conformation changes than by computationally derived splicing regulatory motifs. We also demonstrate an involvement of SRP9/14 (signal recognition particle) heterodimer in splicing regulation of Alu-derived exons. Nucleotide substitutions that accumulated during primate evolution relaxed the conserved left-arm AluJ structure including helix H1 and reduced the capacity of SRP9/14 to stabilize the closed Alu conformation. RNA secondary structure-constrained mutations that promoted open Y-shaped conformations of the Alu made the Alu exon inclusion reliant on DHX9. Finally, we identified additional SRP9/14 sensitive Alu exons and predicted their functional roles in the cell. Together, these results provide unique insights into architectural elements required for sense Alu exonization, identify conserved pre-mRNA structures involved in exon selection and point to a possible chaperone activity of SRP9/14 outside the mammalian signal recognition particle.

Transposable elements as essential elements in the control of gene expression

Interspersed repetitions called transposable elements (TEs), commonly referred to as mobile elements, make up a significant portion of the genomes of higher animals. TEs contribute in controlling the expression of genes locally and even far away at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels, which is one of their significant functional effects on gene function and genome evolution. There are different mechanisms through which TEs control the expression of genes. First, TEs offer cis-regulatory regions in the genome with their inherent regulatory features for their own expression, making them potential factors for controlling the expression of the host genes. Promoter and enhancer elements contain cis-regulatory sites generated from TE, which function as binding sites for a variety of trans-acting factors. Second, a significant portion of miRNAs and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been shown to have TEs that encode for regulatory RNAs, revealing the TE origin of these RNAs. Furthermore, it was shown that TE sequences are essential for these RNAs' regulatory actions, which include binding to the target mRNA. By being a member of cis-regulatory and regulatory RNA sequences, TEs therefore play essential regulatory roles. Additionally, it has been suggested that TE-derived regulatory RNAs and cis-regulatory regions both contribute to the evolutionary novelty of gene regulation. Additionally, these regulatory systems arising from TE frequently have tissue-specific functions. The objective of this review is to discuss TE-mediated gene regulation, with a particular emphasis on the processes, contributions of various TE types, differential roles of various tissue types, based mostly on recent studies on humans.

Perspective for Studying the Relationship of miRNAs with Transposable Elements

Transposable elements are important sources of miRNA, long non-coding RNAs genes, and their targets in the composition of protein-coding genes in plants and animals. Therefore, the detection of expression levels of specific non-coding RNAs in various tissues and cells in normal and pathological conditions may indicate a programmed pattern of transposable elements' activation. This reflects the species-specific composition and distribution of transposable elements in genomes, which underlie gene regulation in every cell division, including during aging. TEs' expression is also regulated by epigenetic factors (DNA methylation, histone modifications), SIRT6, cytidine deaminases APOBEC3, APOBEC1, and other catalytic proteins, such as ERCC, TREX1, RB1, HELLS, and MEGP2. In evolution, protein-coding genes and their regulatory elements are derived from transposons. As part of non-coding regions and introns of genes, they are sensors for transcriptional and post-transcriptional control of expression, using miRNAs and long non-coding RNAs, that arose from transposable elements in evolution. Methods (Orbld, ncRNAclassifier) and databases have been created for determining the occurrence of miRNAs from transposable elements in plants (PlanTE-MIR DB, PlaNC-TE), which can be used to design epigenetic gene networks in ontogenesis. Based on the data accumulated in the scientific literature, the presence of 467 transposon-derived miRNA genes in the human genome has been reliably established. It was proposed to create an updated and controlled online bioinformatics database of miRNAs derived from transposable elements in healthy individuals, as well as expression changes of these miRNAs during aging and various diseases, such as cancer and difficult-to-treat diseases. The use of the information obtained can open new horizons in the management of tissue and organ differentiation to aging slow down. In addition, the created database could become the basis for clarifying the mechanisms of pathogenesis of various diseases (imbalance in the activity of transposable elements, reflected in changes in the expression of miRNAs) and designing their targeted therapy using specific miRNAs as targets. This article provides examples of the detection of transposable elements-derived miRNAs involved in the development of specific malignant neoplasms, aging, and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.

An update on post-transcriptional regulation of retrotransposons

Retrotransposons, including LINE-1, Alu, SVA, and endogenous retroviruses, are one of the major constituents of human genomic repetitive sequences. Through the process of retrotransposition, some of them occasionally insert into new genomic locations by a copy-paste mechanism involving RNA intermediates. Irrespective of de novo genomic insertions, retrotransposon expression can lead to DNA double-strand breaks and stimulate cellular innate immunity through endogenous patterns. As a result, retrotransposons are tightly regulated by multi-layered regulatory processes to prevent the dangerous effects of their expression. In recent years, significant progress was made in revealing how retrotransposon biology intertwines with general post-transcriptional RNA metabolism. Here, I summarize current knowledge on the involvement of post-transcriptional factors in the biology of retrotransposons, focusing on LINE-1. I emphasize general RNA metabolisms such as methylation of adenine (m⁶ A), RNA 3'-end polyadenylation and uridylation, RNA decay and translation regulation. I discuss the effects of retrotransposon RNP sequestration in cytoplasmic bodies and autophagy. Finally, I summarize how innate immunity restricts retrotransposons and how retrotransposons make use of cellular enzymes, including the DNA repair machinery, to complete their replication cycles.

Paracrine effects of mir-210-3p on angiogenesis in hypoxia-treated c-kit-positive cardiac cells

Objective: Treatment with c-kit-positive cardiac cells (CPCs) has been shown to improve the prognosis of ischemic heart disease. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) confer protection by enhancing the cardiac repair process, but their specific functional mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to screen for differentially expressed miRNAs in CPCs under hypoxia and explore their effects on the function of CPCs.Methods: We harvested CPCs from C57 adult mice and later performed a high-throughput miRNA sequencing for differential expression profiling analysis. Subsequently, we intervened with the differentially expressed gene miR-210-3p in CPCs and detected changes in the secretion of angiogenesis-related factors through a protein-chip analysis. Finally, we applied CPC supernatants of different groups as conditioned medium to treat mouse cardiac microvascular endothelial cells (CMECs) and further investigated the functional effects of miR-210-3p on c-kit+CPCs under ischemia and hypoxia conditions.Results: The miR-210-3p was highly increased in hypoxia-treated CPCs. Protein-chip detection revealed that CPCs expressed cytokines such as FGF basic, angiogenin, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and that hypoxia enhanced their release. Silencing miR-210-3p resulted in a reduction in the release of these angiogenesis-related factors. In addition, the conditioned medium of hypoxia-treated CPCs promoted the proliferation, migration, and tube-forming capabilities of CMECs. In contrast, the conditioned media of CPCs with silenced miR-210-3p after hypoxia decreased the proliferation, migration, and tube-forming ability of CMEC.Conclusions: The CPCs exert proangiogenic effects via paracrine pathways mediated by miR-210-3p. Upregulation of miR-210-3p in hypoxia-treated CPCs may enhance their paracrine function by regulating the secretion of angiogenic factors, thereby promoting angiogenesis in ischemic heart disease.

Transposons Acting as Competitive Endogenous RNAs: In-Silico Evidence from Datasets Characterised by L1 Overexpression

LINE L1 are transposable elements that can replicate within the genome by passing through RNA intermediates. The vast majority of these element copies in the human genome are inactive and just between 100 and 150 copies are still able to mobilize. During evolution, they could have been positively selected for beneficial cellular functions. Nonetheless, L1 deregulation can be detrimental to the cell, causing diseases such as cancer. The activity of miRNAs represents a fundamental mechanism for controlling transcript levels in somatic cells. These are a class of small non-coding RNAs that cause degradation or translational inhibition of their target transcripts. Beyond this, competitive endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs), mostly made by circular and non-coding RNAs, have been seen to compete for the binding of the same set of miRNAs targeting protein coding genes. In this study, we have investigated whether autonomously transcribed L1s may act as ceRNAs by analyzing public dataset in-silico. We observed that genes sharing miRNA target sites with L1 have a tendency to be upregulated when L1 are overexpressed, suggesting the possibility that L1 might act as ceRNAs. This finding will help in the interpretation of transcriptomic responses in contexts characterized by the specific activation of transposons.

Transposable elements contribute to the spatiotemporal microRNA landscape in human brain development

Transposable elements (TEs) contribute to the evolution of gene regulatory networks and are dynamically expressed throughout human brain development and disease. One gene regulatory mechanism influenced by TEs is the miRNA system of post-transcriptional control. miRNA sequences frequently overlap TE loci and this miRNA expression landscape is crucial for control of gene expression in adult brain and different cellular contexts. Despite this, a thorough investigation of the spatiotemporal expression of TE-embedded miRNAs in human brain development is lacking. Here, we identify a spatiotemporally dynamic TE-embedded miRNA expression landscape between childhood and adolescent stages of human brain development. These miRNAs sometimes arise from two apposed TEs of the same subfamily, such as for L2 or MIR elements, but in the majority of cases stem from solo TEs. They give rise to in silico predicted high-confidence pre-miRNA hairpin structures, likely represent functional miRNAs, and have predicted genic targets associated with neurogenesis. TE-embedded miRNA expression is distinct in the cerebellum when compared to other brain regions, as has previously been described for gene and TE expression. Furthermore, we detect expression of previously nonannotated TE-embedded miRNAs throughout human brain development, suggestive of a previously undetected miRNA control network. Together, as with non-TE-embedded miRNAs, TE-embedded sequences give rise to spatiotemporally dynamic miRNA expression networks, the implications of which for human brain development constitute extensive avenues of future experimental research. To facilitate interactive exploration of these spatiotemporal miRNA expression dynamics, we provide the "Brain miRTExplorer" web application freely accessible for the community.

The snoGloBe interaction predictor reveals a broad spectrum of C/D snoRNA RNA targets

Box C/D small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) are a conserved class of RNA known for their role in guiding ribosomal RNA 2'-O-ribose methylation. Recently, C/D snoRNAs were also implicated in regulating the expression of non-ribosomal genes through different modes of binding. Large scale RNA-RNA interaction datasets detect many snoRNAs binding messenger RNA, but are limited by specific experimental conditions. To enable a more comprehensive study of C/D snoRNA interactions, we created snoGloBe, a human C/D snoRNA interaction predictor based on a gradient boosting classifier. SnoGloBe considers the target type, position and sequence of the interactions, enabling it to outperform existing predictors. Interestingly, for specific snoRNAs, snoGloBe identifies strong enrichment of interactions near gene expression regulatory elements including splice sites. Abundance and splicing of predicted targets were altered upon the knockdown of their associated snoRNA. Strikingly, the predicted snoRNA interactions often overlap with the binding sites of functionally related RNA binding proteins, reinforcing their role in gene expression regulation. SnoGloBe is also an excellent tool for discovering viral RNA targets, as shown by its capacity to identify snoRNAs targeting the heavily methylated SARS-CoV-2 RNA. Overall, snoGloBe is capable of identifying experimentally validated binding sites and predicting novel sites with shared regulatory function.

Nucleic acids movement and its relation to genome dynamics of repetitive DNA: Is cellular and intercellular movement of DNA and RNA molecules related to the evolutionary dynamic genome components?: Is cellular and intercellular movement of DNA and RNA molecules related to the evolutionary dynamic genome components?

There is growing evidence of evolutionary genome plasticity. The evolution of repetitive DNA elements, the major components of most eukaryotic genomes, involves the amplification of various classes of mobile genetic elements, the expansion of satellite DNA, the transfer of fragments or entire organellar genomes and may have connections with viruses. In addition to various repetitive DNA elements, a plethora of large and small RNAs migrate within and between cells during individual development as well as during evolution and contribute to changes of genome structure and function. Such migration of DNA and RNA molecules often results in horizontal gene transfer, thus shaping the whole genomic network of interconnected species. Here, we propose that a high evolutionary dynamism of repetitive genome components is often related to the migration/movement of DNA or RNA molecules. We speculate that the cytoplasm is probably an ideal compartment for such evolutionary experiments.

Computational modeling of RNase, antisense ORF0 RNA, and intracellular compartmentation and their impact on the life cycle of the line retrotransposon

Nearly half of the human genome is occupied by repetitive sequences of ancient virus-like genetic elements. The largest class, comprising 17% of the genome, belong to the type 1 Long INterspersed Elements (LINE-1) and are the only class capable of autonomous propagation in the genome. When epigenetic silencing mechanisms of LINE-1 fail, the proteins encoded by LINE-1 engage in reverse transcription to make new copies of their own or other DNAs that are pasted back into the genome. To elucidate how LINE-1 is dysregulated as a result of carcinogen exposure, we developed a computational model of key elements in the LINE-1 lifecycle, namely, the role of cytosolic ribonuclease (RNase), RNA interference (RNAi) by the antisense ORF0 RNA, and sequestration of LINE-1 products into stress granules and multivesicular structures.

The model showed that when carcinogen exposure is represented as either a sudden increase in LINE-1 mRNA count, or as an increase in mRNA transcription rate, the retrotransposon copy number exhibits a distinct threshold behavior above which LINE-1 enters a positive feedback loop that allows the cDNA copy number to grow exponentially. We also found that most of the LINE-1 RNA was degraded via the RNAase pathway and that neither ORF0 RNAi, nor the sequestration of LINE-1 products into granules and multivesicular structures, played a significant role in regulating the retrotransposon’s life cycle. Several aspects of the prediction agree with experimental results and indicate that the model has significant potential to inform future experiments related to LINE-1 activation.

Chromosome-Level Genome Assembly of Nephotettix cincticeps (Uhler, 1896) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Deltocephalinae)

The green rice leafhopper, Nephotettix cincticeps (Uhler), is an important rice pest and a vector of the rice dwarf virus in Asia. Here, we produced a high-quality chromosome-level genome assembly of 753.23 Mb using PacBio (∼110×) and Hi-C data (∼94×). It contained 163 scaffolds and 950 contigs, whose scaffold/contig N50 lengths reached 85.36/2.57 Mb. And 731.19 Mb (97.07%) of the assembly was anchored into eight pseudochromosomes. Genome completeness was attained to 97.0% according to the insect reference Benchmarking Universal Single-Copy Orthologs (BUSCO) gene set (n = 1,367). We masked 347.10 Mb (46.08%) of the genome as repetitive elements. Nine hundred sixty-two noncoding RNAs were identified and 14,337 protein-coding genes were predicted. We also assigned GO term and KEGG pathway annotations for 10,049 and 9,251 genes, respectively. Significantly expanded gene families were primarily involved in immunity, cuticle, digestion, detoxification, and embryonic development. This study provided a crucial genomic resource for better understanding on the biology and evolution in family Cicadellidae.

Evolutionary dynamics of circular RNAs in primates

Many primate genes produce circular RNAs (circRNAs). However, the extent of circRNA conservation between closely related species remains unclear. By comparing tissue-specific transcriptomes across over 70 million years of primate evolution, we identify that within 3 million years circRNA expression profiles diverged such that they are more related to species identity than organ type. However, our analysis also revealed a subset of circRNAs with conserved neural expression across tens of millions of years of evolution. By comparing to species-specific circRNAs, we identified that the downstream intron of the conserved circRNAs display a dramatic lengthening during evolution due to the insertion of novel retrotransposons. Our work provides comparative analyses of the mechanisms promoting circRNAs to generate increased transcriptomic complexity in primates.

More than causing (epi)genomic instability: emerging physiological implications of transposable element modulation

Transposable elements (TEs) initially attracted attention because they comprise a major portion of the genomic sequences in plants and animals. TEs may jump around the genome and disrupt both coding genes as well as regulatory sequences to cause disease. Host cells have therefore evolved various epigenetic and functional RNA-mediated mechanisms to mitigate the disruption of genomic integrity by TEs. TE associated sequences therefore acquire the tendencies of attracting various epigenetic modifiers to induce epigenetic alterations that may spread to the neighboring genes. In addition to posting threats for (epi)genome integrity, emerging evidence suggested the physiological importance of endogenous TEs either as cis-acting control elements for controlling gene regulation or as TE-containing functional transcripts that modulate the transcriptome of the host cells. Recent advances in long-reads sequence analysis technologies, bioinformatics and genetic editing tools have enabled the profiling, precise annotation and functional characterization of TEs despite their challenging repetitive nature. The importance of specific TEs in preimplantation embryonic development, germ cell differentiation and meiosis, cell fate determination and in driving species specific differences in mammals will be discussed.

Retrotransposons as Drivers of Mammalian Brain Evolution

Retrotransposons, a large and diverse class of transposable elements that are still active in humans, represent a remarkable force of genomic innovation underlying mammalian evolution. Among the features distinguishing mammals from all other vertebrates, the presence of a neocortex with a peculiar neuronal organization, composition and connectivity is perhaps the one that, by affecting the cognitive abilities of mammals, contributed mostly to their evolutionary success. Among mammals, hominids and especially humans display an extraordinarily expanded cortical volume, an enrichment of the repertoire of neural cell types and more elaborate patterns of neuronal connectivity. Retrotransposon-derived sequences have recently been implicated in multiple layers of gene regulation in the brain, from transcriptional and post-transcriptional control to both local and large-scale three-dimensional chromatin organization. Accordingly, an increasing variety of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative conditions are being recognized to be associated with retrotransposon dysregulation. We review here a large body of recent studies lending support to the idea that retrotransposon-dependent evolutionary novelties were crucial for the emergence of mammalian, primate and human peculiarities of brain morphology and function.

Therapeutic Targeting of MicroRNAs in the Tumor Microenvironment

The tumor-microenvironment (TME) is an amalgamation of various factors derived from malignant cells and infiltrating host cells, including cells of the immune system. One of the important factors of the TME is microRNAs (miRs) that regulate target gene expression at a post transcriptional level. MiRs have been found to be dysregulated in tumor as well as in stromal cells and they emerged as important regulators of tumorigenesis. In fact, miRs regulate almost all hallmarks of cancer, thus making them attractive tools and targets for novel anti-tumoral treatment strategies. Tumor to stroma cell cross-propagation of miRs to regulate protumoral functions has been a salient feature of the TME. MiRs can either act as tumor suppressors or oncogenes (oncomiRs) and both miR mimics as well as miR inhibitors (antimiRs) have been used in preclinical trials to alter cancer and stromal cell phenotypes. Owing to their cascading ability to regulate upstream target genes and their chemical nature, which allows specific pharmacological targeting, miRs are attractive targets for anti-tumor therapy. In this review, we cover a recent update on our understanding of dysregulated miRs in the TME and provide an overview of how these miRs are involved in current cancer-therapeutic approaches from bench to bedside.

Role of Transposable Elements in Gene Regulation in the Human Genome

Transposable elements (TEs), also known as mobile elements (MEs), are interspersed repeats that constitute a major fraction of the genomes of higher organisms. As one of their important functional impacts on gene function and genome evolution, TEs participate in regulating the expression of genes nearby and even far away at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. There are two known principal ways by which TEs regulate the expression of genes. First, TEs provide cis-regulatory sequences in the genome with their intrinsic regulatory properties for their own expression, making them potential factors for regulating the expression of the host genes. TE-derived cis-regulatory sites are found in promoter and enhancer elements, providing binding sites for a wide range of trans-acting factors. Second, TEs encode for regulatory RNAs with their sequences showed to be present in a substantial fraction of miRNAs and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), indicating the TE origin of these RNAs. Furthermore, TEs sequences were found to be critical for regulatory functions of these RNAs, including binding to the target mRNA. TEs thus provide crucial regulatory roles by being part of cis-regulatory and regulatory RNA sequences. Moreover, both TE-derived cis-regulatory sequences and TE-derived regulatory RNAs have been implicated in providing evolutionary novelty to gene regulation. These TE-derived regulatory mechanisms also tend to function in a tissue-specific fashion. In this review, we aim to comprehensively cover the studies regarding these two aspects of TE-mediated gene regulation, mainly focusing on the mechanisms, contribution of different types of TEs, differential roles among tissue types, and lineage-specificity, based on data mostly in humans.

Transposable element-derived sequences in vertebrate development

Transposable elements (TEs) are major components of all vertebrate genomes that can cause deleterious insertions and genomic instability. However, depending on the specific genomic context of their insertion site, TE sequences can sometimes get positively selected, leading to what are called "exaptation" events. TE sequence exaptation constitutes an important source of novelties for gene, genome and organism evolution, giving rise to new regulatory sequences, protein-coding exons/genes and non-coding RNAs, which can play various roles beneficial to the host. In this review, we focus on the development of vertebrates, which present many derived traits such as bones, adaptive immunity and a complex brain. We illustrate how TE-derived sequences have given rise to developmental innovations in vertebrates and how they thereby contributed to the evolutionary success of this lineage.

Multiple Alu Exonization in 3'UTR of a Primate-Specific Isoform of CYP20A1 Creates a Potential miRNA Sponge

Alu repeats contribute to phylogenetic novelties in conserved regulatory networks in primates. Our study highlights how exonized Alus could nucleate large-scale mRNA-miRNA interactions. Using a functional genomics approach, we characterize a transcript isoform of an orphan gene, CYP20A1 (CYP20A1_Alu-LT) that has exonization of 23 Alus in its 3'UTR. CYP20A1_Alu-LT, confirmed by 3'RACE, is an outlier in length (9 kb 3'UTR) and widely expressed. Using publically available data sets, we demonstrate its expression in higher primates and presence in single nucleus RNA-seq of 15,928 human cortical neurons. miRanda predicts ∼4,700 miRNA recognition elements (MREs) for ∼1,000 miRNAs, primarily originated within these 3'UTR-Alus. CYP20A1_Alu-LT could be a potential multi-miRNA sponge as it harbors ≥10 MREs for 140 miRNAs and has cytosolic localization. We further tested whether expression of CYP20A1_Alu-LT correlates with mRNAs harboring similar MRE targets. RNA-seq with conjoint miRNA-seq analysis was done in primary human neurons where we observed CYP20A1_Alu-LT to be downregulated during heat shock response and upregulated in HIV1-Tat treatment. In total, 380 genes were positively correlated with its expression (significantly downregulated in heat shock and upregulated in Tat) and they harbored MREs for nine expressed miRNAs which were also enriched in CYP20A1_Alu-LT. MREs were significantly enriched in these 380 genes compared with random sets of differentially expressed genes (P = 8.134e-12). Gene ontology suggested involvement of these genes in neuronal development and hemostasis pathways thus proposing a novel component of Alu-miRNA-mediated transcriptional modulation that could govern specific physiological outcomes in higher primates.

Development of MicroRNAs as Potential Therapeutics against Cancer

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that function at the posttranscriptional level in the cellular regulation process. miRNA expression exerts vital effects on cell growth such as cell proliferation and survival. In cancers, miRNAs have been shown to initiate carcinogenesis, where overexpression of oncogenic miRNAs (oncomiRs) or reduced expression of tumor suppressor miRNAs has been reported. In this review, we discuss the involvement of miRNAs in tumorigenesis, the role of synthetic miRNAs as either mimics or antagomirs to overcome cancer growth, miRNA delivery, and approaches to enhance their therapeutic potentials.

Transposable Elements: A Common Feature of Neurodevelopmental and Neurodegenerative Disorders

The etiology of most neurological disorders is poorly understood and current treatments are largely ineffective. New ideas and concepts are therefore vitally important for future research in this area. This review explores the concept that dysregulation of transposable elements (TEs) contributes to the appearance and pathology of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. Despite TEs making up at least half of the human genome, they are vastly understudied in relation to brain disorders. However, recent advances in sequencing technologies and gene editing approaches are now starting to unravel the pathological role of TEs. Aberrant activation of TEs has been found in many neurological disorders; the resulting pathogenic effects, which include alterations of gene expression, neuroinflammation, and direct neurotoxicity, are starting to be resolved. An increased understanding of the relationship between TEs and pathological processes in the brain improves the potential for novel diagnostics and interventions for brain disorders.

LINE-2 transposable elements are a source of functional human microRNAs and target sites

Transposable elements (TEs) are dynamically expressed at high levels in multiple human tissues, but the function of TE-derived transcripts remains largely unknown. In this study, we identify numerous TE-derived microRNAs (miRNAs) by conducting Argonaute2 RNA immunoprecipitation followed by small RNA sequencing (AGO2 RIP-seq) on human brain tissue. Many of these miRNAs originated from LINE-2 (L2) elements, which entered the human genome around 100–300 million years ago. L2-miRNAs derived from the 3’ end of the L2 consensus sequence and thus shared very similar sequences, indicating that L2-miRNAs could target transcripts with L2s in their 3’UTR. In line with this, many protein-coding genes carried fragments of L2-derived sequences in their 3’UTR: these sequences served as target sites for L2-miRNAs. L2-miRNAs and their targets were generally ubiquitously expressed at low levels in multiple human tissues, suggesting a role for this network in buffering transcriptional levels of housekeeping genes. In addition, we also found evidence that this network is perturbed in glioblastoma. In summary, our findings uncover a TE-based post-transcriptional network that shapes transcriptional regulation in human cells.

Transposable elements (TEs) are repetitive sequences, that have contributed to the landscaping of the genome by jumping into new positions and amplifying in number. TEs have been suggested to play a role in gene regulation, but it remains poorly understood how they contribute to this process. In this study, we show that in various human tissues, an ancient class of TEs give rise to small non-coding RNAs, called microRNAs (miRNAs), that are important regulators of gene expression. The same class of TEs also serves as target sites for these TE-derived miRNAs when they are part of protein-coding transcripts. We also provide evidence that TE-derived miRNAs and target sites may play a role in human disease, as they are dysregulated in aggressive brain tumors. Altogether, our study provides novel insight into how TEs acting as miRNAs play a role in gene regulation in both, healthy and diseased human tissues.

Identification of microRNAs for regulating adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase expression in immature boar Sertoli cells in vitro

Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) plays a key role in cellular energy homeostasis and cell proliferation. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) function as posttranscriptional regulators of gene expression in biological processes. It is unclear to whether miRNAs are involved in AMPK-regulated Sertoli cell (SC) proliferation. To further understand the regulation of miRNAs in the immature boar SC proliferation, 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-D-ribofuranoside (AICAR) was added to activate AMPK. By an Illumina small RNA deep sequencing, we obtained sequences and relative expression levels of 272 known mature miRNAs, among which 9 miRNAs were significantly upregulated whereas 16 miRNAs were downregulated following the AICAR treatment. The results identified 38 conserved miRNAs, with 8 significantly downregulated miRNAs whereas no upregulated miRNAs. Gene Ontology enrichment and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analyses suggested that miR-1285 was involved in many activities and pathways associated with cell proliferation via targeting on AMPKα2. We validated that AICAR significantly downregulated miR-1285 level in SCs. Transfection of miR-1285 mimic increased the SC viability and cell cycle progression but reduced AMPKα2 mRNA and protein levels, indicating that miR-1285 is involved in the immature boar SC proliferation via downregulating AMPKα2 expression.

ALUminating the Path of Atherosclerosis Progression: Chaos Theory Suggests a Role for Alu Repeats in the Development of Atherosclerotic Vascular Disease

Atherosclerosis (ATH) and coronary artery disease (CAD) are chronic inflammatory diseases with an important genetic background; they derive from the cumulative effect of multiple common risk alleles, most of which are located in genomic noncoding regions. These complex diseases behave as nonlinear dynamical systems that show a high dependence on their initial conditions; thus, long-term predictions of disease progression are unreliable. One likely possibility is that the nonlinear nature of ATH could be dependent on nonlinear correlations in the structure of the human genome. In this review, we show how chaos theory analysis has highlighted genomic regions that have shared specific structural constraints, which could have a role in ATH progression. These regions were shown to be enriched with repetitive sequences of the Alu family, genomic parasites that have colonized the human genome, which show a particular secondary structure and are involved in the regulation of gene expression. Here, we show the impact of Alu elements on the mechanisms that regulate gene expression, especially highlighting the molecular mechanisms via which the Alu elements alter the inflammatory response. We devote special attention to their relationship with the long noncoding RNA (lncRNA); antisense noncoding RNA in the INK4 locus (ANRIL), a risk factor for ATH; their role as microRNA (miRNA) sponges; and their ability to interfere with the regulatory circuitry of the (nuclear factor kappa B) NF-κB response. We aim to characterize ATH as a nonlinear dynamic system, in which small initial alterations in the expression of a number of repetitive elements are somehow amplified to reach phenotypic significance.

The Role of Transposable Elements in Emergence of Metazoa

Systems initially emerged for protecting genomes against insertions of transposable elements and represented by mechanisms of splicing regulation, RNA-interference, and epigenetic factors have played a key role in the evolution of animals. Many studies have shown inherited transpositions of mobile elements in embryogenesis and preservation of their activities in certain tissues of adult organisms. It was supposed that on the emergence of Metazoa the self-regulation mechanisms of transposons related with the gene networks controlling their activity could be involved in intercellular cell coordination in the cascade of successive divisions with differentiated gene expression for generation of tissues and organs. It was supposed that during evolution species-specific features of transposons in the genomes of eukaryotes could form the basis for creation of dynamically related complexes of systems for epigenetic regulation of gene expression. These complexes could be produced due to the influence of noncoding transposon-derived RNAs on DNA methylation, histone modifications, and processing of alternative splicing variants, whereas the mobile elements themselves could be directly involved in the regulation of gene expression in cis and in trans. Transposons are widely distributed in the genomes of eukaryotes; therefore, their activation can change the expression of specific genes. In turn, this can play an important role in cell differentiation during ontogenesis. It is supposed that transposons can form a species-specific pattern for control of gene expression, and that some variants of this pattern can be favorable for adaptation. The presented data indicate the possible influence of transposons in karyotype formation. It is supposed that transposon localization relative to one another and to protein-coding genes can influence the species-specific epigenetic regulation of ontogenesis.

Classification of miRNA-related sequence variations

miRNA regulome is whole set of regulatory elements that regulate miRNA expression or are under control of miRNAs. Its understanding is vital for comprehension of miRNA functions. Classification of miRNA-related genetic variability is challenging because miRNA interact with different genomic elements and are studied at different omics levels. In the present study, miRNA-associated genetic variability is presented at three levels: miRNA genes and their upstream regulation, miRNA silencing machinery and miRNA targets. Several types of miRNA-associated genetic variations are known, including short and structural polymorphisms and epimutations. Differential expression can also affect miRNA regulome function. Classification of miRNA-associated genetic variability presents a baseline for complementing sequence variant nomenclature, planning of experiments, protocols for multi-omics data integration and development of biomarkers.

Structural determinants of the SINE B2 element embedded in the long non-coding RNA activator of translation AS Uchl1

Pervasive transcription of mammalian genomes leads to a previously underestimated level of complexity in gene regulatory networks. Recently, we have identified a new functional class of natural and synthetic antisense long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA) that increases translation of partially overlapping sense mRNAs. These molecules were named SINEUPs, as they require an embedded inverted SINE B2 element for their UP-regulation of translation. Mouse AS Uchl1 is the representative member of natural SINEUPs. It was originally discovered for its role in increasing translation of Uchl1 mRNA, a gene associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Here we present the secondary structure of the SINE B2 Transposable Element (TE) embedded in AS Uchl1. We find that specific structural regions, containing a short hairpin, are required for the ability of AS Uchl1 RNA to increase translation of its target mRNA. We also provide a high-resolution structure of the relevant hairpin, based on NMR observables. Our results highlight the importance of structural determinants in embedded TEs for their activity as functional domains in lncRNAs.

MicroRNAs and cancer: Key paradigms in molecular therapy

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a type of small non-coding RNA molecule that performs an important role in post-transcriptional gene regulation. Since miRNAs were first identified in 1993, a number of studies have demonstrated that they act as tumor suppressors or oncogenes in human cancer, including colorectal, lung, brain, breast and liver cancer, and leukemia. Large high-throughput studies have previously revealed that miRNA profiling is critical for the diagnosis and prognosis of patients with cancer, while certain miRNAs possess the potential to be used as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers or therapeutic targets in cancer. The present study reviews the studies and examines the roles of miRNAs in cancer diagnosis, prognosis and treatment, and discusses the potential therapeutic modality of exploiting miRNAs.

Higher levels of circulating TIMP-4 in preeclampsia is strongly associated with clinical parameters and microRNA

BACKGROUND

Preeclampsia results in maternal and fetal complications and some studies have reported the role of MMPs and TIMPs in its pathophysiology. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare plasma TIMP-4 levels in preeclampsia and healthy pregnant; and to correlate these levels with clinical parameters and expression of Let7a-5p (3´UTR post-transcriptionally regulation) Methods: TIMP-4 was measured by ELISA and miR-Let7a-5p expression by qPCR.

RESULTS

Elevated plasma TIMP-4 levels in preeclampsia compared to healthy pregnant was found 1450 ± 411 vs. 775 ± 210 pg/mL, respectively (p < 0.0001); these levels are correlated positively with serum liver enzymes (ALT, r = 0.84, p = 0.004; and AST, r = 0.51, p = 0.02); and negatively with newborn weight (r = -0.45, p = 0.04) in preeclampsia. Regarding Let7a-5p a negative but not significant correlation was found (r = -0.39, p = 0.06, including both healthy and preeclampsia).

CONCLUSIONS

Preeclampsia present elevated levels of circulating TIMP-4 compared to healthy pregnant and these levels are correlated with clinical parameters of disease.

Living Organisms Author Their Read-Write Genomes in Evolution

Evolutionary variations generating phenotypic adaptations and novel taxa resulted from complex cellular activities altering genome content and expression: (i) Symbiogenetic cell mergers producing the mitochondrion-bearing ancestor of eukaryotes and chloroplast-bearing ancestors of photosynthetic eukaryotes; (ii) interspecific hybridizations and genome doublings generating new species and adaptive radiations of higher plants and animals; and, (iii) interspecific horizontal DNA transfer encoding virtually all of the cellular functions between organisms and their viruses in all domains of life. Consequently, assuming that evolutionary processes occur in isolated genomes of individual species has become an unrealistic abstraction. Adaptive variations also involved natural genetic engineering of mobile DNA elements to rewire regulatory networks. In the most highly evolved organisms, biological complexity scales with "non-coding" DNA content more closely than with protein-coding capacity. Coincidentally, we have learned how so-called "non-coding" RNAs that are rich in repetitive mobile DNA sequences are key regulators of complex phenotypes. Both biotic and abiotic ecological challenges serve as triggers for episodes of elevated genome change. The intersections of cell activities, biosphere interactions, horizontal DNA transfers, and non-random Read-Write genome modifications by natural genetic engineering provide a rich molecular and biological foundation for understanding how ecological disruptions can stimulate productive, often abrupt, evolutionary transformations.

Evolutionary conservation and expression of miR-10a-3p in olive flounder and rock bream

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) that mainly bind to the seed sequences located within the 3' untranslated region (3' UTR) of target genes. They perform an important biological function as regulators of gene expression. Different genes can be regulated by the same miRNA, whilst different miRNAs can be regulated by the same genes. Here, the evolutionary conservation and expression pattern of miR-10a-3p in olive flounder and rock bream was examined. Binding sites (AAAUUC) to seed region of the 3' UTR of target genes were highly conserved in various species. The expression pattern of miR-10a-3p was ubiquitous in the examined tissues, whilst its expression level was decreased in gill tissues infected by viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) compared to the normal control. In the case of rock bream, the spleen, kidney, and liver tissues showed dominant expression levels of miR-10a-3p. Only the liver tissues in the rock bream samples infected by the iridovirus indicated a dominant miR-10a-3p expression. The gene ontology (GO) analysis of predicted target genes for miR-10a-3p revealed that multiple genes are related to binding activity, catalytic activity, cell components as well as cellular and metabolic process. Overall the results imply that the miR-10a-3p could be used as a biomarker to detect VHSV infection in olive flounder and iridovirus infection in rock bream. In addition, the data provides fundamental information for further study of the complex interaction between miR-10a-3p and gene expression.

[Conformational polymorphysm of G-rich fragments of DNA ALU-repeats. I. Potential noncanonical structures]

In this paper, we report results of systematic studies of conformational polymorphism of G-rich DNA fragments from Alu repeats. Alu retrotransposones are primate-specific short interspersed elements. Using the Alu sequence from the prooncogen bcl2 intron and the consensus AluSx sequence as representative examples, we determined characteristic Alu sites that are capable of adopting G-quadruplex (GQ) conformations (i.e., potential quadruplex sites - PQSAlu), and demonstrated by bioinformatics methods that those sites are Alu-specific in the human genome. Genomic frequencies of PQSAlu were assessed (~1/10000 b.p.). The sites were found to be characteristic of young (active) Alu families (Alu-Y). A recombinant DNA sequence bearing the Alu element from the human bcl2 gene (304 b.p.) and its PQS-mutant (Alu-PQS) were constructed. The formation of noncanonical structures in Alubcl2 dsDNA and the absence of such structures in the case of Alu-PQS were shown using DMS-footprinting and AFM microscopy. Expression vectors bearing wild-type and mutant Alu insertions in the promoter regions were obtained, and the effects of these insertions on the expression of the reporter gene in НЕК293 and HeLa cell lines were compared. Our findings on the spatial organization of Alu repeats may provide insight into the mechanisms of genomic rearrangements which underlie many oncological and neurodegenerative diseases.

Regulatory activities of transposable elements: from conflicts to benefits

Transposable elements (TEs) are a prolific source of tightly regulated, biochemically active non-coding elements, such as transcription factor-binding sites and non-coding RNAs. Many recent studies reinvigorate the idea that these elements are pervasively co-opted for the regulation of host genes. We argue that the inherent genetic properties of TEs and the conflicting relationships with their hosts facilitate their recruitment for regulatory functions in diverse genomes. We review recent findings supporting the long-standing hypothesis that the waves of TE invasions endured by organisms for eons have catalysed the evolution of gene-regulatory networks. We also discuss the challenges of dissecting and interpreting the phenotypic effect of regulatory activities encoded by TEs in health and disease.

Evolutionary impact of transposable elements on genomic diversity and lineage-specific innovation in vertebrates

Since their discovery, a growing body of evidence has emerged demonstrating that transposable elements are important drivers of species diversity. These mobile elements exhibit a great variety in structure, size and mechanisms of transposition, making them important putative actors in organism evolution. The vertebrates represent a highly diverse and successful lineage that has adapted to a wide range of different environments. These animals also possess a rich repertoire of transposable elements, with highly diverse content between lineages and even between species. Here, we review how transposable elements are driving genomic diversity and lineage-specific innovation within vertebrates. We discuss the large differences in TE content between different vertebrate groups and then go on to look at how they affect organisms at a variety of levels: from the structure of chromosomes to their involvement in the regulation of gene expression, as well as in the formation and evolution of non-coding RNAs and protein-coding genes. In the process of doing this, we highlight how transposable elements have been involved in the evolution of some of the key innovations observed within the vertebrate lineage, driving the group's diversity and success.

Alu-miRNA interactions modulate transcript isoform diversity in stress response and reveal signatures of positive selection

Primate-specific Alus harbor different regulatory features, including miRNA targets. In this study, we provide evidence for miRNA-mediated modulation of transcript isoform levels during heat-shock response through exaptation of Alu-miRNA sites in mature mRNA. We performed genome-wide expression profiling coupled with functional validation of miRNA target sites within exonized Alus, and analyzed conservation of these targets across primates. We observed that two miRNAs (miR-15a-3p and miR-302d-3p) elevated in stress response, target RAD1, GTSE1, NR2C1, FKBP9 and UBE2I exclusively within Alu. These genes map onto the p53 regulatory network. Ectopic overexpression of miR-15a-3p downregulates GTSE1 and RAD1 at the protein level and enhances cell survival. This Alu-mediated fine-tuning seems to be unique to humans as evident from the absence of orthologous sites in other primate lineages. We further analyzed signatures of selection on Alu-miRNA targets in the genome, using 1000 Genomes Phase-I data. We found that 198 out of 3177 Alu-exonized genes exhibit signatures of selection within Alu-miRNA sites, with 60 of them containing SNPs supported by multiple evidences (global-F_ST > 0.3, pair-wise-F_ST > 0.5, Fay-Wu’s H < −20, iHS > 2.0, high ΔDAF) and implicated in p53 network. We propose that by affecting multiple genes, Alu-miRNA interactions have the potential to facilitate population-level adaptations in response to environmental challenges.

Exaptive origins of regulated mRNA decay in eukaryotes

Eukaryotic gene expression is extensively controlled at the level of mRNA stability and the mechanisms underlying this regulation are markedly different from their archaeal and bacterial counterparts. We propose that two such mechanisms, nonsense‐mediated decay (NMD) and motif‐specific transcript destabilization by CCCH‐type zinc finger RNA‐binding proteins, originated as a part of cellular defense against RNA pathogens. These branches of the mRNA turnover pathway might have been used by primeval eukaryotes alongside RNA interference to distinguish their own messages from those of RNA viruses and retrotransposable elements. We further hypothesize that the subsequent advent of “professional” innate and adaptive immunity systems allowed NMD and the motif‐triggered mechanisms to be efficiently repurposed for regulation of endogenous cellular transcripts. This scenario explains the rapid emergence of archetypical mRNA destabilization pathways in eukaryotes and argues that other aspects of post‐transcriptional gene regulation in this lineage might have been derived through a similar exaptation route.

Roles for retrotransposon insertions in human disease

Over evolutionary time, the dynamic nature of a genome is driven, in part, by the activity of transposable elements (TE) such as retrotransposons. On a shorter time scale it has been established that new TE insertions can result in single-gene disease in an individual. In humans, the non-LTR retrotransposon Long INterspersed Element-1 (LINE-1 or L1) is the only active autonomous TE. In addition to mobilizing its own RNA to new genomic locations via a "copy-and-paste" mechanism, LINE-1 is able to retrotranspose other RNAs including Alu, SVA, and occasionally cellular RNAs. To date in humans, 124 LINE-1-mediated insertions which result in genetic diseases have been reported. Disease causing LINE-1 insertions have provided a wealth of insight and the foundation for valuable tools to study these genomic parasites. In this review, we provide an overview of LINE-1 biology followed by highlights from new reports of LINE-1-mediated genetic disease in humans.

The primate-specific noncoding RNA HPAT5 regulates pluripotency during human preimplantation development and nuclear reprogramming

Long intergenic noncoding RNAs (lincRNAs) are derived from thousands of loci in mammalian genomes and are frequently enriched in transposable elements (TEs). Although families of TE-derived lincRNAs have recently been implicated in the regulation of pluripotency, little is known of the specific functions of individual family members. Here we characterize three new individual TE-derived human lincRNAs, human pluripotency-associated transcripts 2, 3 and 5 (HPAT2, HPAT3 and HPAT5). Loss-of-function experiments indicate that HPAT2, HPAT3 and HPAT5 function in preimplantation embryo development to modulate the acquisition of pluripotency and the formation of the inner cell mass. CRISPR-mediated disruption of the genes for these lincRNAs in pluripotent stem cells, followed by whole-transcriptome analysis, identifies HPAT5 as a key component of the pluripotency network. Protein binding and reporter-based assays further demonstrate that HPAT5 interacts with the let-7 microRNA family. Our results indicate that unique individual members of large primate-specific lincRNA families modulate gene expression during development and differentiation to reinforce cell fate.

The role of Alu elements in the cis-regulation of RNA processing

The human genome is under constant invasion by retrotransposable elements. The most successful of these are the Alu elements; with a copy number of over a million, they occupy about 10 % of the entire genome. Interestingly, the vast majority of these Alu insertions are located in gene-rich regions, and one-third of all human genes contains an Alu insertion. Alu sequences are often embedded in gene sequence encoding pre-mRNAs and mature mRNAs, usually as part of their intron or UTRs. Once transcribed, they can regulate gene expression as well as increase the number of RNA isoforms expressed in a tissue or a species. They also regulate the function of other RNAs, like microRNAs, circular RNAs, and potentially long non-coding RNAs. Mechanistically, Alu elements exert their effects by influencing diverse processes, such as RNA editing, exonization, and RNA processing. In so doing, they have undoubtedly had a profound effect on human evolution.

MicroRNA-1285 Regulates 17β-Estradiol-Inhibited Immature Boar Sertoli Cell Proliferation via Adenosine Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase Activation

This study investigated the capacity of 10 μM 17β-estradiol to inhibit immature boar Sertoli cell (SC) proliferation and the involvement of microRNA (miR)-1285 in this process. SC viability and cell cycle progression were investigated using a cell counting kit-8 and flow cytometry, respectively. Expression of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), S phase kinase-associated protein 2 (Skp2), and miR-1285 was analyzed by real-time RT-PCR and Western blotting. 17β-Estradiol (10 μM) reduced SC viability and miR-1285 expression and promoted AMPK phosphorylation. A double-stranded synthetic miR-1285 mimic promoted SC viability, increased levels of ATP, and phosphorylated mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and Skp2 mRNA and protein, whereas p53 and p27 expression decreased, and 17β-estradiol-mediated effects on SCs were significantly attenuated. A single-stranded synthetic miR-1285 inhibitor produced the opposite effects on these measures. Activation of AMPK inhibited SC viability, reduced levels of ATP, phosphorylated mTOR and Skp2 mRNA and protein, and increased p53 and p27 expression. An AMPK inhibitor (compound C) attenuated the effects of 17β-estradiol on SCs. This indicated that 17β-estradiol (10 μM) reduced SC proliferation by inhibiting miR-1285 and thus activating AMPK. Phosphorylated AMPK is involved in the regulation of 17β-estradiol-mediated inhibition of SC viability through increasing p53 and p27 expression and inhibiting mTOR and Skp2 expression. Our findings also implicated Skp2 as the downstream integration point of p53 and mTOR. These findings indicated that miR-1285 may represent a target for the manipulation of boar sperm production.