Strengthening Nutrition Interventions in Antenatal Care Services Affects Dietary Intake, Micronutrient Intake, Gestational Weight Gain, and Breastfeeding in Uttar Pradesh, India: Results of a Cluster-Randomized Program Evaluation

Narrative Review of the Validity and Cross-Context Equivalence of Healthy Diet Metrics and Their Data Collection Methods for Global Monitoring

Background

Valid, sensitive healthy diet metrics that are comparable across contexts are needed for global monitoring. The healthy diets monitoring initiative identified 4 field metrics as potentially fit for purpose: global diet quality score (GDQS), global dietary recommendations score, minimum dietary diversity for women (MDD-W), and Nova ultra-processed food score.

Objectives

To review whether these 4 healthy diet metrics 1) accurately predict food and nutrient intakes; 2) accurately differentiate the average or prevalence of food and nutrient intakes; 3) respond to changes over time; 4) are comparable across contexts; and 5) can be collected using their proposed brief assessment methods while preserving predictive accuracy.

Methods

Peer-reviewed literature was searched and extracted from PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, including preprints and grey literature from the latter. Evidence on the accuracy of the field metrics and methods was qualitatively assessed against the aforementioned objectives, considering the underlying theory of change and study design, as well as the direction and magnitudes of the observed associations or effects.

Results

Increments in GDQS+ and MDD-W predicted higher composite metrics of nutrient adequacy. MDD-W was sensitive to changes in nutrient intakes over time. MDD-W cutoffs showed limited variability across contexts and population groups. Higher GDQS and global dietary recommendation scores and lower Nova ultra-processed food scores were associated with lower intakes of food and nutrients to moderate. The predictive accuracy of field methods for nutrient adequacy was maintained for GDQS and MDD-W. No study explicitly investigated how field metrics differentiate averages or prevalence of reference metrics across countries.

Conclusions

MDD-W demonstrated comparatively stronger predictive accuracy for nutrient adequacy, with a lower burden method, than GDQS+. Further research is required to determine the predictive accuracy of field-friendly metrics measuring moderation across contexts and time. Complementary metrics that can be collected simultaneously on a large scale are needed for global monitoring.

Changing maternal, infant and young child nutrition practices through social and behaviour change interventions implemented at scale: Lessons learned from Alive & Thrive

Alive & Thrive (A&T) is an initiative designed to advance the implementation of maternal, infant and young child nutrition (MIYCN) social and behaviour change (SBC) at a large scale. The aims of this research were to: (1) describe A&T's SBC implementation processes and their impact based on a review of programme documents and peer-reviewed publications and (2) gather lessons learned from key informant interviews (N = 23) with A&T staff and stakeholders in Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, India, Nigeria and Vietnam. A&T's SBC approach used interpersonal communication, community mobilization and mass media to address knowledge gaps, strengthen self-efficacy and shift social norms. The initiative used data for design and evaluation and facilitated scale and sustainability through close collaboration with governments and other stakeholders. A&T's approach increased exclusive breastfeeding, minimum meal frequency of children and use of iron and folic acid tablets by pregnant women, but had mixed impacts on early initiation of breastfeeding and maternal and child dietary diversity. Multiple SBC channels and frequent contacts strengthened the impact of SBC on MIYCN practices. Lessons learned included: using existing large-scale platforms for interpersonal communication, improving counselling skills of health workers, delivering timely tailored messages, engaging key influencers to take specific actions, using research to address underlying behavioural concerns and maximize mass media reach and frequency, using simple memorable messages and employing additional channels to reach low media coverage areas. A&T developed and implemented at-scale MIYCN SBC in multiple countries, providing lessons learned about intervention strategies, engagement of influencers and mass media campaign development, which governments and other implementers can adapt and replicate.

Strengthening nutrition policy and service delivery: Lessons learned from a six-country assessment of Alive and Thrive's technical assistance

Alive & Thrive (A&T) provides strategic technical assistance (TA) to develop effective policies; improve maternal, infant, and young child nutrition (MIYCN) programme design and implementation and enhance system capacity to sustain quality MIYCN service delivery at scale. A qualitative assessment was conducted using document review and stakeholder interviews (n = 79) to describe a selection of A&T's TA in six countries and systematically assess the contextual and TA process-related factors that influenced the results achieved and document the lessons learned about MIYCN TA design and implementation. To facilitate the selection of different types of TA, we classified TA into two levels of stakeholder engagement and intensity. Under the Technical Advisor TA category, we assessed A&T's support to strengthen national policy formulation, monitoring, and implementation of the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes. For Capacity Development TA, we assessed A&T support to scale-up maternal nutrition services and to increase strategic use of data. Factors important for TA provision included identifying and engaging with the right people, using evidence to support advocacy and decision-making, using multiple ways to strengthen capacity, developing packages of tools to support programme scale-up, and reinforcing feedback mechanisms to improve service provision and data quality. Challenges included shifts in the political context, poorly functioning health systems, and limited resources to replicate or sustain the progress made. Continued investment in evidence-based and practical TA that strengthens the institutionalization of nutrition across all stakeholders-including government, medical associations, civil society and development partners-is essential. Future TA must support governments to strengthen system capacity for nutrition, including financial and human resource gaps that hamper full scale-up.

Enhanced quality of nutrition services during antenatal care through interventions to improve maternal nutrition in Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, and India

Background

Quality antenatal care (ANC) services are critical for maternal health and nutrition. Information on the quality of nutrition interventions during ANC is scarce in low- and middle-income countries. We examined the effects of intensified maternal nutrition interventions during ANC on service readiness, provision of care, and experience of care and assessed the inter-relationships between the dimensions of quality.

Methods

We used data from impact evaluations of maternal nutrition interventions in Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, and India. We calculated the quality of nutrition services during ANC using information from health facility assessments, health care provider interviews, ANC observations, and client exit interviews. We used structural equation models to examine relationships between the dimensions of quality.

Results

Health facilities in all four countries had a high service readiness component in terms of basic amenities, equipment and supplies, medicines and commodities, and guidelines (mean (x̄) = 8-10 in Bangladesh and Burkina Faso, x̄ = 7-9 in Ethiopia, and x̄ = 6-8 in India). Scores for provision of care were low across the countries but higher in intervention compared to control areas in Bangladesh (5.2 vs. 2.9) and Burkina Faso (5.6 vs. 4.8), but not significantly different in Ethiopia (range = 4.7-5.0) and India (range = 2.6-3.5). For experience of care, client satisfaction scores were high and similar between intervention and control areas in all countries (range = 8.3-9.7), but client experience scores were lower with statistically significant differences observed only in Bangladesh (x̄ = 8.2 in intervention vs. x̄ = 7.1 in control areas). The interventions had significant direct effects on service readiness in Bangladesh (β = 0.07), Burkina Faso (β = 1.20), and Ethiopia (β = 1.0), on the provision of care in Bangladesh (β = 2.27), Burkina Faso (β = 1.27), and India (β = 0.96), and experience of care in Bangladesh (β = 0.21).

Conclusions

In this study, we provided evidence on various dimensions of service quality that may be improved by interventions to strengthen nutrition services during ANC in diverse low- and middle-income countries.

Effect of Nutrition Education During Pregnancy on Iron-Folic Acid Supplementation Compliance and Anemia in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

CONTEXT

Stakeholders implement nutrition education to prevent and control anemia during pregnancy. Nutrition education during pregnancy can increase the consumption of iron-folic acid (IFA) supplements and encourage behavioral changes. However, there is no comprehensive meta-analysis to determine the effectiveness of this intervention.

OBJECTIVE

This review aimed to determine the effect of nutrition education on IFA supplementation (IFAS) compliance, hemoglobin level change, and prevalence of anemia in low- and middle-income countries.

DATA SOURCES

The systematic searches on Ovid Medline, Scopus, Embase (Elsevier), Web of Science, Health and Medical Collection (ProQuest), and Google Scholar were conducted until September 11, 2023. The updated searches were performed on November 16, 2023.

DATA EXTRACTION

In total, 12 436 records were imported to Covidence. Of these, 9109 records were screened by title and abstract. A total of 112 records were evaluated in full, and 53 articles were ultimately included based on eligibility.

RESULTS

Fifty-three peer-reviewed research articles met the inclusion criteria, involving 13 475 pregnant women. Those who received nutrition education during pregnancy were 2.80 times more likely to comply with IFAS (odds ratio = 2.80; 95% CI: 2.04, 3.83; I2 = 66.20%). There was an average increase of 0.88 g/dL (Cohen's d = 0.88; 95% CI: 0.63, 1.13; I2 = 96.17%) in hemoglobin levels among women who received nutrition education. A meta-regression analysis revealed that 61.85% (adjusted R2 = 61.85%) of heterogeneity between standardized mean differences was explained by anemia status, intervention duration, and geographic region. Also, pregnant women in the nutrition education group had a 34% (relative risk = 0.66; 95% CI: 0.54, 0.80, I2 = 86.85%) lower risk of anemia compared with the control group.

CONCLUSION

Nutrition education during pregnancy improves compliance with IFAS, increases hemoglobin levels, and reduces the risk of anemia. Therefore, it is crucial to enhance the existing nutrition education program to prevent and control anemia during pregnancy.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO registration no. CRD42023454241.

Diet Quality Among Mothers and Children in India: Roles of Social and Behavior Change Communication and Nutrition-Sensitive Social Protection Programs

BACKGROUND

Limited evidence exists on determinants of maternal and child diet quality.

OBJECTIVES

This study examined the role of social and behavior change communication (SBCC) and nutrition-sensitive social protection (NSSP) programs on maternal and child diet quality.

METHODS

Data were from cross-sectional phone survey on 6627 Indian mothers that took place in late 2021. The Diet Quality Questionnaire (DQQ) was used to measure maternal and child diet quality, including minimum dietary diversity (MDD), dietary diversity scores (DDSs), noncommunicable disease (NCD)-protect and NCD-risk scores, adherence to dietary guidelines (All-5 and India-All-6), and unhealthy child feeding. Multivariate regression models were used to explore the association between diet indicators and coverage of SBCC and NSSP programs.

RESULTS

Maternal and child diet quality was suboptimal, with more mothers (57%) achieving MDD than children (23%). SBCC was positively associated with healthy food consumption in children (odds ratio [OR]: 2.14 for MDD; β: 0.60 for DDS and 0.54 for NCD-protect) and mothers (β: 0.38 for DDS and 0.43 for NCD-protect). Cash transfers were associated with healthier diets in mothers (OR: 1.45 for MDD, 1.86 for All-5, and 2.14 for India-All-6; β: 0.43 for DDS and 0.26 for NCD-protect), but less associations noted for children (β: 0.14 for NCD-protect). Receiving food was associated not only with healthier diets in mothers (OR: 1.47 for MDD; β: 0.27 for DDS and 0.33 for NCD-protect) and children (β: 0.19 for DDS and 0.15 for NCD-protect) but also with unhealthy food in children (OR: 1.34). Exposure to multiple programs showed stronger associations with diet quality.

CONCLUSIONS

SBCC has greater positive impact on child feeding than food and cash transfers, while cash has a stronger association with improved maternal diets. Food and cash are also associated with unhealthy food consumption. Our study underscores the importance of interventions that combine education, resource provision, and targeted support to promote maternal and child diet quality.

Do timing and frequency of antenatal care make a difference in maternal micronutrient intake and breastfeeding practices? Insights from a multi-country study in South Asia

Despite the established benefits of vitamins and minerals for maternal and neonatal health, global micronutrient deficiency remains a significant concern. As such, the World Health Organization advocates timely antenatal care (ANC) initiation and micronutrient supplementation for expectant mothers. This study investigates the association between ANC timing and frequency and maternal health behaviours, specifically iron-folic acid (IFA) intake, early breastfeeding initiation, and exclusive breastfeeding among married women in South Asia. By utilizing recent Demographic and Health Survey data, this study focuses on married women aged 15-49 in Bangladesh (N = 966), India (N = 89,472), and Pakistan (N = 1,005), specifically primiparous women with children aged 0-23 months living with the motherMultivariable analysis revealed that women receiving ≥4 ANC visits were more likely to consume IFA ≥90 days compared to those with fewer visits in Bangladesh (AOR: 1.85, 95% CI [1.30, 2.63]), India (AOR: 1.87, 95% CI [1.81, 1.94]), and Pakistan (AOR: 1.92, 95% CI [1.24, 2.97]). Women receiving first ANC in the second or third trimester were less likely to consume IFC for ≥90 days compared to those with first-trimester ANC. While the ANC timing did not significantly influence early breastfeeding initiation, ANC frequency was inversely associated with delayed initiation in all countries. Breastfeeding advice during ANC visits was significantly associated with reduced odds of delayed breastfeeding initiation. Neither ANC timing nor frequency significantly predicted exclusive breastfeeding, except for breastfeeding advice in India. This study highlights the importance of ANC in maternal and child health outcomes. ANC timing and frequency, along with breastfeeding advice during ANC, notably influence maternal IFA consumption and early breastfeeding initiation. These findings underscore the need for targeted interventions during ANC visits to enhance maternal and child health practices in low- and middle-income countries.

Defining a Dichotomous Indicator for Population-Level Assessment of Dietary Diversity Among Pregnant Adolescent Girls and Women: A Secondary Analysis of Quantitative 24-h Recalls from Rural Settings in Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, India, and Nepal

Background

The Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women of Reproductive Age (MDD-W) indicator was validated as a proxy of micronutrient adequacy among nonpregnant women in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). At that time, indeed, there was insufficient data to validate the indicator among pregnant women, who face higher micronutrient requirements.

Objective

This study aimed to validate a minimum food group consumption threshold, out of the 10 food groups used to construct MDD-W, to be used as a population-level indicator of higher micronutrient adequacy among pregnant women aged 15-49 y in LMICs.

Methods

We used secondary quantitative 24-h recall data from 6 surveys in 4 LMICs (Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, India, and Nepal, total n = 4909). We computed the 10-food group Women's Dietary Diversity Score (WDDS-10) and calculated the mean probability of adequacy (MPA) of 11 micronutrients. Linear regression models were fitted to assess the associations between WDDS-10 and MPA. Sensitivity, specificity, and proportion of individuals correctly classified were used to assess the performance of MDD-W in predicting an MPA of >0.60.

Results

In the pooled sample, median values (interquartile range) of WDDS-10 and MPA were 3 (1) and 0.20 (0.34), respectively, whereas the proportion of pregnant women with an MPA of >0.60 was 9.6%. The WDDS-10 was significantly positively associated with MPA in each survey. Although the acceptable food group consumption threshold varied between 4 and 6 food groups across surveys, the threshold of 5 showed the highest performance in the pooled sample with good sensitivity (62%), very good specificity (81%), and percentage of correctly classified individuals (79%).

Conclusions

The WDDS-10 is a good predictor of dietary micronutrient adequacy among pregnant women aged 15-49 y in LMICs. Moreover, the threshold of 5 or more food groups for the MDD-W indicator may be extended to all women of reproductive age, regardless of their physiologic status.

Effectiveness of nutrition counseling for pregnant women in low- and middle-income countries to improve maternal and infant behavioral, nutritional, and health outcomes: A systematic review

Background

Nutritional counseling, which includes two-way interactive education, has been hypothesized to improve the health and nutritional status of pregnant women, but little is known about the impact such practice of care might have on maternal and infant health and behavioral outcomes of pregnant women living in low income, low-middle income, and upper-middle-income countries (LMIC)s.

Objectives

We conducted a systematic review to appraise the effectiveness and impact on health equity of two-way nutritional counseling practices in LMICs on maternal and infant behavioral, nutritional, and health outcomes.

Search Methods

We conducted electronic searches for relevant studies on Medline, Embase, CINAHL, PsychInfo, and the Cochrane CENTRAL for randomized and non-randomized trials on the effectiveness of two-way interactive nutritional counseling among pregnant women from the date of database inception up to June 22, 2021. In addition, we searched references of included studies in systematic reviews, gray literature resources, and unpublished studies or reports that satisfied our eligibility criteria using a focused Google search.

Selection Criteria

We included randomized and non-randomized controlled studies (NRS), controlled before and after, and interrupted time series that assessed the effectiveness of two-way interactive nutrition counseling targeting pregnant women in LMICs.

Data Collection and Analysis

Data extraction and risk of bias were conducted in duplicate. The risk of bias (ROB) for randomized trials (RCT) was assessed according to the Cochrane Handbook of Systematic Reviews, and ROB for NRS was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale (NOS). RCT and NRS were meta-analyzed separately.

Main Results

Our search identified 6418 records and 52 studies met our inclusion criteria, but only 28 were used in the quantitative analysis. Twenty-eight studies were conducted in Asia, the most in Iran. Eight studies were conducted in Africa. Two-way interactive nutritional counseling during pregnancy may improve dietary caloric intake (mean difference [MD]: 81.65 calories, 95% confidence interval [CI], 15.37-147.93, three RCTs; I 2 = 42%; moderate certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment), may reduce hemorrhage (relative risk [RR]: 0.63; 95% CI, 0.25-1.54, two RCTs; I 2 = 40%; very low certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment), may improve protein (MD: 10.44 g, 95% CI, 1.83-19.05, two RCTs; I 2 = 95%; high certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment), fat intake (MD: 3.42 g, 95% CI, -0.20 to 7.04, two RCTs; I 2 = 0%; high certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment), and may improve gestational weight gain within recommendations (RR: 1.84; 95% CI, 1.10-3.09, three RCTs; I 2 = 69%). Nutrition counseling probably leads to the initiation of breastfeeding immediately after birth (RR: 1.72; 95% CI, 1.42-2.09, one RCT). There was little to no effect on reducing anemia (RR: 0.77; 95% CI, 0.50-1.20, three RCTs; I 2 = 67%; very low certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment) risk of stillbirths (RR: 0.81; 95% CI, 0.52-1.27, three RCTs; I 2 = 0%; moderate certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment) and risk of cesarean section delivery (RR: 0.96; 95% CI, 0.76-1.20, four RCTs; I 2 = 36%; moderate certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment).

Authors’ Conclusions

Our review highlights improvements in maternal behavioral and health outcomes through interactive nutrition counseling during pregnancy. However, we are uncertain about the effects of nutrition counseling due to the low certainty of evidence and a low number of studies for some key outcomes. Moreover, the effects on health equity remain unknown. More methodologically rigorous trials that focus on a precise selection of outcomes driven by the theory of change of nutrition counseling to improve maternal and infant behavioral and health outcomes and consider equity are required.

Association between malaria and undernutrition among pregnant women at presentation for antenatal care in health facilities in the Mount Cameroon region

In resource limited settings, malaria and undernutrition are major public health problems in pregnancy. Therefore, this study assessed the association between malaria infection and undernutrition among pregnant women in the Mount Cameroon area. This cross-sectional study enrolled 1,014 pregnant women consecutively over a year. A structured questionnaire was used to collect socio-demographic information and clinical data. Maternal nutrition was assessed using dietary diversity (DD). Peripheral blood samples collected were used for the diagnosis of malaria parasitaemia by microscopy whereas haemoglobin (Hb) levels were determined using an Hb meter. Logistic regression was used to determine factors associated with malaria and dietary diversity. The prevalence of malaria infection and undernutrition was 17.8% and 89.6% respectively. In addition, of those infected with malaria, geometric mean parasite density was 301/μL of blood (range: 40-9280) while mean DD score was 3.57±0.82 (range: 1-7). The odds of being infected with malaria parasitaemia was highest among women enrolled in the rainy season (OR = 1.58, P = 0.043), who were farmers (OR = 2.3, P = 0.030), had a household size of < 4 individuals (OR = 1.48, P = 0.026) and who were febrile (OR = 1.87, P < 0.001). Also, attending clinic visits in Mutengene Medical Centre (OR = 2.0, P = 0.012) or Buea Integrated Health Centre (OR = 2.9, P = < 0.001), being < 25 years (OR = 2.4, P = 0.002) and a farmer (OR = 10.6, P = 0.024) as well as < 4 clinic visits (OR = 1.62, P = 0.039) were identified as predictors of undernutrition. Furthermore, the association between malaria and DD was statistically significant (P = 0.015). In this study, undernutrition was highly frequent than malaria infection. Thus, there is an urgent need to improve maternal awareness through nutritional counselling and health campaigns on the benefits of consuming at least five food groups. Besides, improved maternal dietary nutrient intake is likely to have impact on the burden of malaria parasite infection.

Intensified Nutrition Interventions in Antenatal Care Services Increased Consumption of Iron and Folic Acid Supplements and Early Breastfeeding Practices in Burkina Faso: Results of a Cluster-Randomized Program Evaluation

BACKGROUND

Alive & Thrive supported the Government of Burkina Faso to strengthen the provision of iron and folic acid (IFA) supplementation and interpersonal counseling on maternal nutrition and breastfeeding through antenatal care (ANC) services and community-based contacts in 2 regions.

OBJECTIVES

We assessed the impacts of intensified nutrition interventions during ANC compared with standard ANC services on intervention coverage and maternal nutrition practices.

METHODS

A cluster-randomized evaluation compared 40 health center catchment areas in intervention areas with 40 in control areas. Repeated cross-sectional surveys in 2019 and 2021 (960 pregnant women and 1920 women with children 0-5 mo of age per survey round) provided data on impact indicators, intervention exposure, and other factors. We derived difference-in-difference (DID) effect estimates, adjusted for geographic clustering, for maternal dietary diversity, IFA consumption, and early breastfeeding practices.

RESULTS

More women in intervention areas had 4+ ANC visits (DID: 8.3 percentage points [pps]) and started ANC during the first trimester (DID: 10.5 pp), compared with control areas. Improvements were achieved in exposure to nutrition counseling on dietary diversity (DID: 44.4 pp), food quantity (DID: 42.9 pp), adequate weight gain (DID: 35.1 pp), and breastfeeding (DID: 25.9 pp). Women in intervention areas consumed more IFA supplements during pregnancy (DID: 21 tablets). Early initiation of and exclusive breastfeeding also improved (DID: 17.0 and 8.3 pp, respectively). However, dietary diversity (4 out of 10 food groups) and mean probability of adequacy of micronutrient intake (14%) among pregnant women remained low in both areas.

CONCLUSIONS

Strengthening maternal nutrition interventions delivered through government ANC services was feasible and effective in improving maternal nutrition practices. Continued efforts to strengthen the delivery and use of maternal nutrition services may be required for greater behavior changes, and to address family support, social norms, and other factors to improve women's diets during pregnancy.

Strengthening Nutrition Interventions during Antenatal Care Improved Maternal Dietary Diversity and Child Feeding Practices in Urban Bangladesh: Results of a Quasi-Experimental Evaluation Study

BACKGROUND

Bangladesh is urbanizing rapidly, facing challenges of malnutrition, low coverage and poor quality of urban nutrition services.

OBJECTIVES

We assessed the effect of integrating maternal, infant, and young child nutrition interventions, delivered at urban Maternal Neonatal and Child Health facilities, on maternal dietary diversity, iron and folic acid (IFA) and calcium consumption, and child feeding practices.

METHODS

We used a quasi-experimental design with a nonrandom assignment of 20 health care facilities in Dhaka to intensive and standard service arms. We conducted facility-based observations and community-based surveys at baseline (2020) and endline (2022) (n = 2455 observations and surveys with 1678 pregnant women [PW] or recently delivered women [RDW] at endline). We derived difference-in-difference (DID) estimates, adjusted for characteristics that differed at baseline or endline, and accounted for clustering.

RESULTS

Exposure to antenatal care (ANC) was similar in both arms: two-thirds of RDW received ANC during the first trimester and three-fourths received ≥4 ANC checkups. Compared to the standard arm, a higher proportion of PW in the intensive arm received counseling on dietary diversity (DID: 45 percentage points [pp]), and a higher proportion of RDW received IFA (25 pp) and calcium supplementation (19 pp), showed adequate weight gain (44 pp), and recorded appropriate child feeding (27 pp). Improvements were greater in the intensive than the standard arm for the number of food groups consumed (DID: 1.1 food groups) and minimum dietary diversity (23 pp); no effect was observed for IFA and calcium consumption during pregnancy. However, effects were observed for early initiation of (20 pp) and exclusive breastfeeding (45 pp), introduction of solid or semisolid foods (28 pp), and egg and/or flesh food consumption (33 pp) among children. Minimum dietary diversity and acceptable diet remained low in both arms.

CONCLUSIONS

Intensifying nutrition in government-aligned health care services delivered by experienced nongovernmental organization-run facilities is a feasible model to address the urban health gap, nutrition services coverage, and improve practices. The trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03882268.

Comprehensive Approach for Improving Adherence to Prenatal Iron and Folic Acid Supplements Based on Intervention Studies in Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, and India

BACKGROUND

The World Health Organization recommends daily iron and folic acid (IFA) supplementation during pregnancy, but consumption remains low, and high prevalence of anemia among pregnant women (PW) persists.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to (1) examine factors at the health system, community, and individual levels, which influence adherence to IFA supplements; and (2) describe a comprehensive approach for designing interventions to improve adherence based on lessons learned from 4 country experiences.

METHODS

We conducted literature search, formative research, and baseline surveys in Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, and India and applied health systems strengthening and social and behavior change principles to design interventions. The interventions addressed underlying barriers at the individual, community, and health system levels. Interventions were further adapted for integration into existing large-scale antenatal care programs through continuous monitoring.

RESULTS

Key factors related to low adherence were lack of operational protocols to implement policies, supply chain bottlenecks, low capacity to counsel women, negative social norms, and individual cognitive barriers. We reinforced antenatal care services and linked them with community workers and families to address knowledge, beliefs, self-efficacy, and perceived social norms. Evaluations showed that adherence improved in all countries. Based on implementation lessons, we developed a program pathway and details of interventions for mobilizing health systems and community platforms for improving adherence.

CONCLUSION

A proven process for designing interventions to address IFA supplement adherence will contribute to achieving global nutrition targets for anemia reduction in PW. This evidence-based comprehensive approach may be applied in other countries with high anemia prevalence and low IFA adherence.

Antenatal care follow-up was significantly associated with a higher probability of high dietary diversity score among pregnant women in okra-producing areas of western Ethiopia: proportional odds model

Background

Dietary diversity is important for pregnant women since it has been associated with nutrient adequacy. It is very crucial to ensure optimal fetal health and development. There is no evidence at the community level on the magnitude of dietary diversity and its predictors among pregnant women in okra-producing areas of western Ethiopia.

Objective

This study aimed to assess the level of dietary diversity and its associated factors among pregnant women.

Design

A community-based cross-sectional study was employed among randomly selected 224 pregnant women in western Ethiopia. An interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect the data. The qualitative open 24-h recall was used to assess the level of dietary diversity. Ordinal logistic regression analyses were used by SPSS version 25. An adjusted proportional odds ratio along with a 95% confidence interval [CI] was computed to measure the strengths of the association at a P ≤ 0.05.

Result

This study revealed that more than one-fourth, 64 (28.6%), of the respondents were found to have high dietary diversity scores. Antenatal Care [ANC] visits (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 2.10, [95% CI: 1.13, 3.90], P = 0.01), changing food intake (AOR = 2.97, [95% CI: 1.16, 3.67], P = 0.002), and being food secure household (AOR = 2.63, [95% CI: 1.38, 5.00], P = 0.003) were significantly associated with a higher probability of having high dietary diversity score. However, lack of formal education (AOR = 0.34, [95% CI: 0.61, 0.89]) was inversely associated with the probability of having high dietary diversity.

Conclusion

More than half of pregnant women in western Ethiopia were found to have low dietary diversity. Therefore, ANC follow-up, dietary modification, and promotion of frequent use of wild edible plants (okra) to maintain household food security were very crucial.

Opportunities and barriers for maternal nutrition behavior change: an in-depth qualitative analysis of pregnant women and their families in Uttar Pradesh, India

Background

Maternal undernutrition during pregnancy remains a critical public health issue in India. While evidence-based interventions exist, poor program implementation and limited uptake of behavior change interventions make addressing undernutrition complex. To address this challenge, Alive & Thrive implemented interventions to strengthen interpersonal counseling, micronutrient supplement provision, and community mobilization through the government antenatal care (ANC) platform in Uttar Pradesh, India.

Objective

This qualitative study aimed to: (1) examine pregnant women's experiences of key nutrition-related behaviors (ANC attendance, consuming a diverse diet, supplement intake, weight gain monitoring, and breastfeeding intentions); (2) examine the influence of family members on these behaviors; and (3) identify key facilitators and barriers that affect behavioral adoption.

Methods

We conducted a qualitative study with in-depth interviews with 24 pregnant women, 13 husbands, and 15 mothers-in-law (MIL). We analyzed data through a thematic approach using the Capability-Opportunity-Motivation-Behavior (COM-B) framework.

Results

For ANC checkups and maternal weight gain monitoring, key facilitators were frontline worker home visits, convenient transportation, and family support, while the primary barrier was low motivation and lack understanding of the importance of ANC checkups. For dietary diversity, there was high reported capability (knowledge related to the key behavior) and most family members were aware of key recommendations; however, structural opportunity barriers (financial strain, lack of food availability and accessibility) prevented behavioral change. Opportunity ranked high for iron and folic acid supplement (IFA) intake, but was not consistently consumed due to side effects. Conversely, lack of supply was the largest barrier for calcium supplement intake. For breastfeeding, there was low overall capability and several participants described receiving inaccurate counseling messages.

Conclusion

Key drivers of maternal nutrition behavior adoption were indicator specific and varied across the capability-opportunity-motivation behavior change spectrum. Findings from this study can help to strengthen future program effectiveness by identifying specific areas of program improvement.

Co-occurrence of iron, folate, and vitamin A deficiency among pregnant women in eastern Ethiopia: a community-based study

BACKGROUND

It is well known that the magnitude of undernutrition in Ethiopia is unacceptably high. The burden of co-occurrence of iron, folate, and vitamin A deficiency, on the other hand, has received less attention. Thus, in this study, we looked at the prevalence of iron, folate, and vitamin A deficiency in pregnant women in eastern Ethiopia.

METHODS

A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 397 pregnant women in Haramaya district, eastern Ethiopia. An interview-assisted questionnaire and blood serum were collected from pregnant women using standard techniques and shipped to an EPHI for micronutrient analysis. Factors associated with the co-occurrence of iron, folate, and vitamin A deficiency were identified using binary and multiple logistic regressions.

RESULTS

According to this study, 81.6% of the participants were deficient in at least one micronutrient, and 53.53.2% were deficient in two or more. Women who did not receive iron-folic acid supplementation (AOR = 2.44; 95% CI = 1.52-3.92), did not attend Antenatal care (ANC) follow up (AOR = 2.88; 95% CI = 1.81-4.61), and reported low consumption of diversified diet (AOR = 2.18 (95% CI = 1.35-3.51) had a higher risk of co-occurrence of iron, folate, and vitamin A deficiency.

CONCLUSION

This study found that more than half of pregnant women were in multiple micronutrients, indicating a major public health issue. In addition to the IFA supplementation programs that are already in place, there is a need for multiple micronutrient supplementation.

Associations of Diet Quality, Socioeconomic Factors, and Nutritional Status with Gestational Weight Gain among Pregnant Women in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Background

Gestational weight gain (GWG) is a modifiable factor associated with maternal and child health outcomes, but the relationship between diet quality and GWG has not been evaluated using metrics validated for low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs).

Objective

This study aimed to investigate relationships between diet quality, socioeconomic characteristics, and GWG adequacy using the novel Global Diet Quality Score (GDQS), the first diet quality indicator validated for use across LMIC.

Methods

Weights of pregnant women enrolled between 12 and 27 wk of gestation (N = 7577) were recorded in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, from 2001 to 2005 during a prenatal micronutrient supplementation trial. GWG adequacy was the ratio of measured GWG to Institute of Medicine-recommended GWG, categorized into severely inadequate (<70%), inadequate (70 to <90%), adequate (90 to <125%), or excessive (≥125%). Dietary data were collected using 24-h recalls. Multinomial logit models were used to estimate relationships between GDQS tercile, macronutrient intake, nutritional status, and socioeconomic characteristics and GWG.

Results

GDQS scores in the second [relative risk (RR): 0.82; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.70, 0.97] tercile were associated with lower risk of inadequate weight gain than those in the first tercile. Increased protein intake was associated with higher risk of severely inadequate GWG (RR: 1.06; 95% CI: 1.02, 1.09). Nutritional status and socioeconomic factors were associated with GWG: underweight prepregnancy BMI (in kg/m2) with a higher risk of severely inadequate GWG (RR: 1.49; 95% CI: 1.12, 1.99), overweight or obese BMI with a higher risk of excessive GWG (RR: 6.80; 95% CI: 5.34, 8.66), and a higher education (RR: 0.61; 95% CI: 0.42, 0.89), wealth (RR: 0.68; 95% CI: 0.48, 0.80), and height (RR: 0.96; 95% CI: 0.95, 0.98) with a lower risk of severely inadequate GWG.

Conclusions

Dietary indicators showed few associations with GWG. However, stronger relationships were revealed between GWG, nutritional status, and several socioeconomic factors.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00197548.

What's in a name? Unpacking 'Community Blank' terminology in reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health: a scoping review

INTRODUCTION

Engaging the community as actors within reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health (RMNCH) programmes (referred to as 'community blank') has seen increased implementation in recent years. While evidence suggests these approaches are effective, terminology (such as 'community engagement,' 'community participation,' 'community mobilisation,' and 'social accountability') is often used interchangeably across published literature, contributing to a lack of conceptual clarity in practice. The purpose of this review was to describe and clarify varying uses of these terms in the literature by documenting what authors and implementers report they are doing when they use these terms.

METHODS

Seven academic databases (PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Scopus, Web of Science, Global Health), two grey literature databases (OAIster, OpenGrey) and relevant organisation websites were searched for documents that described 'community blank' terms in RMNCH interventions. Eligibility criteria included being published between 1975 and 1 October 2021 and reports or studies detailing the activities used in 'community blank.' RESULTS: A total of 9779 unique documents were retrieved and screened, with 173 included for analysis. Twenty-four distinct 'community blank' terms were used across the documents, falling into 11 broader terms. Use of these terms was distributed across time and all six WHO regions, with 'community mobilisation', 'community engagement' and 'community participation' being the most frequently used terms. While 48 unique activities were described, only 25 activities were mentioned more than twice and 19 of these were attributed to at least three different 'community blank' terms.

CONCLUSION

Across the literature, there is inconsistency in the usage of 'community blank' terms for RMNCH. There is an observed interchangeable use of terms and a lack of descriptions of these terms provided in the literature. There is a need for RMNCH researchers and practitioners to clarify the descriptions reported and improve the documentation of 'community blank' implementation. This can contribute to a better sharing of learning within and across communities and to bringing evidence-based practices to scale. Efforts to improve reporting can be supported with the use of standardised monitoring and evaluation processes and indicators. Therefore, it is recommended that future research endeavours clarify the operational definitions of 'community blank' and improve the documentation of its implementation.

Effect of Prenatal Dietary Pattern on Maternal Anemia and Low Birth Weight in Rural Areas of Kanpur

Background: In India, the dietary pattern of women from low socioeconomic status are almost same during pre-pregnant, pregnant and lactating periods. Additional foods are required to improve weight gain in pregnancy and birth weight of infants. Aim & Objective: To identify the impact of prenatal dietary pattern on maternal anemia and low birth weight in rural areas of Kanpur Nagar. Methods: This study was a cross sectional study conducted amongst mothers who recently delivered (RDW) in rural blocks of District Kanpur Nagar. Data was collected by interviewing study subjects using a semi-structured interview schedule after applying multistage random sampling technique. Results: Out of 102 women studied, 39.2% women had consumed >90 IFA tablets, 49.1% of mothers had practiced MMF and 47.1% of women practiced MDD during their prenatal period and 40.1% babies of current pregnancy were born as LBW. IFA consumption during pregnancy was significantly associated with maternal anemia. MMF during pregnancy was significantly associated with LBW. Conclusions: In our study it was found that IFA consumption, MMF and MDD during antenatal is a key preventive measure to reduce anemia status in pregnant females and birth weight of baby during prenatal period.

Process of developing models of maternal nutrition interventions integrated into antenatal care services in Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia and India

Integrating nutrition interventions into antenatal care (ANC) requires adapting global recommendations to fit existing health systems and local contexts, but the evidence is limited on the process of tailoring nutrition interventions for health programmes. We developed and integrated maternal nutrition interventions into ANC programmes in Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia and India by conducting studies and assessments, developing new tools and processes and field testing integrated programme models. This paper elucidates how we used information and data to contextualize a package of globally recommended maternal nutrition interventions (micronutrient supplementation, weight gain monitoring, dietary counselling and counselling on breastfeeding) and describes four country‐specific health service delivery models. We developed a Theory of Change to illustrate common barriers and strategies for strengthening nutrition interventions during ANC. We used multiple information sources including situational assessments, formative research, piloting and pretesting results, supply assessments, stakeholder meetings, household and service provider surveys and monitoring data to design models of maternal nutrition interventions. We developed detailed protocols for implementing maternal nutrition interventions; reinforced staff capacity, nutrition counselling, monitoring systems and community engagement processes; and addressed micronutrient supplement supply bottlenecks. Community‐level activities were essential for complementing facility‐based services. Routine monitoring data, rapid assessments and information from intensified supervision were important during the early stages of implementation to improve the feasibility and scalability of models. The lessons from addressing maternal nutrition in ANC may serve as a guide for tackling missed opportunities for nutrition within health services in other contexts.

Integrating evidence‐based nutrition interventions into ANC to reach PW at scale is urgently needed for improving maternal and newborn health and nutrition.

The Theory of Change and steps for strengthening nutrition interventions based on four‐country experiences provide practical guidance on addressing missed opportunities for nutrition in ANC.

Strategic use of data can contextualize global maternal nutrition guidelines, protocols, capacity building and supervision approaches, and improve micronutrient supply chains and record‐keeping as part of health services strengthening.

Engaging family and community members to support PW and improving the knowledge and self‐confidence of PW are important elements of all country programme models.

Specificity Matters: Unpacking Impact Pathways of Individual Interventions within Bundled Packages Helps Interpret the Limited Impacts of a Maternal Nutrition Intervention in India

BACKGROUND

To address gaps in coverage and quality of nutrition services, Alive & Thrive (A&T) strengthened the delivery of maternal nutrition interventions through government antenatal care (ANC) services in Uttar Pradesh, India. The impact evaluation of the A&T interventions compared intensive ANC (I-ANC) with standard ANC (S-ANC) areas and found modest impacts on micronutrient supplementation, dietary diversity, and weight-gain monitoring.

OBJECTIVES

This study examined intervention-specific program impact pathways (PIPs) and identified reasons for limited impacts of the A&T maternal nutrition intervention package.

METHODS

We used mixed methods: frontline worker (FLW) surveys (n = ∼500), counseling observations (n = 407), and qualitative in-depth interviews with FLWs, supervisors, and block-level staff (n = 59). We assessed 7 PIP domains: training and materials, knowledge, supportive supervision, supply chains, data use, service delivery, and counseling.

RESULTS

Exposure to training improved in both I-ANC and S-ANC areas with more job aids used in I-ANC compared with S-ANC (90% compared with 70%), but gaps remained for training content and refresher trainings. FLWs' knowledge improvement was higher in I-ANC than S-ANC (22-36 percentage points), but knowledge of micronutrient supplement benefits and recommended foods was insufficient (<50%). Most FLWs received supervision (>90%), but supportive supervision was limited by staff vacancies and competing work priorities. Supplies of iron-folic acid and calcium supplements were low in both areas (30-50% stock-outs). Use of monitoring data during review meetings was higher in I-ANC than S-ANC (52% compared with 36%) but was constrained by time, understanding, and data quality. Service provision improved in both I-ANC and S-ANC areas, but counseling on supplement benefits and weight-gain monitoring was low (30-40%).

CONCLUSIONS

Systems-strengthening efforts improved maternal nutrition interventions in ANC, but gaps remained. Taking an intervention-specific perspective to the PIP analysis in this package of services was critical to understand how common and specific barriers influenced overall program impact.

Maternal Diets in India: Gaps, Barriers, and Opportunities

Suboptimal dietary intake is a critical cause of poor maternal nutrition, with several adverse consequences both for mothers and for their children. This study aimed to (1) assess maternal dietary patterns in India; (2) examine enablers and barriers in adopting recommended diets; (3) review current policy and program strategies to improve dietary intakes. We used mixed methods, including empirical analysis, compiling data from available national and subnational surveys, and reviewing literature, policy, and program strategies. Diets among pregnant women are characterized by low energy, macronutrient imbalance, and inadequate micronutrient intake. Supply- and demand-side constraints to healthy diets include food unavailability, poor economic situation, low exposure to nutrition counselling, food restrictions and taboos, adverse family influence and gender norms, and gaps in knowledge. Intervention strategies with potential to improve maternal diets include food-based programs, behavior change communication, and nutrition-sensitive agriculture interventions. However, strategies face implementation bottlenecks and limited effectiveness in real-world at-scale impact evaluations. In conclusion, investments in systems approaches spanning health, nutrition, and agriculture sectors, with evaluation frameworks at subnational levels, are needed to promote healthy diets for women.