Canis aureus (Carnivore: Canidae)

Ecotones in the Spotlight-Habitat Selection of the Golden Jackal (Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758) in the Agricultural Landscapes of Central Europe

The large-scale expansion of the golden jackal (Canis aureus) across Europe in recent decades has been strongly influenced by its successful space and habitat use. In this study, we analyzed the habitat selection of seven golden jackals tracked with GPS collars between 15 March 2021 and 25 November 2022 in a predominantly agricultural landscape in the southwestern part of the Pannonian Basin, Central Europe. Animals were tracked for an average of 29 weeks, and GPS collars recorded a total of 29,840 hourly localization points, which were compared to a high-resolution land cover dataset. We found that golden jackals maintain smaller home ranges in agricultural landscapes than in more pristine environments. Based on Jacobs' index values calculated for monthly habitat preferences and the distribution of distances from land cover edges, we also found that preferences for the various habitat types differed significantly among individuals. Most of the time, golden jackals stayed near the edges of forests, agricultural lands, and shrublands, while they stayed away from artificial areas, wetlands, and water bodies. Forests and shrublands providing cover and safety were generally preferred by the golden jackals, especially during breeding and pup-rearing periods, while there was a strong avoidance of agricultural lands in general. Overall, our findings suggest that despite individual differences in the availability of habitat types within home ranges, forest-agricultural ecotones with relative proximity to food and shelter play a key role in the habitat selection of golden jackals.

Integrating one health strategies for rabies control: Insights from Jackal-mediated human rabies in Northeast India

INTRODUCTION

Rabies is an ancient, lethal zoonotic disease caused by viruses of the genus Lyssavirus, affecting a wide variety of mammals. Though domestic dogs are the main vectors of rabies transmission to humans, other domestic and wildlife species also contribute to the spread of the disease in endemic regions like India. This report presents a case of human rabies following jackal exposure in India, along with the molecular characterization of the rabies virus (RABV) from both the jackal and the affected human patient.

METHODS

RNA was extracted from brain tissue samples of a suspected rabid jackal and a 42-year-old male patient who died following exposure to the jackal. The extracted RNA was subjected to rabies-specific real-time PCR, followed by whole genome sequencing using the Illumina MiSeq platform. Phylogenetic analysis was performed using these sequences, along with other publicly available RABV whole genome sequences, with the IQ-TREE2 software and the General Time Reversible (GTR+F+I+G4) model.

RESULTS

Real-time PCR confirmed the presence of rabies viral RNA in both the jackal and human brain samples. Whole genome sequencing yielded complete sequences of RABV from the jackal brain, and partial sequences from the human brain sample. These sequences belonged to the Arctic AL1a lineage, and were closely related to RABV strains found in dogs and other animals in India.

CONCLUSION

This case underscores the potential for wildlife, such as jackals, to contribute significantly to human rabies cases and highlights the need for comprehensive surveillance and control measures to effectively combat rabies in endemic regions like India.

The Secret Family Life of a Group of Golden Jackals on Samos, Greece

The golden jackal (Canis aureus) is remarkably flexible in terms of behaviour. This is advantageous to the range expansion of the species to northern and western Europe. Despite the widespread distribution of the golden jackal, many aspects of its behaviour are still poorly known. In this study, we have aimed to improve our general understanding of golden jackal social behaviour by monitoring one family group of a unique insular population living on Samos (Greece) using camera trap data over a study period of 9 months. Successful identification of individual golden jackals based on visual characteristics, determination of the dominance hierarchy and social network analyses has allowed us to gain insights into the group's social organisation, mating system and social structure determined by social relationships. We revealed the studied family group to be relatively stable, consisting of a dominant adult pair and one or two generations of their offspring. Some major changes occurred during the breeding season in terms of social behaviour, group composition and structure. A total of six pups were born, which were cared for by both dominant adults as well as one male and one female yearling who stayed as helpers at the nest. Both the dominant female and the female yearling showed signs of lactation, suggesting either a case of pseudopregnancy or allonursing. Using non-invasive methods combined with individual identification based on coat colouration patterns, this research contributes to our understanding of the social behaviour of the golden jackal population on Samos in Europe and, by extension, of the species as a whole.

Golden Jackal (Canis aureus) death by road accident in rural Bengal-insight the fact: a perception based eco-spatial clarification

Golden jackal is one of the higher trophic level wild animals in rural Bengal. Their ecological significance is undeniable in regional ecosystems and biodiversity. But gradually they become threatened due to habitat contraction, road killing, poisoning and human persecution. The documentation of jackal death by road accident within the 12-km district highway which is a single lane bituminous road in Patshpur-I Community Development Block under Purba Medinipur district, India, reveals an unpredictable ecological circumstance (n-154). Jackals are killed by road accidents from 2022 to 2023. On behalf of this blameless situation, the present study conducted intensive observations, case studies and spatial-ecological analysis. The study also included stakeholder's perceptions to reach and relates the background of this fact. After observation and analysis, it has been found that the jackal deaths have a spatio-temporal signature and are connected with food and forage ground loss from their habitat-influenced area. Another outcome is that roadside habitat becomes an alternative food source and forage ground for them due to trench construction both alongside of the district highway and illegal dumping of meat wastes and domestic wastes. The seasonal biological activities of the jackals, local weather phenomena and car driver negligence are responsible for the accidental death of jackals along the district highway. Considering all the observed factors, the present study shared some reliable measures to control, protect and conserve this animal for balancing regional ecosystem as well as biodiversity in rural Bengal.

Detection and complete genome characterization of a genogroup X (GX) sapovirus (family Caliciviridae) from a golden jackal (Canis aureus) in Hungary

In this study, a novel genotype of genogroup X (GX) sapovirus (family Caliciviridae) was detected in the small intestinal contents of a golden jackal (Canis aureus) in Hungary and characterised by viral metagenomics and next-generation sequencing techniques. The complete genome of the detected strain, GX/Dömsöd/DOCA-11/2020/HUN (PP105600), is 7,128 nt in length. The ORF1- and ORF2-encoded viral proteins (NSP, VP1, and VP2) have 98%, 95%, and 88% amino acid sequence identity to the corresponding proteins of genogroup GX sapoviruses from domestic pigs, but the nucleic acid sequence identity values for their genes are significantly lower (83%, 77%, and 68%). During an RT-PCR-based epidemiological investigation of additional jackal and swine samples, no other GX strains were detected, but a GXI sapovirus strain, GXI/Tótfalu/WBTF-10/2012/HUN (PP105601), was identified in a faecal sample from a wild boar (Sus scrofa). We report the detection of members of two likely underdiagnosed groups of sapoviruses (GX and GXI) in a golden jackal and, serendipitously, in a wild boar in Europe.

A walk on the wild side: A review of the epidemiology of Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati in wild hosts

Toxocara species are cosmopolitan nematode parasites of companion, domestic and wild hosts. Of the 26 known species of Toxocara, only Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati are definitively zoonotic. The significance of wild carnivores as definitive hosts of T. canis and T. cati respectively, has received far less attention compared to domestic dogs and cats. Complex environmental changes have promoted increasing contact between wildlife, domestic animals and humans that can enhance the risk of pathogen spillover. This review lists a total of 19 species of wild canid host that have been shown to act as definitive hosts for T. canis and a total of 21 species of wild felid host. In general, the number of publications focusing on felid host species is fewer in number, reflecting the general paucity of data on T. cati. The wild canids that have received the most attention in the published literature include the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the wolf (Canis lupus), and the golden jackal (Canis aureus). The wild felid species that has received the most attention in the published literature is the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx). Some non-canid and non-felid hosts also act as definitive hosts of Toxocara species. Certainly, red foxes would appear to be the most significant wild species in terms of their potential to transmit Toxocara to domestic dogs and humans via environmental contamination. This can be explained by their increasing population densities, encroachment into urban areas and their dietary preferences for a wide range of potential paratenic hosts. However, a major challenge remains to assess the relative importance of wild hosts as contributors to environmental contamination with Toxocara ova. Furthermore, one major constraint to our understanding of the significance of wildlife parasitism is a lack of access to samples, particularly from rare host species.

Bayesian Prediction of Multivariate Ecology from Phenotypic Data Yields New Insights into the Diets of Extant and Extinct Taxa

AbstractMorphology often reflects ecology, enabling the prediction of ecological roles for taxa that lack direct observations, such as fossils. In comparative analyses, ecological traits, like diet, are often treated as categorical, which may aid prediction and simplify analyses but ignores the multivariate nature of ecological niches. Furthermore, methods for quantifying and predicting multivariate ecology remain rare. Here, we ranked the relative importance of 13 food items for a sample of 88 extant carnivoran mammals and then used Bayesian multilevel modeling to assess whether those rankings could be predicted from dental morphology and body size. Traditional diet categories fail to capture the true multivariate nature of carnivoran diets, but Bayesian regression models derived from living taxa have good predictive accuracy for importance ranks. Using our models to predict the importance of individual food items, the multivariate dietary niche, and the nearest extant analogs for a set of data-deficient extant and extinct carnivoran species confirms long-standing ideas for some taxa but yields new insights into the fundamental dietary niches of others. Our approach provides a promising alternative to traditional dietary classifications. Importantly, this approach need not be limited to diet but serves as a general framework for predicting multivariate ecology from phenotypic traits.

Possible origins and implications of atypical morphologies and domestication-like traits in wild golden jackals (Canis aureus)

Deciphering the origins of phenotypic variations in natural animal populations is a challenging topic for evolutionary and conservation biologists. Atypical morphologies in mammals are usually attributed to interspecific hybridisation or de-novo mutations. Here we report the case of four golden jackals (Canis aureus), that were observed during a camera-trapping wildlife survey in Northern Israel, displaying anomalous morphological traits, such as white patches, an upturned tail, and long thick fur which resemble features of domesticated mammals. Another individual was culled under permit and was genetically and morphologically examined. Paternal and nuclear genetic profiles, as well as geometric morphometric data, identified this individual as a golden jackal rather than a recent dog/wolf-jackal hybrid. Its maternal haplotype suggested past introgression of African wolf (Canis lupaster) mitochondrial DNA, as previously documented in other jackals from Israel. When viewed in the context of the jackal as an overabundant species in Israel, the rural nature of the surveyed area, the abundance of anthropogenic waste, and molecular and morphological findings, the possibility of an individual presenting incipient stages of domestication should also be considered.

The complete mitochondrial genome and phylogenetic characterization of two putative subspecies of golden jackal (Canis aureus cruesemanni and Canis aureus moreotica)

The golden jackal (Canis aureus) is a canid species found across southern Eurasia. Several subspecies of this animal have been genetically studied in regions such as Europe, the Middle East, and India. However, one subspecies that lacks current research is the Indochinese jackal (Canis aureus cruesemanni), which is primarily found in Southeast Asia. Using a genome skimming approach, we assembled the first complete mitochondrial genome for an Indochinese jackal from Thailand. To expand the number of available Canis aureus mitogenomes, we also assembled and sequenced the first complete mitochondrial genome of a golden jackal from Turkey, representing the C. a. moreotica subspecies. The mitogenomes contained 37 annotated genes and are 16,729 bps (C. a. cruesemanni) and 16,669 bps (C. a. moreotica) in length. Phylogenetic analysis with 26 additional canid mitogenomes and analyses of a cytochrome b gene-only data set together support the Indochinese jackal as a distinct and early-branching lineage among golden jackals, thereby supporting its recognition as a possible subspecies. These analyses also demonstrate that the golden jackal from Turkey is likely not a distinct lineage due to close genetic relationships with golden jackals from India and Israel.

The canine counts! Significance of a craniodental measure to describe sexual dimorphism in canids: Golden jackals (Canis aureus) and African wolves (Canis lupaster)

Sexual dimorphism is a widespread phenomenon among mammals, including carnivorans. While sexual dimorphism in golden jackals (Canis aureus) has been analysed in the past, in the related and apparently convergent canid, the African wolf (Canis lupaster), it is poorly studied and showed to be relatively small. Previously, sexual size dimorphism (SSD) research in these species was mostly based on skull and body measurements. In our study, we also included dental measurements, namely the diameter of the canine. We used 11 measured sections of 104 adult specimens, comprising 61 golden jackal and 43 African wolf skulls. Data analyses were carried out through logistic regression and conditional inference trees (CIT). To compare the results of SSD to other species, sexual dimorphism indices (SDI) were calculated. Golden jackals and African wolves show significant sexual size dimorphism, both in cranial and dental size. The logistic regression revealed that the mesiodistal diameter of the upper canine is most effective in discerning the sexes. The difference in the calculated SDI of the canine diameter between the sexes amounted to 8.71 in golden jackals and 14.11 in African wolves, respectively—with regional diversity. Thus, the canine diameter is an important measure to investigate SSD as well as an easy tool to apply in the field.

Home range, habitat selection, density, and diet of golden jackals in the Eastern Plains Landscape, Cambodia

We used radiocollars and GPS collars to determine the movements and habitat selection of golden jackals (Canis aureus) in a seasonally dry deciduous forest with no human settlements in eastern Cambodia. We also collected and analyzed 147 scats from jackals to determine their seasonal diet and prey selection. The mean (± SE) annual size of home-range ranges (47.1 ± 2.5 km²; n = 4), which were mutually exclusive between mated pairs, was considerably larger than that previously reported for this species, resulting in an extremely low density (0.01 jackal/km²). The unusually large home ranges and low density probably were due to the harsh dry season when most understory vegetation is burned and nearly all waterholes dry up, thereby causing a large seasonal decline in the availability of small vertebrate prey. Resident groups consisted of an alpha pair, but no betas, and were situated only in areas not occupied by leopards (Panthera pardus) and dholes (Cuon alpinus). Jackals avoided dense forests and streams, and had a strong selection for dirt roads, possibly to avoid larger predators. Overall the jackal diet was diverse, with at least 16 prey items identified, and there was no significant difference in diet composition between the cool-dry and hot-dry seasons. Scat analysis showed that the main food items consumed by jackals were processional termites (Hospitalitermes spp.; 26% biomass consumed), followed by wild pig (Sus scrofa; 20%), muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis; 20%), and civets (17%). Compared to available biomass, jackals were not random in their consumption of ungulates because muntjac were selectively consumed over larger ungulate species. Dietary overlap with dholes and leopards was relatively low, and consumption patterns indicated jackals were preying on ungulates rather than scavenging from kills of larger carnivores. Our results showed that the jackal is an extremely adaptable and opportunistic species that exhibits unique behaviors to survive in an extreme environment near the edge of its distribution.

The golden jackal (Canis aureus) and the African swine fever pandemic: Its role is controversial but not negligible (a diet analysis study)

Background

In Europe, the African swine fever (ASF) pandemic mostly affects the environmental domain of health, which is a strongly human‐impacted ecosystem. However, the current control strategies focus solely on the wild boar and tend to disregard other epidemiologically relevant elements of the ecosystem.

Objectives

This study investigated the potential impact of the golden jackal on the surveillance effort and disease transmission.

Methods

For this reason, the authors analysed the content of 277 stomachs of this canid species within its westernmost inhabitant population, in order to determine the amount of suid remains, disposed.

Results

The findings confirmed that in a densely populated wild boar habitat, the main diet component of jackals was wild boar all the year round. The jackals disposed of 0.3–0.6 kg/km²/day offals that potentially contained suid remains. On the other hand, the scavenging activity removed the most important target objects on which the passive surveillance of ASF should be based.

Conclusions

This study cannot determine whether canid scavengers positively or negatively influence the control efforts; however, the impact of the jackal should not be disregarded. The results warn the necessity of a multidisciplinary approach to complex epidemiological situations within different ecosystems.

Intestinal helminth infections in the golden jackal (Canis aureus L.) from Vojvodina: Hotspot area of multilocular echinococcosis in Serbia

In the present study, 64 golden jackals were examined for intestinal helminths in three regions of Vojvodina, Serbia. Among the examined jackals 57.8% were infected with at least one parasite species. Using the intestinal scraping technique (SCT), eight species of intestinal helminths were found: Alaria alata (7.8%), Toxascaris leonina (9.4%), Toxocara canis (4.7%), Uncinaria stenocephala (20.3%), Echinococcus multilocularis (14.1%), Mesocestoides sp. (42.2%), Taenia pisiformis, and Taenia hydatigena (the overall prevalence of Taenia infection was 6.3%). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of T. leonina in jackals from Serbia. In comparison with the SCT results, coprological tests were less sensitive and specific for parasite identification, as only two nematode species (T. leonina and T. canis) as well as ancylostomatid and taeniid eggs were identified. The total prevalence of intestinal helminths was higher in males (71.9% males, 45% females), but the difference was not statistically significant (χ 2 = 3.76; P = 0.052). Co-infection with two species of intestinal helminths was found in 35% of the examined golden jackal individuals, three-species co-infection was demonstrated in 21.6%, whereas four-species co-infection was detected in 2.7% of the golden jackals examined. Echinococcus multilocularis has previously been recorded in jackals and foxes in Serbia, but only in Vojvodina. Our results corroborate the findings of previous studies, and indicate that the Vojvodina Province, more specifically the Srem region, is probably a high-risk area for E. multilocularis transmission to humans.

The limits of convergence: the roles of phylogeny and dietary ecology in shaping non-avian amniote crania

Cranial morphology is remarkably varied in living amniotes and the diversity of shapes is thought to correspond with feeding ecology, a relationship repeatedly demonstrated at smaller phylogenetic scales, but one that remains untested across amniote phylogeny. Using a combination of morphometric methods, we investigate the links between phylogenetic relationships, diet and skull shape in an expansive dataset of extant toothed amniotes: mammals, lepidosaurs and crocodylians. We find that both phylogeny and dietary ecology have statistically significant effects on cranial shape. The three major clades largely partition morphospace with limited overlap. Dietary generalists often occupy clade-specific central regions of morphospace. Some parallel changes in cranial shape occur in clades with distinct evolutionary histories but similar diets. However, members of a given clade often present distinct cranial shape solutions for a given diet, and the vast majority of species retain the unique aspects of their ancestral skull plan, underscoring the limits of morphological convergence due to ecology in amniotes. These data demonstrate that certain cranial shapes may provide functional advantages suited to particular dietary ecologies, but accounting for both phylogenetic history and ecology can provide a more nuanced approach to inferring the ecology and functional morphology of cryptic or extinct amniotes.

Canid Reproductive Biology: Norm and Unique Aspects in Strategies and Mechanisms

The reproductive physiology of canids is unique compared to other mammalian species. Specifically, the reproductive cycle of female canids is characterized by extended periods of proestrus and estrus followed by obligatory diestrus and protracted ovarian inactivity (anestrus). Although canid reproduction follows this general pattern, studies have shown variations in reproductive biology among species and geographic regions. Understanding of these differences is critical to the development of assisted reproductive technologies including estrus induction, gamete rescue, and embryo production techniques for canid conservation efforts. This review summarizes current knowledge of canid reproduction, including estrus cyclicity, seasonality, and seminal traits, with the emphasis on species diversity. The application of reproductive technologies in wild canid conservation will also be discussed.

The golden jackal (Canis aureus) in the Tuzlivski Lymany National Nature Park

The article presents data on the appearance, spatial distribution, and ecological features of the golden jackal in the Tuzlivski Lymany National Nature Park. The estimated abundance of the jackal population is given along with its influence on local fauna of the national nature park. During the 20 years since the first jackals were recorded in the Ukrainian Black Sea coast, the jackal has become well-adapted to natural ecosystems of the Tuzlivski Lymany National Nature Park. Suitable protection and foraging conditions are provided in the park for this predator by steppe areas, sandbars of the Black Sea coast, and the artificial Lebedivskiy forest. For nursing the puppies, in addition to open natural habitats, especially reeds of wetlands, shrubs in the artificial forest, the jackal also uses burrows dug by itself. Currently, there are at least five jackal groups in the territory of the park. The number of broods and size of jackal groups fluctuates depending on seasonal climatic conditions and water level in the estuaries, which determine the availability of food and the character of hunting. The number of jackals in the park and surrounding areas was higher in 2020 than in the period when the water level in the estuaries was higher, and the number of jackals reached about 150 specimens. The population density of jackals in the park and surrounding areas is about 10 specimens per 1000 hectares. During the five years of observations in 2015 to 2020, the number of jackals increased slightly in the Tuzlivski Lymany National Nature Park due to the expansion of dry meadows to areas of former shoals. The area of sandbars has also increased providing access to the island systems where birds used to nest making these lands attractive for jackals as foraging sites. There is no sharp tendency to increase in the number of common jackals in the park. However, due to the likelihood of infection and spread of rabies by this predator species, some recreational areas should use rabies vaccine for oral immunisation of carnivores against rabies, which was done in September 2020 in the Lebedivskiy Forest tract of the park.

Selection and Constraints in the Ecomorphological Adaptive Evolution of the Skull of Living Canidae (Carnivora, Mammalia)

The association between phenotype and ecology is essential for understanding the environmental drivers of morphological evolution. This is a particularly challenging task when dealing with complex traits, such as the skull, where multiple selective pressures are at play and evolution might be constrained by ontogenetic and genetic factors. I integrate morphometric tools, comparative methods, and quantitative genetics to investigate how ontogenetic constraints and selection might have interacted during the evolution of the skull in extant Canidae. The results confirm that the evolution of cranial morphology was largely adaptive and molded by changes in diet composition. While the investigation of the adaptive landscape reveals two main selective lines of least resistance (one associated with size and one associated with functional shape features), rates of evolution along size were higher than those found for shape dimensions, suggesting the influence of constraints on morphological evolution. Structural modeling analyses revealed that size, which is the line of most genetic/phenotypic variation, might have acted as a constraint, negatively impacting dietary evolution. Constraints might have been overcome in the case of selection for the consumption of large prey by associating strong selection along both size and shape directions. The results obtained here show that microevolutionary constraints may have played a role in shaping macroevolutionary patterns of morphological evolution.

Cranial variability and differentiation among golden jackals (Canis aureus) in Europe, Asia Minor and Africa

Golden jackal (Canisaureus) expansion in the last decades has triggered research interest in Europe. However, jackal phylogeny and taxonomy are still controversial. Morphometric studies in Europe found differences between Dalmatian and the other European jackals. Recent genetic studies revealed that African and Eurasian golden jackals are distinct species. Moreover, large Canisaureuslupaster may be a cryptic subspecies of the African golden jackal. Although genetic studies suggest changes in Canisaureus taxonomy, morphological and morphometric studies are still needed. The present study proposes the first comprehensive analysis on a wide scale of golden jackal skull morphometry. Extensive morphometric data of jackal skulls from Europe (including a very large Bulgarian sample), Asia Minor, and North Africa were analysed, by applying recently developed statistical tools, to address the following questions: (i) is there geographic variation in skull size and shape among populations from Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus?, (ii) is the jackal population from the Dalmatian coast different?, and (iii) is there a clear distinction between the Eurasian golden jackal (Canisaureus) and the African wolf (Canislupaster sensu lato), and among populations of African wolves as well? Principal component analysis and linear discriminant analysis were applied on the standardized and log-transformed ratios of the original measurements to clearly separate specimens by shape and size. The results suggest that jackals from Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus belong to one subspecies: Canisaureusmoreotica (I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1835), despite the differences in shape of Dalmatian specimens. The present study confirmed morphometrically that all jackals included so far in the taxon Canisaureus sensu lato may represent three taxa and supports the hypothesis that at least two different taxa (species?) of Canis occur in North Africa, indicating the need for further genetic, morphological, behavioural and ecological research to resolve the taxonomic uncertainty. The results are consistent with recent genetic and morphological studies and give further insights on golden jackal taxonomy. Understanding the species phylogeny and taxonomy is crucial for the conservation and management of the expanding golden jackal population in Europe.

Morphometric analysis of skull shape reveals unprecedented diversity of African Canidae

We conducted a geometric morphometric analysis to investigate the morphological variation of the golden wolf, Canis lupaster, and to clarify the morphological and taxonomic affinities of different taxa of the genera Canis and Lupulella. We suggest that the variation observed within the complex of Canis lupaster may be incompatible with what would be expected for a single species. We hypothesize that the nominal form C. l. soudanicus is a synonym of Lupulella adusta rather than being part of the golden wolf complex. The subspecies C. l. bea has a generalized jackal morphology (i.e., clusters together with L. mesomelas and C. aureus) and C. l. lupaster occupies an intermediate morphospace position, between jackal-like forms and wolf-like forms. These results contrast with previously published molecular analysis in which mitochondrial data failed to identify differences among golden wolf populations, and nuclear evidence points to the existence of groups that are incompatible with those recovered by morphological analysis. Regarding other jackals, our results depict the absence of morphological overlap between L. m. mesomelas and L. m. schmidti and no differences between putative subspecies of L. adusta. We call attention to the need for more integrative approaches to solve the taxonomic questions in various African Canidae.