COVID-19 in Hospitalized Adults With HIV

Exploring the dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 and HIV Co-infection: Mutation risks, therapeutic efficacy, and future variant prevention

High mutation rates in SARS-CoV-2, particularly among immunocompromised patients living with HIV, continue to complicate the current COVID-19 pandemic. The threshold for severe COVID-19 and a greater risk of mortality have increased in many immunocompromised individuals due to a weakened immune system. Low CD4+ T-cell counts in people living with both HIV and COVID-19 lead to prolonged disease duration and, therefore, an increased likelihood of viral infection with SARS-CoV-2 mutations in such individuals. These mutations could decrease the efficiency of ongoing vaccines and cause new outbreaks. Recently, the rise of new mutations in this patient population has created increasing concern; however, few data are currently available on the direct association of HIV infection with SARS-CoV-2 mutations. This review highlights the implications of SARS-CoV-2 and HIV co-infection, highlighting the need for extra caution and monitoring of the immune-compromised population during a pandemic. Access to HIV care and COVID-19 treatments, careful surveillance, and adapted health strategies are key to reducing risks and protecting these populations. Further research is required to elucidate the dynamics of mutations and develop intervention methods to manage COVID-19 among immunocompromised patients.

Clinical outcomes and immunological response to SARS-CoV-2 infection among people living with HIV

People living with HIV (PLWH) usually suffer from co-infections and co-morbidities including respiratory tract infections. SARS-CoV-2 has been reported to cause respiratory infections. There are uncertainties in the disease severity and immunological response among PLWH who are co-infected with COVID-19. This review outlines the current knowledge on the clinical outcomes and immunological response to SARS-CoV-2 among PLWH. Literature was searched in Google scholar, Scopus, PubMed, and Science Direct conforming with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines from studies published from January 2020 to June 2023. A total of 81 studies from 25 countries were identified, and RT-PCR was used in confirming COVID-19 in 80 of the studies. Fifty-seven studies assessed risk factors and clinical outcomes in HIV patients co-infected with COVID-19. Thirty-nine of the studies indicated the following factors being associated with severe outcomes in HIV/SARS-CoV-2: older age, the male sex, African American race, smoking, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, low CD4+ count, high viral load, tuberculosis, high levels of inflammatory markers, chronic kidney disease, hypertension, diabetes, interruption, and delayed initiation of ART. The severe outcomes are patients' hospitalization, admission at intensive care unit, mechanical ventilation, and death. Twenty (20) studies, however, reported no difference in clinical presentation among co-infected compared to mono-infected individuals. Immune response to SARS-CoV-2 infection was investigated in 25 studies, with some of the studies reporting high levels of inflammatory markers, T cell exhaustion and lower positive conversion rate of IgG in PLWH. There is scanty information on the cytokines that predisposes to severity among HIV/SARS-CoV-2 co-infected individuals on combined ART. More research work should be carried out to validate co-infection-related cytokines and/or immune markers to SARS-CoV-2 among PLWH.

The impact of COVID-19 on the HIV continuum of care: challenges, innovations, and opportunities

INTRODUCTION

In February 2019, the United States (US) launched the Ending the HIV Epidemic (EHE) initiative with emphasis on improving the various steps of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) prevention and care continuum. However, in March 2020, the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic was declared, curtailing efforts to end the epidemic in the US.

AREAS COVERED

To describe the impact of the pandemic on EHE in the US, the authors performed a comprehensive literature review focusing on outcomes at each step of the HIV care continuum. Simultaneously, they identified examples of pandemic-era innovations that may help EHE.

EXPERT OPINION

Numerous studies demonstrated pandemic-related disruptions across the care continuum as well as the impact on preexisting barriers to care among People with HIV (PWH) at higher risk for poor outcomes. As the pandemic progressed, innovative approaches to delivering healthcare and providing essential services emerged, including widespread use of telemedicine, expansion of home-based care, self-collected sexually transmitted infection (STI) and HIV testing, and co-located testing for COVID-19 and HIV/STIs. While the COVID-19 pandemic initially hindered achieving EHE in the US, the ability to be agile, flexible, and creative led to innovation in HIV care delivery that may ultimately assist in meeting EHE goals as we transition into the post-pandemic era.

Tenofovir-Containing Antiretroviral Therapy and Clinical Outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in People Living with HIV

Tenofovir has been hypothesized to be effective against COVID-19 and is available as two prodrugs, tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) and tenofovir alafenamide (TAF), both part of antiretroviral therapy (ART) regimens. People living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLWH) might be at higher risk for COVID-19 progression; however, information about the impact of tenofovir on COVID-19 clinical outcomes remains controversial. The COVIDARE is a prospective observational multicentric study in Argentina. PLWH with COVID-19 were enrolled from September 2020 to mid-June 2022. Patients were stratified according to baseline ART into those with tenofovir (TDF or TAF) and those without. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to evaluate the impact of tenofovir vs. non-tenofovir-containing regimens on major clinical outcomes. Of the 1155 subjects evaluated, 927 (80%) received tenofovir-based ART (79% TDF, 21% TAF) whilst the remaining population was under non-tenofovir regimens. The non-tenofovir group had older age and a higher prevalence of heart and kidney disease. Regarding the prevalence of symptomatic COVID-19, tomographic findings, hospitalization, and mortality, no differences were observed. The oxygen therapy requirement was higher in the non-tenofovir group. In the multivariate analyses, a first model with adjustment for viral load, CD4 T-cell count, and overall comorbidities showed that oxygen requirement was associated with non-tenofovir ART. In a second model with adjustment by chronic kidney disease, tenofovir exposure was not statistically significant.

Effects of tuberculosis and/or HIV-1 infection on COVID-19 presentation and immune response in Africa

Few studies from Africa have described the clinical impact of co-infections on SARS-CoV-2 infection. Here, we investigate the presentation and outcome of SARS-CoV-2 infection in an African setting of high HIV-1 and tuberculosis prevalence by an observational case cohort of SARS-CoV-2 patients. A comparator group of non SARS-CoV-2 participants is included. The study includes 104 adults with SARS-CoV-2 infection of whom 29.8% are HIV-1 co-infected. Two or more co-morbidities are present in 57.7% of participants, including HIV-1 (30%) and active tuberculosis (14%). Amongst patients dually infected by tuberculosis and SARS-CoV-2, clinical features can be typical of either SARS-CoV-2 or tuberculosis: lymphopenia is exacerbated, and some markers of inflammation (D-dimer and ferritin) are further elevated (p < 0.05). Amongst HIV-1 co-infected participants those with low CD4 percentage strata exhibit reduced total, but not neutralising, anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. SARS-CoV-2 specific CD8 T cell responses are present in 35.8% participants overall but undetectable in combined HIV-1 and tuberculosis. Death occurred in 30/104 (29%) of all COVID-19 patients and in 6/15 (40%) of patients with coincident SARS-CoV-2 and tuberculosis. This shows that in a high incidence setting, tuberculosis is a common co-morbidity in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19. The immune response to SARS-CoV-2 is adversely affected by co-existent HIV-1 and tuberculosis.

Impact of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination on systemic immune responses in people living with HIV

Despite the development of vaccines, which protect healthy people from severe and life-threatening Covid-19, the immunological responses of people with secondary immunodeficiencies to these vaccines remain incompletely understood. Here, we investigated the humoral and cellular immune responses elicited by mRNA-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in a cohort of people living with HIV (PLWH) receiving anti-retroviral therapy. While antibody responses in PLWH increased progressively after each vaccination, they were significantly reduced compared to the HIV-negative control group. This was particularly noteworthy for the Delta and Omicron variants. In contrast, CD4+ Th cell responses exhibited a vaccination-dependent increase, which was comparable in both groups. Interestingly, CD4+ T cell activation negatively correlated with the CD4 to CD8 ratio, indicating that low CD4+ T cell numbers do not necessarily interfere with cellular immune responses. Our data demonstrate that despite the lower CD4+ T cell counts SARS-CoV-2 vaccination results in potent cellular immune responses in PLWH. However, the reduced humoral response also provides strong evidence to consider PLWH as vulnerable group and suggests subsequent vaccinations being required to enhance their protection against COVID-19.

Higher intensive care unit consultations for COVID-19 patients living with HIV compared to those without HIV coinfection in Uganda

Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) is the leading cause of death worldwide from a single infectious agent. Whether or not HIV infection affects clinical outcomes in patients with COVID-19 remains inconclusive. This study aimed to compare the clinical outcomes of people living with HIV (PLWH) and non-HIV-infected patients hospitalized during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Uganda. We retrospectively retrieved data on patients with COVID-19 who were admitted to the Mulago National Referral Hospital in Uganda between April 2021 and mid-July 2021. We performed propensity-score-matching of 1:5 to compare outcomes in COVID-19 patients living with and those without HIV coinfection (controls). We included 31 PLWH and 155 non-HIV controls. The baseline characteristics were similar across groups (all p values > 0.05). PLWH had close to threefold higher odds of having ICU consultation compared to controls (odds ratio [OR]: 2.9, 95% CI: 1.2-6.9, p = 0.015). There was a trend toward having a severe or critical COVID-19 illness among PLWHIH compared to controls (OR: 1.9, 95% CI: 0.8-4.7, p = 0.164). Length of hospitalization was not significantly different between PLWH and non-HIV controls (6 days vs. 7 days, p = 0.184). Seven-day survival was 63% (95% CI: 42%-78%) among PLWH and 72% (95% CI: 61%-82%) among controls while 14-day survival was 50% (95% CI: 28%-69%) among PLWH and 65% (95% CI: 55%-73%) among controls (p = 0.280). There was another trend toward having 1.7-fold higher odds of mortality among PLWH compared to controls (OR: 1.7, 95% CI: 0.8-3.8, p = 0.181). Our data suggest that PLWH may be at an increased risk of severe or critical COVID-19 illness requiring ICU consultation. Further studies with larger sample sizes are recommended.

HIV infection does not affect the risk of death of COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies

Background

Even during the current Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the infection with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) continues to pose a major threat, worldwide. In fact, the World Health Organization (WHO) defined the HIV infection as a risk factor for both severe COVID-19, at hospital admission, and in-hospital mortality. Despite this evidence, however, there remains the need for investigating whether SARS-CoV-2 infection could increase the risk of death among people living with HIV (PLHIV). Thus, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the impact of the SARS-CoV-2 infection on the risk of death among PLHIV and HIV- seronegative people.

Methods

The literature search was carried out on PubMed, Embase and Web of Science databases, from the inception to February 2022. Epidemiological studies on patients tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection, which compared the proportion of deaths between PLHIV and HIV-seronegative people, were considered eligible for the inclusion. The pooled odds ratio (OR) was obtained through meta-analysis of the comparison between PLHIV and HIV-seronegative people. Study quality was assessed by using the Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment.

Results

On a total of 1001 records obtained from the literature search, the present systematic review and meta-analysis included 28 studies on 168 531 PLHIV and 66 712 091 HIV-seronegative patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. The meta-analysis showed no difference in the risk of death between PLHIV and HIV-seronegative patients (OR = 1.09; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.93-1.26; P > 0.001). However, a significant heterogeneity was found for this comparison (I² = 88.8%, P < 0.001).

Conclusions

Although our meta-analysis suggests no difference in the risk of death of PLHIV with SARS-CoV-2 infection, if compared with HIV-seronegative patients, further research should be encouraged to improve the current knowledge about the impact of SARS-CoV-2 and HIV co-infection.

Clinical features and outcomes of COVID-19 admissions in a population with a high prevalence of HIV and tuberculosis: a multicentre cohort study

BACKGROUND

There is still a paucity of evidence on the outcomes of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) among people living with human immunodeficiency virus (PWH) and those co-infected with tuberculosis (TB), particularly in areas where these conditions are common. We describe the clinical features, laboratory findings and outcome of hospitalised PWH and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-uninfected COVID-19 patients as well as those co-infected with tuberculosis (TB).

METHODS

We conducted a multicentre cohort study across three hospitals in Cape Town, South Africa. All adults requiring hospitalisation with confirmed COVID-19 pneumonia from March to July 2020 were analysed.

RESULTS

PWH comprised 270 (19%) of 1434 admissions. There were 47 patients with active tuberculosis (3.3%), of whom 29 (62%) were PWH. Three-hundred and seventy-three patients (26%) died. The mortality in PWH (n = 71, 26%) and HIV-uninfected patients (n = 296, 25%) was comparable. In patients with TB, PWH had a higher mortality than HIV-uninfected patients (n = 11, 38% vs n = 3, 20%; p = 0.001). In multivariable survival analysis a higher risk of death was associated with older age (Adjusted Hazard Ratio (AHR) 1.03 95%CI 1.02-1.03, p < 0.001), male sex (AHR1.38 (95%CI 1.12-1.72, p = 0.003) and being "overweight or obese" (AHR 1.30 95%CI 1.03-1.61 p = 0.024). HIV (AHR 1.28 95%CI 0.95-1.72, p 0.11) and active TB (AHR 1.50 95%CI 0.84-2.67, p = 0.17) were not independently associated with increased risk of COVID-19 death. Risk factors for inpatient mortality in PWH included CD4 cell count < 200 cells/mm3, higher admission oxygen requirements, absolute white cell counts, neutrophil/lymphocyte ratios, C-reactive protein, and creatinine levels.

CONCLUSION

In a population with high prevalence of HIV and TB, being overweight/obese was associated with increased risk of mortality in COVID-19 hospital admissions, emphasising the need for public health interventions in this patient population.

Factors associated with SARS-CoV-2-related hospital outcomes among and between persons living with and without diagnosed HIV infection in New York State

BACKGROUND

Persons living with diagnosed HIV (PLWDH) are at increased risk for severe illness due to COVID-19. The degree to which this due to HIV infection, comorbidities, or other factors remains unclear.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective matched cohort study of individuals hospitalized with COVID-19 in New York State between March and June 2020, during the first wave of the pandemic, to compare outcomes among 853 PLWDH and 1,621 persons without diagnosed HIV (controls). We reviewed medical records to compare sociodemographic and clinical characteristics at admission, comorbidities, and clinical outcomes between PLWDH and controls. HIV-related characteristics were evaluated among PLWDH.

RESULTS

PLWDH were significantly more likely to have cardiovascular (matched prevalence-ratio [mPR], 1.22 [95% CI, 1.07-1.40]), chronic liver (mPR, 6.71 [95% CI, 4.75-9.48]), chronic lung (mPR, 1.76 [95% CI, 1.40-2.21]), and renal diseases (mPR, 1.77 [95% CI, 1.50-2.09]). PLWDH were less likely to have elevated inflammatory markers upon hospitalization. Relative to controls, PLWDH were 15% less likely to require mechanical ventilation or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) and 15% less likely to require admission to the intensive care unit. No significant differences were found in in-hospital mortality. PLWDH on tenofovir-containing regimens were significantly less likely to require mechanical ventilation or ECMO (risk-ratio [RR], 0.73 [95% CI, 0.55-0.96]) and to die (RR, 0.74 [95% CI, 0.57-0.96]) than PLWDH on non-tenofovir-containing regimens.

CONCLUSIONS

While hospitalized PLWDH and controls had similar likelihood of in-hospital death, chronic disease profiles and degree of inflammation upon hospitalization differed. This may signal different mechanisms leading to severe COVID-19.

Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses of The Interaction Between HIV Infection And COVID-19: Two Years' Evidence Summary

Introduction

During the COVID-19 pandemic, people living with HIV (PLWH) were considered to be at risk of worse COVID-19 outcomes once infected. However, the existing evidence is inconsistent. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to compare the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection, severe COVID-19 symptoms, and mortality among PLWH and patients without HIV.

Method

The articles included studies published in PubMed, Medline, Embase, and Cochrane between December 1, 2019, and December 1, 2021. We included the original studies published in English focusing on observational studies assessing the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection, severe COVID-19 symptoms, and mortality among PLWH. Four independent reviewers extracted data. STrengthening the Reporting of OBservational studies in Epidemiology-Modified (STROBE-M) checklist was used for quality assessment. For the results with heterogeneity I2 >75%, a random-effects model was employed. Otherwise, a fixed-effects model was used. The risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection, severe COVID-19 symptoms, and mortality were compared with and without HIV.

Results

We included a total of 32 studies and 71,779,737 study samples, of whom 797,564 (1.11%) were PLWH. Compared with COVID-19 patients without HIV infection, PLWH had comparable risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection (adjusted Risk Ratio=1.07, 95% CI: 0.53-2.16, I2 = 96%, study n=6, n=20,199,805) and risk of developing severe COVID-19 symptoms (aRR=1.06, 95% CI: 0.97-1.16, I2 = 75%, n=10, n=2,243,370). PLWH, if infected with SARS-CoV-2, were found to have an increased risk of mortality compared with people without HIV (aRR=1.30, 95% CI: 1.09-1.56, I2 = 76%, study n=16, n=71,032,659). This finding was consistent across different subgroup analyses.

Conclusion

PLWH are at increased risk of COVID-19 related mortality once infected. The local health system should, on the one hand, strengthen COVID-19 prevention and clinical management among PLWH to avoid infection and, on the other hand, sustain the HIV care continuum for PLWH for HIV management.

Association of HIV infection with outcomes among adults hospitalized with COVID-19

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the association of HIV infection with outcomes among people hospitalized with COVID-19.

DESIGN

A prospectively planned analysis of the American Heart Association's COVID-19 Cardiovascular Disease Registry.

SETTING

One hundred and seven academic and community hospitals in the United States from March through December 2020.

PARTICIPANTS

Consecutive sample of 21 528 adults hospitalized with COVID-19 at participating hospitals.

MAIN OUTCOME AND MEASURE

Primary outcome was predefined as in-hospital mortality. We used hierarchical mixed effects models to assess the association of HIV with in-hospital mortality accounting for patient demographics, comorbidities, and clustering by hospital. Secondary outcomes included major adverse cardiac events (MACE), severity of illness, and length of stay (LOS).

RESULTS

The registry included 220 people with HIV (PWH). PWH were younger and more likely to be male, Non-Hispanic Black, on Medicaid, and active tobacco users. Of the study population, 36 PWH (16.4%) died compared with 3290 (15.4%) without HIV [risk ratio 1.06; 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.79-1.43; P = 0.71]. After adjustment for age, sex, race, and insurance, HIV was not associated with in-hospital mortality (aOR 1.12; 95% CI 0.76-1.64; P = 0.58) with no change in effect after adding BMI and comorbidities (aOR 1.14; 95% CI 0.78-1.68; P = 0.51). HIV was not associated with MACE (aOR 0.99; 95% CI 0.69-1.44, P = 0.91), COVID severity (aOR 0.96; 95% CI 0.62-1.50; P = 0.86), or LOS (aOR 1.03; 95% CI 0.76-1.66; P = 0.21).

CONCLUSION

In the largest study of PWH hospitalized with COVID-19 in the United States to date, we did not find significant associations between HIV and adverse outcomes including in-hospital mortality, MACE, or severity of illness.

Factors Associated with Severe COVID-19 and Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome in a Cohort of People Living with HIV on Antiretroviral Treatment and with Undetectable HIV RNA

SARS-CoV-2 can produce both severe clinical conditions and long-term sequelae, but data describing post-acute COVID-19 syndrome (PACS) are lacking for people living with HIV (PLWH). We aimed at assessing the prevalence and factors associated with severe COVID-19 and PACS in our cohort. We included all unvaccinated adult PLWH on antiretroviral treatment and plasma HIV-RNA < 40 cp/mL since at least six months before SARS-CoV-2 infection at the Infectious and Tropical Diseases Unit of Padua (Italy), from 20 February 2020 to 31 March 2021. COVID-19 severity was defined by WHO criteria; PACS was defined as the persistence of symptoms or development of sequelae beyond four weeks from SARS-CoV-2 infection. Demographic and clinical variables were collected, and data were analyzed by non-parametric tests. 123 subjects meeting the inclusion criteria among 1800 (6.8%) PLWH in care at the Infectious and Tropical diseases Unit in Padua were diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2 infection/COVID-19 during the study period. The median age was 51 years (40−58), 79.7% were males, and 77.2% of Caucasian ethnicity. The median CD4+ T-cell count and length of HIV infection were 560 cells/mmc (444−780) and 11 years, respectively. Of the patients, 35.0% had asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection, 48% developed mild COVID-19, 17.1% presented moderate or severe COVID-19 requiring hospitalization and 4.1% died. Polypharmacy was the single independent factor associated with severe COVID-19. As for PACS, among 75 patients who survived SARS-CoV-2 symptomatic infection, 20 (26.7%) reported PACS at a median follow-up of six months: asthenia (80.0%), shortness of breath (50.0%) and recurrent headache (25.0%) were the three most common complaints. Only the severity of the COVID-19 episode predicted PACS after adjusting for relevant demographic and clinical variables. In our study, PLWH with sustained viral suppression and good immunological response showed that the risk of hospital admission for COVID-19 was low, even though the severity of the disease was associated with high mortality. In addition, the likelihood of developing severe COVID-19 and PACS was mainly driven by similar risk factors to those faced by the general population, such as polypharmacy and the severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Global and Regional Prevalence and Outcomes of COVID-19 in People Living with HIV: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

The relationship between HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) and COVID-19 clinical outcome is uncertain, with conflicting data and hypotheses. We aimed to assess the prevalence of people living with HIV (PLWH) among COVID-19 cases and whether HIV infection affects the risk of severe COVID-19 or related death at the global and continental level.

METHODS

Electronic databases were systematically searched in July 2021. In total, 966 studies were screened following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Narratives were synthesised and data pooled for the global and continental prevalence of HIV-SARS-CoV-2 coinfection. The relative risks of severity and mortality in HIV-infected COVID-19 patients were computed using a random-effect model. Risk of bias was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa score and Egger's test, and presented as funnel plots.

RESULTS

In total, 43 studies were included involving 692,032 COVID-19 cases, of whom 9097 (1.3%) were PLWH. The global prevalence of PLWH among COVID-19 cases was 2% (95% CI = 1.7-2.3%), with the highest prevalence observed in sub-Saharan Africa. The relative risk (RR) of severe COVID-19 in PLWH was significant only in Africa (RR = 1.14, 95% CI = 1.05-1.24), while the relative risk of mortality was 1.5 (95% CI = 1.45-2.03) globally. The calculated global risk showed that HIV infection may be linked with increased COVID-19 death. The between-study heterogeneity was significantly high, while the risk of publication bias was not significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Although there is a low prevalence of PLWH among COVID-19 cases, HIV infection may increase the severity of COVID-19 in Africa and increase the risk of death globally.

COVID-19 and its impact on cancer, HIV, and mentally ill patients

Severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its disease, COVID-19 is a global pandemic creating an unprecedented medical as well economic havoc across the world. Despite the wide spread global infection rates, the death rate is low for COVID-19. However, COVID-19 patients with other comorbid conditions face severe health complications irrespective of their gender or age. As the management of COVID-19 patients is taking up health resources, it is getting difficult to treat patients suffering from other dreadful diseases like cancer, HIV, and mental health issues. In this chapter, we discuss the effects of COVID-19 and management of cancer patients of main cancer subtypes (e.g., breast, lung, blood cancers), and patients affected with HIV and mental health issues. Finally, we also add a perspective on Ayurvedic treatment and its efficacy on COVID-19 patients.

Characteristics and Outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 Infection Among Adults Living With HIV In Delaware:: The Story of a Syndemic During the First 12 Months of the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic

Objective

To better characterize the intersection of the HIV and SARS-CoV-2 pandemics, including our robust statewide panel of people living with HIV, in the State of Delaware.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective descriptive case-series that identified people living with HIV ≥ 18 years old co-infected with SARS-CoV-2 from 1 March 2020 through 9 March 2021 who attended our ambulatory HIV program, through review of testing results, electronic medical records and external clinical records.

Results

There were 105 confirmed cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection and 4 attributable deaths from COVID-19 among adult people living with HIV from 1 March 2020 through 9 March 2021. Co-infected patients had very high rates of ART prescription and virologic suppression, with robust CD4 counts. 24/105 (22.9%) SARS-CoV-2 cases were hospitalized due to COVID-19 and had a significant burden of co-morbidities; a vast majority were AIDS-defined. Age, BMI >30 kg/m2, cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease and cirrhosis were independently associated with hospitalization by logistic regression. Black patients appeared to have lower rates of testing and higher rates of hospitalization. Additionally, those with history of natural immunity to hepatitis B virus exhibited a low rate of hospitalization.

Conclusions

Our cohort data is the first to capture the experience of patients co-infected with HIV/SARS-CoV-2 in Delaware, demonstrating the risk of long-term immunosuppression and burden of comorbid disease, even in the setting of virologic suppression. Although not reaching statistical significance, we identified high rates of resolved hepatitis B virus infection amongst non-hospitalized co-infected patients and postulate there may be an underlying immunologic mechanism to this hypothesis-generating observation. Our results also highlight the role that healthcare disparities have played during these overlapping pandemics.

Policy Implications

Pronounced healthcare disparities are known to worsen outcomes in a variety of disease states. From our descriptive data, we suggest continued efforts to address the social determinants of health, especially as they pertain to common chronic comorbid conditions and certain Black communities.

The clinical outcomes of COVID-19 in HIV-positive patients: A systematic review of current evidence

INTRODUCTION

Patients with chronic underlying diseases are more susceptible to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) complications. Recent studies showed people living with HIV (PLWH) are not at greater risk than the general population. Few studies have reviewed the impacts of COVID-19 on PLWH. The purpose of this systematic review was to investigate the impact of COVID-19 on patients infected with HIV.

METHODS

We executed a systematic search using four databases of PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science and screened the records in two steps based on their title/abstract and full text. This study follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) checklist to elevate the validity and reliability of its results.

RESULTS

We reviewed 36 studies. The patients' age was above 20 years in all studies. In almost all studies, the inflammatory parameters were reported high. In most of the studies, all HIV patients completely recovered from the COVID 19 infection. Although CD4 count was not recorded in all studies, the minimum level was reported as 12 cells/µl.

CONCLUSION

Based on the current review, we concluded that HIV patients at advanced stages (3 or 4) of the disease, whose CD4 counts are low, may show less severe COVID-19 infection symptoms. Similarly, Interference can reduce the severity of immune reactions and subsequent cytokine storms and consequently mitigate the symptoms. Therefore, in most of the studies, the majority of HIV patients showed no severe symptoms and completely recovered from COVID 19 infection.

Associations between HIV infection and clinical spectrum of COVID-19: a population level analysis based on US National COVID Cohort Collaborative (N3C) data

BACKGROUND

Evidence of whether people living with HIV are at elevated risk of adverse COVID-19 outcomes is inconclusive. We aimed to investigate this association using the population-based National COVID Cohort Collaborative (N3C) data in the USA.

METHODS

We included all adult (aged ≥18 years) COVID-19 cases with any health-care encounter from 54 clinical sites in the USA, with data being deposited into the N3C. The outcomes were COVID-19 disease severity, hospitalisation, and mortality. Encounters in the same health-care system beginning on or after January 1, 2018, were also included to provide information about pre-existing health conditions (eg, comorbidities). Logistic regression models were employed to estimate the association of HIV infection and HIV markers (CD4 cell count, viral load) with hospitalisation, mortality, and clinical severity of COVID-19 (multinomial). The models were initially adjusted for demographic characteristics, then subsequently adjusted for smoking, obesity, and a broad range of comorbidities. Interaction terms were added to assess moderation effects by demographic characteristics.

FINDINGS

In the harmonised N3C data release set from Jan 1, 2020, to May 8, 2021, there were 1 436 622 adult COVID-19 cases, of these, 13 170 individuals had HIV infection. A total of 26 130 COVID-19 related deaths occurred, with 445 among people with HIV. After adjusting for all the covariates, people with HIV had higher odds of COVID-19 death (adjusted odds ratio 1·29, 95% CI 1·16-1·44) and hospitalisation (1·20, 1·15-1·26), but lower odds of mild or moderate COVID-19 (0·61, 0·59-0·64) than people without HIV. Interaction terms revealed that the elevated odds were higher among older age groups, male, Black, African American, Hispanic, or Latinx adults. A lower CD4 cell count (<200 cells per μL) was associated with all the adverse COVID-19 outcomes, while viral suppression was only associated with reduced hospitalisation.

INTERPRETATION

Given the COVID-19 pandemic's exacerbating effects on health inequities, public health and clinical communities must strengthen services and support to prevent aggravated COVID-19 outcomes among people with HIV, particularly for those with pronounced immunodeficiency.

FUNDING

National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, USA.

Clinical outcomes of patients with and without HIV hospitalized with COVID-19 in England during the early stages of the pandemic: a matched retrospective multi-centre analysis (RECEDE-C19 study)

BACKGROUND

The contribution of HIV to COVID-19 outcomes in hospitalized inpatients remains unclear. We conducted a multi-centre, retrospective matched cohort study of SARS-CoV-2 PCR-positive hospital inpatients analysed by HIV status.

METHODS

HIV-negative patients were matched to people living with HIV (PLWH) admitted from 1 February 2020 to 31 May 2020 up to a 3:1 ratio by the following: hospital site, SARS-CoV-2 test date ± 7 days, age ± 5 years, gender, and index of multiple deprivation decile ± 1. The primary objective was clinical improvement (two-point improvement or better on a seven-point ordinal scale) or hospital discharge by day 28, whichever was earlier.

RESULTS

A total of 68 PLWH and 181 HIV-negative comparators were included. In unadjusted analyses, PLWH had a reduced hazard of achieving clinical improvement or discharge [adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) = 0.57, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.39-0.85, p = 0.005], but this association was ameliorated (aHR = 0.70, 95% CI: 0.43-1.17, p = 0.18) after additional adjustment for ethnicity, frailty, baseline hypoxaemia, duration of symptoms prior to baseline, body mass index (BMI) categories and comorbidities. Baseline frailty (aHR = 0.79, 95% CI: 0.65-0.95, p = 0.011), malignancy (aHR = 0.37, 95% CI 0.17, 0.82, p = 0.014) remained associated with poorer outcomes. The PLWH were more likely to be of black, Asian and minority ethnic background (75.0% vs 48.6%, p = 0.0002), higher median clinical frailty score [3 × interquartile range (IQR): 2-5 vs, 2 × IQR: 1-4, p = 0.0069), and to have a non-significantly higher proportion of active malignancy (14.4% vs 9.9%, p = 0.29).

CONCLUSIONS

Adjusting for confounding comorbidities and demographics in a matched cohort ameliorated differences in outcomes of PLWH hospitalized with COVID-19, highlighting the importance of an appropriate comparison group when assessing outcomes of PLWH hospitalized with COVID-19.

Sexual health (excluding reproductive health, intimate partner violence and gender-based violence) and COVID-19: a scoping review

OBJECTIVES

The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed and exacerbated existing socioeconomic and health disparities, including disparities in sexual health and well-being. While there have been several reviews published on COVID-19 and population health disparities generally-including some with attention to HIV-none has focused on sexual health (ie, STI care, female sexual health, sexual behaviour). We have conducted a scoping review focused on sexual health (excluding reproductive health (RH), intimate partner violence (IPV) and gender-based violence (GBV)) in the COVID-19 era, examining sexual behaviours and sexual health outcomes.

METHODS

A scoping review, compiling both peer-reviewed and grey literature, focused on sexual health (excluding RH, IPV and GBV) and COVID-19 was conducted on 15 September 2020. Multiple bibliographical databases were searched. Study selection conformed to Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Reviewers' Manual 2015 Methodology for JBI Scoping Reviews. We only included English-language original studies.

RESULTS

We found that men who have sex with men may be moving back toward pre-pandemic levels of sexual activity, and that STI and HIV testing rates seem to have decreased. There was minimal focus on outcomes such as the economic impact on sexual health (excluding RH, IPV and GBV) and STI care, especially STI care of marginalised populations. In terms of population groups, there was limited focus on sex workers or on women, especially women's sexual behaviour and mental health. We noticed limited use of qualitative techniques. Very few studies were in low/middle-income countries (LMICs).

CONCLUSIONS

Sexual health research is critical during a global infectious disease pandemic and our review of studies suggested notable research gaps. Researchers can focus efforts on LMICs and under-researched topics within sexual health and explore the use of qualitative techniques and interventions where appropriate.

HIV and COVID-19: review of clinical course and outcomes

Background:Understanding the relationship between HIV and SARS-CoV-2 has important public health implications.Objective:To summarize current research on COVID-19 among people with HIV (PWH) as published through 15 July 2021.Methods: We conducted a search of PubMed, Scopus, preprint databases (medRxiv, bioRxiv), and the references of publications found using key terms relevant to COVID-19 ('COVID-19' OR 'SARS-CoV-2' OR 'coronavirus') AND to HIV ('HIV' OR 'Human Immunodeficiency Virus' OR 'AIDS' OR 'Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome'). We summarized all articles that reported data or opinions on SARS-CoV-2 and HIV coinfection.Conclusions: Although many initial case series and cohort studies found no increased risk for SARS-CoV-2 infection or severe COVID-19 outcomes among PWH, recent studies have signaled an increased risk for severe COVID-19 disease progression even in the setting of well-controlled HIV. Whether this is due to the increased prevalence of comorbidities in PWH and other social determinants of health is unknown. These conflicting findings highlight the continued need for COVID-19 related research among PWH that addresses COVID-19 disease course as well as exacerbation of existing comorbidities already disproportionately represented among PWH.

Comparing the effectiveness of Atazanavir/Ritonavir/Dolutegravir/Hydroxychloroquine and Lopinavir/Ritonavir/Hydroxychloroquine treatment regimens in COVID-19 patients

The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of Atazanavir/Ritonavir/Dolutegravir/Hydroxychloroquine and Lopinavir/Ritonavir/Hydroxychloroquine treatment regimens in COVID‐19 patients based on clinical and laboratory parameters. We prospectively evaluated the clinical and laboratory outcomes of 62 moderate to severe COVID‐19 patients during a 10‐day treatment plan. Patients were randomly assigned to either KH (receiving Lopinavir/Ritonavir [Kaletra] plus Hydroxychloroquine) or ADH (receiving Atazanavir/Ritonavir, Dolutegravir, and Hydroxychloroquine) groups. During this period, clinical and laboratory parameters and outcomes such as intensive care unit (ICU) admission or mortality rate were recorded. Compared to the KH group, after the treatment period, patients in the ADH group had higher activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) (12, [95% confidence interval [CI]: 6.97, 17.06), p = <0.01), international normalized ratio (INR) (0.17, [95% CI: 0.07, 0.27), p = <0.01) and lower C‐reactive protein (CRP) (−14.29, (95% CI: −26.87, −1.71), p = 0.03) and potassium (−0.53, (95% CI: −1.03, −0.03), p = 0.04) values. Moreover, a higher number of patients in the KH group needed invasive ventilation (6 (20%) vs. 1 (3.1%), p = 0.05) and antibiotic administration (27 (90%) vs. 21(65.6), p = 0.02) during hospitalization while patients in the ADH group needed more corticosteroid administration (9 (28.1%) vs. 2 (6.7%), p = 0.03). There was no difference in mortality rate, ICU admission rate, and hospitalization period between the study groups. Our results suggest that the Atazanavir/Dolutegravir treatment regimen may result in a less severe disease course compared to the Lopinavir/Ritonavir treatment regimen and can be considered as an alternative treatment option beside standard care. However, to confirm our results, larger‐scale studies are recommended.

Despite the use of many drugs and efforts in controlling the COVID‐19 pandemic, no definitive cure has been found yet.

We compared the effectiveness of Atazanavir/Ritonavir/Dolutegravir/Hydroxychloroquine and Lopinavir/Ritonavir/Hydroxychloroquine treatment regimens in hospitalized COVID‐19 patients.

Clinical and laboratory results show that Atazanavir/Dolutegravir regimen is more effective in ameliorating the severity of COVID‐19 and may be a useful addition to treatment options for COVID‐19 alongside standard care.

Clinical outcomes of COVID-19 amongst HIV patients: a systematic literature review

OBJECTIVES

The global pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) emerged in the city of Wuhan, China around December 2019. Since then, the virus has caused severe morbidity and mortality worldwide and has put pressure on the global medical system. Still, there are limited data regarding the clinical impact of COVID-19 on people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The primary aim of this study was, therefore, to systematically review up-to-date studies reporting the clinical outcomes of COVID-19 amongst HIV patients.

METHODS

A thorough literature search was carried out using MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library Databases in accordance with the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines.

RESULTS

A total of 22 studies were identified. Amongst 730 HIV/COVID-19-coinfected patients, 79.4% were males, the median age was 51.5 years, and the number of reported patients receiving antiretroviral drugs was 708 (97.2%). Most coinfected patients had mild to moderate symptoms, including cough (37.7%), fever (37.5%), and dyspnoea (24.7%). Among pre-existing comorbidities, hypertension (26.3%) was the most prevalent in HIV/COVID-19 coinfected patients, and 87% of coinfected patients recovered.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the existing data in this systematic literature review, HIV patients with pre-existing comorbidities, obesity, and older age should be considered as a high-risk group for COVID-19. Furthermore, coinfected patients appear to have marginally comparable clinical outcomes with the general population. The study's findings highlight the need for further investigation to elucidate the impact of COVID-19 infection on HIV patients.

A Pandemic within Other Pandemics. When a Multiple Infection of a Host Occurs: SARS-CoV-2, HIV and Mycobacterium tuberculosis

By the middle of 2021, we are still immersed in the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The concurrence of this new pandemic in regions where human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and tuberculosis (TB) infections possess the same epidemiological consideration, has arisen concerns about the prognosis, clinical management, symptomatology, and treatment of patients with triple infection. At the same time, healthcare services previously devoted to diagnosis and treatment of TB and HIV are being jeopardized by the urgent need of resources and attention for COVID-19 patients. The aim of this review was to collect any article considering the three conditions (HIV, TB, and SARS-CoV-2), included in PubMed/Medline and published in the English language since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. We focused on detailed descriptions of the unusual cases describing the three co-infections. Eighty-four out of 184 publications retrieved met our inclusion criteria, but only three of them reported cases (five in total) with the three concomitant infections. The clinical evolution, management, and therapy of all of them were not different from mild/severe cases with exclusive COVID-19; the outcome was not worse either, with recovery for the five patients. Cases of patients with COVID-19 besides HIV and TB infections are scarce in literature, but studies deliberately embracing the triple infection as a priori inclusion criterion should be carried out in order to provide a complete understanding of joint influence.

Human immunodeficiency virus and mortality from coronavirus disease 2019: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Persons living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLWH) constitute a vulnerable population in view of their impaired immune status. At this time, the full interaction between HIV and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been incompletely described.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of HIV and SARS-CoV-2 co-infection on mortality.

METHOD

We systematically searched PubMed and the Europe PMC databases up to 19 January 2021, using specific keywords related to our aims. All published articles on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and HIV were retrieved. The quality of the studies was evaluated using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale for observational studies. Statistical analysis was performed with Review Manager version 5.4 and Comprehensive Meta-Analysis version 3 software.

RESULTS

A total of 28 studies including 18 255 040 COVID-19 patients were assessed in this meta-analysis. Overall, HIV was associated with a higher mortality from COVID-19 on random-effects modelling {odds ratio [OR] = 1.19 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.01-1.39], p = 0.03; I 2 = 72%}. Meta-regression confirmed that this association was not influenced by age (p = 0.208), CD4 cell count (p = 0.353) or the presence of antiretroviral therapy (ART) (p = 0.647). Further subgroup analysis indicated that the association was only statistically significant in studies from Africa (OR = 1.13, p = 0.004) and the United States (OR = 1.30, p = 0.006).

CONCLUSION

Whilst all persons ought to receive a SARS-CoV-2 vaccine, PLWH should be prioritised to minimise the risk of death because of COVID-19. The presence of HIV should be regarded as an important risk factor for future risk stratification of COVID-19.

Impact of HIV Infection on COVID-19 Outcomes Among Hospitalized Adults in the U.S

Background

Whether HIV infection is associated with differences in clinical outcomes among people hospitalized with COVID-19 is uncertain.

Objective

To evaluate the impact of HIV infection on COVID-19 outcomes among hospitalized patients.

Methods

Using the American Heart Association's COVID-19 Cardiovascular Disease registry, we used hierarchical mixed effects models to assess the association of HIV with in-hospital mortality accounting for patient demographics and comorbidities and clustering by hospital. Secondary outcomes included major adverse cardiac events (MACE), severity of illness, and length of stay (LOS).

Results

The registry included 21,528 hospitalization records of people with confirmed COVID-19 from 107 hospitals in 2020, including 220 people living with HIV (PLWH). PLWH were younger (56.0+/-13.0 versus 61.3+/-17.9 years old) and more likely to be male (72.3% vs 52.7%), Non-Hispanic Black (51.4% vs 25.4%), on Medicaid (44.5% vs 24.5), and active tobacco users (12.7% versus 6.5%).Of the study population, 36 PLWH (16.4%) had in-hospital mortality compared with 3,290 (15.4%) without HIV (Risk ratio 1.06, 95%CI 0.79-1.43; risk difference 0.9%, 95%CI -4.2 to 6.1%; p=0.71). After adjustment for age, sex, race, and insurance, HIV was not associated with in-hospital mortality (aOR 1.13; 95%CI 0.77-1.6; p 0.54) even after adding body mass index and comorbidities (aOR 1.15; 95%CI 0.78-1.70; p=0.48). HIV was not associated with MACE (aOR 0.99, 95%CI 0.69-1.44, p=0.91), severity of illness (aOR 0.96, 95%CI 0.62-1.50, p=0.86), or LOS (aOR 1.03; 95% CI 0.76-1.66, p=0.21).

Conclusion

HIV was not associated with adverse outcomes of COVID-19 including in-hospital mortality, MACE, or severity of illness.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Coinfection: A Systematic Review of the Literature and Challenges

The concurrence of infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), presents an intriguing problem with many uncertainties underlying their pathogenesis. Despite over 96.2 million cases of COVID-19 worldwide as of January 22, 2021, reports of patients coinfected with HIV and SARS-CoV-2 are scarce. It remains unknown whether HIV patients are at a greater risk of infection from SARS-CoV-2, despite their immunocompromised status. We present a systematic review of the literature reporting cases of HIV and SARS-CoV-2 coinfection, and examine trends of clinical outcomes among coinfected patients. We systematically compiled 63 reports of HIV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 coinfection, published as of January 22, 2021. These studies were retrieved through targeted search terms applied to PubMed/Medline and manual search. Despite scattered evidence, reports indicate a favorable prognosis for HIV patients with strict adherence to combined antiretroviral therapy (cART). However, the presence of comorbidities was associated with a poorer prognosis in HIV/SARS-CoV-2 patients, despite cART and viral suppression. Studies were limited by geographic coverage, small sample size, lack of patient details, and short follow-up durations. Although some anti-HIV drugs have shown promising in vitro activity against SARS-CoV-2, there is no conclusive evidence of the clinical efficacy of any anti-HIV drug in the treatment of COVID-19. Further research is needed to explain the under-representation of severe COVID-19 cases among the HIV patient population and to explore the possible protective mechanisms of cART in this vulnerable population.

COVID-19 in People Living with HIV: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

COVID-19 is a global health emergency. People living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLHIV) have concerns about whether they have a higher risk of getting the infection and suffer worse COVID-19 outcomes. Findings from studies on these questions have largely been inconsistent. We aimed to determine the epidemiological characteristics, clinical signs and symptoms, blood parameters, and clinical outcomes among PLHIV who contracted COVID-19. Relevant studies were identified through Medline, Cinahl, and PubMed databases. A random-effects model was used in meta-analyses with a 95% confidence interval. Eighty-two studies were included in the systematic review and sixty-seven studies for the meta-analysis. The pooled incidence proportion of COVID-19 among PLHIV was 0.9% (95% CI 0.6%, 1.1%) based on the data from seven cohort studies. Overall, 28.4% were hospitalised, of whom, 2.5% was severe-critical cases and 3.5% needed intensive care. The overall mortality rate was 5.3%. Hypertension was the most commonly reported comorbidity (24.0%). Fever (71.1%) was the most common symptom. Chest imaging demonstrated a wide range of abnormal findings encompassing common changes such as ground glass opacities and consolidation as well as a spectrum of less common abnormalities. Laboratory testing of inflammation markers showed that C-reactive protein, ferritin, and interleukin-6 were frequently elevated, albeit to different extents. Clinical features as well as the results of chest imaging and laboratory testing were similar in highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)-treated and non-treated patients. PLHIV were not found to be at higher risk for adverse outcomes of COVID-19. Hence, in COVID-19 management, it appears that they can be treated the same way as HIV negative individuals. Nevertheless, as the pandemic situation is rapidly evolving, more evidence may be needed to arrive at definitive recommendations.

HIV-1 Infection Does Not Change Disease Course or Inflammatory Pattern of SARS-CoV-2-Infected Patients Presenting at a Large Urban Medical Center in New York City

BACKGROUND

The clinical impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) among people with HIV (PWH) remains unclear. In this retrospective cohort study of COVID-19, we compared clinical outcomes and laboratory parameters among PWH and controls.

METHODS

Sixty-eight PWH diagnosed with COVID-19 were matched 1:4 to patients without known HIV diagnosis, drawn from a study population of all patients who were diagnosed with COVID-19 at an academic urban hospital. The primary outcome was death/discharge to hospice within 30 days of hospital presentation.

RESULTS

PWH were more likely to be admitted from the emergency department than patients without HIV (91% vs 71%; P = .001). We observed no statistically significant difference between admitted PWH and patients without HIV in terms of 30-day mortality rate (19% vs 13%, respectively) or mechanical ventilation rate (18% vs 20%, respectively). PWH had higher erythrocyte sedimentation rates than controls on admission but did not differ in other inflammatory marker levels or nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 viral load estimated by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction cycle thresholds.

CONCLUSIONS

HIV infection status was associated with a higher admission rate; however, among hospitalized patients, PWH did not differ from HIV-uninfected controls by rate of mechanical ventilation or death/discharge to hospice.

COVID-19 in patients living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection: Challenges and way-forward

Most studies have described worse outcomes with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This has been attributed to COVID-19 associated lymphopenia (resulting in lower CD4 count), higher prevalence of comorbidities (established risk factors for severity in COVID-19) and pre-existing lung damage. The problem has been further aggravated by the lack in the access to routine care in HIV patients due to diversion of resources. In this article, we discuss the impact of COVID-19 on patients with HIV infection.