Applications and challenges of CRISPR-Cas gene-editing to disease treatment in clinics

Mechanistic study of cancer drug delivery: Current techniques, limitations, and future prospects

Cancer drug delivery remains a critical challenge with systemic toxicity, poor drug bioavailability, and a lack of effective targeting. Overcoming these barriers is essential for improving treatment efficacy and patient outcomes. This review discusses current drug delivery techniques that reshape cancer therapy by offering precise, controlled-release tailored to tumor-specific features. Innovations in nanotechnology, immunotherapy, and gene therapy enable interventions at molecular and cellular levels. Radiomics and pathomics integrate high-dimensional data to optimize diagnostics and treatment planning. Combination therapy addresses the complexities of tumor heterogeneity by synergizing multiple agents within a single therapeutic framework, while peptide-drug conjugates enhance specificity and potency. Hydrogel-based systems and microneedle arrays offer localized, sustained release, significantly improving therapeutic outcomes. However, clinical translation of these advancements faces significant barriers such as drug resistance, off-target effects, scalability, cost, and ethical concerns. Moreover, regulatory complexities and the economic feasibility of these therapies highlight the need for innovative frameworks to make them accessible globally. Therefore, there is a need for innovation in gene and cell therapy, next-generation drug delivery platforms, and personalized medicine. This review focuses on recent advancements in drug delivery techniques over the past decade, evaluating their limitations and exploring potential future directions for transforming cancer treatment.

The Potential of RNA Therapeutics in Treating Cardiovascular Disease

Despite significant advances in cardiology over the past few decades, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remain the leading cause of global mortality and morbidity. This underscores the need for novel therapeutic interventions that go beyond symptom management to address the underlying causal mechanisms of CVDs. RNA-based therapeutics represent a new class of drugs capable of regulating specific genetic and molecular pathways, positioning them as strong candidates for targeting the root causes of a wide range of diseases. Moreover, owing to the vast diversity in RNA form and function, these molecules can be utilized to induce changes at different levels of gene expression regulation, making them suitable for a broad array of medical applications, even within a single disease context. Several RNA-based therapies are currently being investigated for their potential to address various CVD pathologies. These include treatments aimed at promoting cardiac revascularization and regeneration, preventing cardiomyocyte apoptosis, reducing harmful circulating cholesterols and fats, lowering blood pressure, reversing cardiac fibrosis and remodeling, and correcting the genetic basis of inherited CVDs. In this review, we discuss the current landscape of RNA therapeutics for CVDs, with an emphasis on their classifications, modes of action, advancements in delivery strategies and considerations for their implementation, as well as CVD targets with proven therapeutic potential.

From gene editing to tumor eradication: The CRISPR revolution in cancer therapy

Cancer continues to be a significant worldwide health concern, characterized by high rates of occurrence and death. Unfortunately, existing treatments frequently fall short of delivering satisfying therapeutic outcomes. Immunotherapy has ushered in a new era in the treatment of solid tumors, yet its effectiveness is still constrained and comes with unwanted side effects. The advancement of cutting-edge technology, propelled by gene analysis and manipulation at the molecular scale, shows potential for enhancing these therapies. The advent of genome editing technologies, including CRISPR-Cas9, can greatly augment the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. This review explores the mechanism of CRISPR-Cas9-mediated genome editing and its wide range of tools. The study focuses on analyzing the effects of CRISPR-induced double-strand breaks (DSBs) on cancer immunotherapy, specifically by gene knockdown or knockin. In addition, the study emphasizes the utilization of CRISPR-Cas9-based genome-wide screening to identify targets, the potential of spatial CRISPR genomics, and the extensive applications and difficulties of CRISPR-Cas9 in fundamental research, translational medicine, and clinical environments.

Pentatricopeptide repeat protein targeting CUG repeat RNA ameliorates RNA toxicity in a myotonic dystrophy type 1 mouse model

Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is an autosomal dominant multisystemic disorder caused by the expansion of a CTG-triplet repeat in the 3' untranslated region of the dystrophia myotonica protein kinase (DMPK) gene. It results in the transcription of toxic RNAs that contain expanded CUG repeats (CUGexp). Splicing factors, such as muscleblind-like 1 (MBNL1), are sequestered by CUGexp, thereby disrupting the normal splicing program that is essential for various cellular functions. Pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) proteins, originally found in plants, regulate RNA in organelles by binding in a sequence-specific manner. Here, we designed PPR proteins that specifically bind to the hexamer of CUG repeat RNAs (CUG-PPRs) and showed that CUG-PPR1 could ameliorate RNA toxicity induced by CUGexp in cell models of DM1. A single systemic recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV9) vector-mediated gene delivery of CUG-PPR1 demonstrated long-term therapeutic effects on myotonia and restored splicing activity in a mouse model of DM1. These results highlight the potential of PPR molecules to target pathogenic RNA sequences in DM1 and potentially other RNA-mediated disorders.

CRISPR/Cas9 based knockout of lncRNA MALAT1 attenuates TGF-β1 induced Smad 2/3 mediated fibrosis during AKI-to-CKD transition

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a significant clinical issue with potential long-term consequences, as even a single episode can progress to chronic kidney disease (CKD). The AKI-to-CKD transition involves complex pathophysiology, including persistent inflammation, apoptosis, and fibrosis. Long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 (MALAT1) has been recognized as a potential therapeutic target for various kidney diseases, including AKI and CKD. In our previous study, we conducted the transcriptomic analysis of lncRNAs in-vitro and animal models of AKI-to-CKD transition and found several dysregulated lncRNAs such as MALAT1, MEG3, NEAT1, MIAT, and H19 in this transition. Among these, we have selected lncRNA MALAT1 to further validate its role in AKI-to-CKD transition as a therapeutic target via a cluster regularly intercept short palindromic protein (CRISPR) associated protein 9 (Cas9)-mediated knockout approach in NRK52E cells. Guide RNAs (gRNAs) were designed to target MALAT1, and the PX459 turbo green fluorescence protein (GFP) plasmid containing MALAT1 gRNA1&2 was transfected into NRK52E cells using CRISPRMAX. Results demonstrated that MALAT1 knockout significantly reduced MALAT1 expression and attenuated Smad2/3-mediated fibrosis by decreasing pSmad2, pSmad2/3, Smad4, vimentin, fibronectin, collagen-I, and α-SMA expression levels, while increasing Smad7, Smurf2, and E-cadherin levels. These findings suggest that targeting the MALAT1/Smad2/3 pathway could be a potential therapeutic target for mitigating fibrosis to prevent AKI-to-CKD transition.

Unraveling the kinase code: Role of protein kinase in lung cancer pathogenesis and therapeutic strategies

Lung cancer is a prominent cause of cancer-related deaths globally, prompting exploration into the molecular pathways governing cancer cell signaling. Recent insights highlight the critical role of kinases in carcinogenesis and metastasis, particularly in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), where protein kinases significantly contribute to drug resistance. These diverse enzymes catalyze protein phosphorylation and are implicated in cancer through misregulated expression, amplification, aberrant phosphorylation, mutations, and chromosomal translocations. Amplifications of kinases serve as important diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive biomarkers across various cancers. Notably, the Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT pathway is crucial for the survival and proliferation of tumor cells. Novel therapeutic approaches are being explored to precisely target these pathways. Peptide-based therapies offer specificity and reduced toxicity compared to conventional treatments, while gene therapy targets abnormal genetic expressions. Advances in nanotechnology and CRISPR/Cas9 systems enhance gene delivery methods, holding promise for targeting specific molecular pathways in lung cancer treatment and minimizing systemic toxicity.

Ciliary Ion Channels in Polycystic Kidney Disease

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is the most common hereditary disorder that disrupts renal function and frequently progresses to end-stage renal disease. Recent advances have elucidated the critical role of primary cilia and ciliary ion channels, including transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), and polycystin channels, in the pathogenesis of PKD. While some channels primarily function as chloride conductance channels (e.g., CFTR), others primarily regulate calcium (Ca+2) homeostasis. These ion channels are essential for cellular signaling and maintaining the normal kidney architecture. Dysregulation of these pathways due to genetic mutations in PKD1 and PKD2 leads to disrupted Ca+2 and cAMP signaling, aberrant fluid secretion, and uncontrolled cellular proliferation, resulting in tubular cystogenesis. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying these dysfunctions has opened the door for innovative therapeutic strategies, including TRPV4 activators, CFTR inhibitors, and calcimimetics, to mitigate cyst growth and preserve renal function. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the roles of ciliary ion channels in PKD pathophysiology, highlights therapeutic interventions targeting these channels, and identifies future research directions for improving patient outcomes.

Extracellular vesicles in cancer´s communication: messages we can read and how to answer

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging as critical mediators of intercellular communication in the tumor microenvironment (TME), profoundly influencing cancer progression. These nano-sized vesicles, released by both tumor and stromal cells, carry a diverse cargo of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, reflecting the dynamic cellular landscape and mediating intricate interactions between cells. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the biogenesis, composition, and functional roles of EVs in cancer, highlighting their significance in both basic research and clinical applications. We discuss how cancer cells manipulate EV biogenesis pathways to produce vesicles enriched with pro-tumorigenic molecules, explore the specific contributions of EVs to key hallmarks of cancer, such as angiogenesis, metastasis, and immune evasion, emphasizing their role in shaping TME and driving therapeutic resistance. Concurrently, we submit recent knowledge on how the cargo of EVs can serve as a valuable source of biomarkers for minimally invasive liquid biopsies, and its therapeutic potential, particularly as targeted drug delivery vehicles and immunomodulatory agents, showcasing their promise for enhancing the efficacy and safety of cancer treatments. By deciphering the intricate messages carried by EVs, we can gain a deeper understanding of cancer biology and develop more effective strategies for early detection, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, paving the way for a new era of personalized and precise cancer medicine with the potential to significantly improve patient outcomes.

Engineering Useful Microbial Species for Pharmaceutical Applications

Microbial engineering has made a significant breakthrough in pharmaceutical biotechnology, greatly expanding the production of biologically active compounds, therapeutic proteins, and novel drug candidates. Recent advancements in genetic engineering, synthetic biology, and adaptive evolution have contributed to the optimization of microbial strains for pharmaceutical applications, playing a crucial role in enhancing their productivity and stability. The CRISPR-Cas system is widely utilized as a precise genome modification tool, enabling the enhancement of metabolite biosynthesis and the activation of synthetic biological pathways. Additionally, synthetic biology approaches allow for the targeted design of microorganisms with improved metabolic efficiency and therapeutic potential, thereby accelerating the development of new pharmaceutical products. The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) plays a vital role in further advancing microbial engineering by predicting metabolic network interactions, optimizing bioprocesses, and accelerating the drug discovery process. However, challenges such as the efficient optimization of metabolic pathways, ensuring sustainable industrial-scale production, and meeting international regulatory requirements remain critical barriers in the field. Furthermore, to mitigate potential risks, it is essential to develop stringent biocontainment strategies and implement appropriate regulatory oversight. This review comprehensively examines recent innovations in microbial engineering, analyzing key technological advancements, regulatory challenges, and future development perspectives.

Healing the cornea: Exploring the therapeutic solutions offered by MSCs and MSC-derived EVs

Affecting a large proportion of the population worldwide, corneal disorders constitute a concerning health hazard associated to compromised eyesight or blindness for most severe cases. In the last decades, mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) demonstrated promising abilities in improving symptoms associated to corneal diseases or alleviating these affections, especially through their anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and pro-regenerative properties. More recently, MSC therapeutic potential was shown to be mediated by the molecules they release, and particularly by their extracellular vesicles (EVs; MSC-EVs). Consequently, using MSC-EVs emerged as a pioneering strategy to mitigate the risks related to cell therapy while providing MSC therapeutic benefits. Despite the promises given by MSC- and MSC-EV-based approaches, many improvements are considered to optimize the therapeutic significance of these therapies. This review aspires to provide a comprehensive and detailed overview of current knowledge on corneal therapies involving MSCs and MSC-EVs, the strategies currently under evaluation, and the gaps remaining to be addressed for clinical implementation. From encapsulating MSCs or their EVs into biomaterials to enhance the ocular retention time to loading MSC-EVs with therapeutic drugs, a wide range of ground-breaking strategies are currently contemplated to lead to the safest and most effective treatments. Promising research initiatives also include diverse gene therapies and the targeting of specific cell types through the modification of the EV surface, paving the way for future therapeutic innovations. As one of the most important challenges, MSC-EV large-scale production strategies are extensively investigated and offer a wide array of possibilities to meet the needs of clinical applications.

Unveiling the potential of gene editing techniques in revolutionizing Cancer treatment: A comprehensive overview

Gene editing techniques have emerged as powerful tools in biomedical research, offering precise manipulation of genetic material with the potential to revolutionize cancer treatment strategies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current landscape of gene editing technologies, including CRISPR-Cas systems, base editing, prime editing, and synthetic gene circuits, highlighting their applications and potential in cancer therapy. It discusses the mechanisms, advantages, and limitations of each gene editing approach, emphasizing their transformative impact on targeting oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and drug resistance mechanisms in various cancer types. The review delves into population-level interventions and precision prevention strategies enabled by gene editing technologies, including gene drives, synthetic gene circuits, and precision prevention tools, for controlling cancer-causing genes, targeting pre-cancerous lesions, and implementing personalized preventive measures. Ethical considerations, regulatory challenges, and future directions in gene editing research for cancer treatment are also addressed. This review highlights how gene editing could revolutionize precision medicine by enhancing patient care and advancing cancer treatments with targeted, personalized methods. For these benefits to be fully realized, collaboration among researchers, doctors, regulators, and patient advocates is crucial in fighting cancer and meeting clinical needs.

The molecular code of kidney cancer: A path of discovery for gene mutation and precision therapy

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is a malignant tumor with highly heterogeneous and complex molecular mechanisms. Through systematic analysis of TCGA, COSMIC and other databases, 24 mutated genes closely related to RCC were screened, including VHL, PBRM1, BAP1 and SETD2, which play key roles in signaling pathway transduction, chromatin remodeling and DNA repair. The PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway is particularly important in the pathogenesis of RCC. Mutations in genes such as PIK3CA, MTOR and PTEN are closely associated with metabolic abnormalities and tumor cell proliferation. Clinically, mTOR inhibitors and VEGF-targeted drugs have shown significant efficacy in personalized therapy. Abnormal regulation of metabolic reprogramming, especially glycolysis and glutamine metabolic pathways, provides tumor cells with continuous energy supply and survival advantages, and GLS1 inhibitors have shown promising results in preclinical studies. This paper also explores the potential of immune checkpoint inhibitors in combination with other targeted drugs, as well as the promising application of nanotechnology in drug delivery and targeted therapy. In addition, unique molecular mechanisms are revealed and individualized therapeutic strategies are explored for specific subtypes such as TFE3, TFEB rearrangement type and SDHB mutant type. The review summarizes the common gene mutations in RCC and their molecular mechanisms, emphasizes their important roles in tumor diagnosis, treatment and prognosis, and looks forward to the application prospects of multi-pathway targeted therapy, metabolic targeted therapy, immunotherapy and nanotechnology in RCC treatment, providing theoretical support and clinical guidance for individualized treatment and new drug development.

Molecular Therapeutics in Development to Treat Hyperlipoproteinemia

Clinical endpoints caused by hyperlipoproteinemia include atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and acute pancreatitis. Emerging lipid-lowering therapies targeting proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin 9 (PCSK9), lipoprotein(a), apolipoprotein C-III, and angiopoietin-like protein 3 represent promising advances in the management of patients with hyperlipoproteinemia. These therapies offer novel approaches for lowering pathogenic lipid and lipoprotein species, particularly in patients with serious perturbations who are not adequately controlled with conventional treatments or who are unable to tolerate them. Molecular targets for these novel therapeutic agents were identified and validated through genetic epidemiology studies. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin 9 inhibitors (e.g., monoclonal antibodies and small interfering RNA) have revolutionized hypercholesterolemia management by significantly reducing both low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and major cardiovascular events. Genome editing of PCSK9 promises to provide a potential cure for patients with familial hypercholesterolemia. Several investigational lipoprotein(a)-targeting therapies aim to reduce the risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and aortic valve disease, although definitive clinical endpoint studies remain to be completed. Inhibition of APOC3 messenger RNA expression by olezarsen and plozasiran significantly lowers plasma triglyceride levels and markedly reduces pancreatitis risk in patients with familial chylomicronemia syndrome. Finally, angiopoietin-like protein 3 inhibition by the monoclonal antibody evinacumab has transformed management of patients with homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Together, these novel agents expand the therapeutic cache, offering personalized lipid-lowering strategies for high-risk patients with hyperlipoproteinemia, improving clinical outcomes and addressing previously unmet medical needs.

CRISPR-Cas technology in forensic investigations: Principles, applications, and ethical considerations

CRISPR-Cas (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR-associated proteins) systems are adaptive immune systems originally present in bacteria, where they are essential to protect against external genetic elements, including viruses and plasmids. Taking advantage of this system, CRISPR-Cas-based technologies have emerged as incredible tools for precise genome editing, thus significantly advancing several research fields. Forensic sciences represent a multidisciplinary field that explores scientific methods to investigate and resolve legal issues, particularly criminal investigations and subject identification. Consequently, it plays a critical role in the justice system, providing scientific evidence to support judicial investigations. Although less explored, CRISPR-Cas-based methodologies demonstrate strong potential in the field of forensic sciences due to their high accuracy and sensitivity, including DNA profiling and identification, interpretation of crime scene investigations, detection of food contamination or fraud, and other aspects related to environmental forensics. However, using CRISPR-Cas-based methodologies in human samples raises several ethical issues and concerns regarding the potential misuse of individual genetic information. In this manuscript, we provide an overview of potential applications of CRISPR-Cas-based methodologies in several areas of forensic sciences and discuss the legal implications that challenge their routine implementation in this research field.

Forty Years of the Use of Cells for Cartilage Regeneration: The Research Side

Background: The treatment of articular cartilage damage has always represented a problem of considerable practical interest for orthopedics. Over the years, many surgical techniques have been proposed to induce the growth of repairing tissue and limit degeneration. In 1994, the turning point occurred: implanted autologous cells paved the way for a new treatment option based more on regeneration than repair. Objectives: This review aims to outline biological and clinical advances, from the use of mature adult chondrocytes to cell-derived products, going through progenitor cells derived from bone marrow or adipose tissue and their concentrates for articular cartilage repair. Moreover, it highlights the relevance of gene therapy as a valuable tool for successfully implementing current regenerative treatments, and overcoming the limitations of the local delivery of growth factors. Conclusions: Finally, this review concludes with an outlook on the importance of understanding the role and mechanisms of action of the different cell compounds with a view to implementing personalized treatments.

Advances in CRISPR-Cas technology and its applications: revolutionising precision medicine

CRISPR-Cas (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats-CRISPR-associated proteins) has undergone marked advancements since its discovery as an adaptive immune system in bacteria and archaea, emerged as a potent gene-editing tool after the successful engineering of its synthetic guide RNA (sgRNA) toward the targeting of specific DNA sequences with high accuracy. Besides its DNA editing ability, further-developed Cas variants can also edit the epigenome, rendering the CRISPR-Cas system a versatile tool for genome and epigenome manipulation and a pioneering force in precision medicine. This review explores the latest advancements in CRISPR-Cas technology and its therapeutic and biomedical applications, highlighting its transformative impact on precision medicine. Moreover, the current status of CRISPR therapeutics in clinical trials is discussed. Finally, we address the persisting challenges and prospects of CRISPR-Cas technology.

CRISPR innovations in tissue engineering and gene editing

The CRISPR/Cas9 system is a powerful tool for genome editing, utilizing the Cas9 nuclease and programmable single guide RNA (sgRNA). However, the Cas9 nuclease activity can be disabled by mutation, resulting in catalytically deactivated Cas9 (dCas9). By combining the customizable sgRNA with dCas9, researchers can inhibit specific gene expression (CRISPR interference, CRISPRi) or activate the expression of a target gene (CRISPR activation, CRISPRa). In this review, we present the principles and recent advancements of these CRISPR technologies, as well as their delivery vectors. We also explore their applications in stem cell engineering and regenerative medicine, with a focus on in vitro stem cell fate manipulation and in vivo treatments. These include the prevention of retinal and muscular degeneration, neural regeneration, bone regeneration, cartilage tissue engineering, and the treatment of blood, skin, and liver diseases. Furthermore, we discuss the challenges of translating CRISPR technologies into regenerative medicine and provide future perspectives. Overall, this review highlights the potential of CRISPR in advancing regenerative medicine and offers insights into its application in various areas of research and therapy.

Recent advances in nanogels for drug delivery and biomedical applications

Nanotechnology has shown great promise for researchers to develop efficient nanocarriers for better therapy, imaging, and sustained release of drugs. The existing treatments are accompanied by serious toxicity limitations, leading to severe side effects, multiple drug resistance, and off-target activity. In this regard, nanogels have garnered significant attention for their multi-functional role combining advanced therapeutics with imaging in a single platform. Nanogels can be functionalized to target specific tissues which can improve the efficiency of drug delivery and other challenges associated with the existing nanocarriers. Translation of nanogel technology requires more exploration towards stability and enhanced efficiency. In this review, we present the advances and challenges related to nanogels for cancer therapy, ophthalmology, neurological disorders, tuberculosis, wound healing, and anti-viral applications. A perspective on recent research trends of nanogels for translation to clinics is also discussed.

Exosomes for CRISPR-Cas9 Delivery: The Cutting Edge in Genome Editing

Gene mutation correction was challenging until the discovery of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated protein (Cas). CRISPR is a new era for genome modification, and this technology has bypassed the limitations of previous methods such as zinc-finger nuclease and transcription activator-like effector nuclease. Currently, this method is becoming the method of choice for gene-editing purposes, especially therapeutic gene editing in diseases such as cardiovascular, neurological, renal, genetic, optical, and stem cell, as well as blood disorders and muscular degeneration. However, finding the optimum delivery system capable of carrying this large complex persists as the main challenge of this technology. Therefore, it would be ideal if the delivery vehicle could direct the introduction of editing functions to specific cells in a multicellular organism. Exosomes are membrane-bound vesicles with high biocompatibility and low immunogenicity; they offer the best and most reliable way to fill the CRISPR/Cas9 system delivery gap. This review presents the current evidence on the molecular mechanisms and challenges of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome modification. Also, the role of CRISPR/Cas9 in the development of treatment and diagnosis of numerous disorders, from malignancies to viral infections, has been discussed. Lastly, the focus is on new advances in exosome-delivery technologies that may play a role in CRISPR/Cas9 delivery for future clinical settings.

Potential Therapeutic Targets for the Treatment of HPV-Associated Malignancies

This review article aims to summarize broadly recent developments in the treatment of HPV-associated cancers, including cervical cancer and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Relatively new treatments targeting the key HPV E6 and E7 oncoproteins, including gene editing with TALENs and CRISPR/Cas9, are discussed. Given the increased immunogenicity of HPV-related diseases, other therapies such as PRR agonists, adoptive cell transfer, and tumor vaccines are reaching the clinical trial phase. Due to the mechanism, immunogenicity, and reversibility of HPV carcinogenesis, HPV-related cancers present unique targets for current and future therapies.

Applications of CRISPR/Cas as a Toolbox for Hepatitis B Virus Detection and Therapeutics

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection remains a significant global health challenge, leading to chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) and integrated HBV DNA are pivotal in maintaining viral persistence. Recent advances in CRISPR/Cas technology offer innovative strategies to inhibit HBV by directly targeting both cccDNA and integrated HBV DNA or indirectly by degrading HBV RNAs or targeting host proteins. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the latest advancements in using CRISPR/Cas to inhibit HBV, with a special highlight on newer non-double-strand (non-DSB) break approaches. Beyond the canonical use of CRISPR/Cas for target inhibition, we discuss additional applications, including HBV diagnosis and developing models to understand cccDNA biology, highlighting the diverse use of this technology in the HBV field.

In vivo and ex vivo gene therapy for neurodegenerative diseases: a promise for disease modification

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), including AD, PD, HD, and ALS, represent a growing public health concern linked to aging and lifestyle factors, characterized by progressive nervous system damage leading to motor and cognitive deficits. Current therapeutics offer only symptomatic management, highlighting the urgent need for disease-modifying treatments. Gene therapy has emerged as a promising approach, targeting the underlying pathology of diseases with diverse strategies including gene replacement, gene silencing, and gene editing. This innovative therapeutic approach involves introducing functional genetic material to combat disease mechanisms, potentially offering long-term efficacy and disease modification. With advancements in genomics, structural biology, and gene editing tools such as CRISPR/Cas9, gene therapy holds significant promise for addressing the root causes of NDDs. Significant progress in preclinical and clinical studies has demonstrated the potential of in vivo and ex vivo gene therapy to treat various NDDs, offering a versatile and precise approach in comparison to conventional treatments. The current review describes various gene therapy approaches employed in preclinical and clinical studies for the treatment of NDDs, including AD, PD, HD, and ALS, and addresses some of the key translational challenges in this therapeutic approach.

Emerging role of MAPK signaling in glycosphingolipid-associated tumorigenesis

Glycosphingolipids (GSLs) are a type of amphipathic lipid molecules consisting of hydrophobic ceramide backbone bound to carbohydrate moiety clustered in the cell surface microdomains named 'lipid rafts' and are known to participate in cell-cell communication as well as intra-cellular signaling, thereby facilitating critical normal cellular processes and functions. Over the past several decades, various GSLs have been reported to be aberrantly expressed in different cancers, many of which have been associated with their prognosis. The wide implication of MAPK signaling in controlling tumor growth, progression, and metastasis through activation of an upstream signaling cascade, often originating in the cell membrane, justifies the rationale for its plausible influence on MAPK signaling. This review highlights the role of GSLs and their metabolites in regulating different signaling pathways towards modulation of tumor cell growth, migration, and adhesion by interacting with various receptors [epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and platelet derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), and other receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs)] leading to activation of the MAPK pathway. Furthermore, GSLs can influence the activity and localization of downstream signaling components in the MAPK pathway by regulating the activation state of kinases, which in turn, regulate the activity of MAPKs. Additionally, this review further consolidates the GSL-mediated modulation of MAPK pathway components through the regulation of gene expression. Finally, recent findings on GSL-MAPK crosstalk will be explored in this article for the identification of potential anti-cancer therapeutic targets.

CRISPR/Cas9 in the treatment of sickle cell disease (SCD) and its comparison with traditional treatment approaches: a review

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a common hereditary blood disorder that profoundly impacts individuals' health, causing chronic pain, anemia, organ damage, increased susceptibility to infections, and social and psychological effects. Over the years, advances in treatment have improved the long-term outcomes of SCD patients. However, problems such as limited access to hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) and potential complications associated with the available therapies underscore the importance of continued research and development. The recent FDA approval of Casgevy (Exagamglogene autotemcel), a genetic therapy based on CRISPR/Cas9 technology, demonstrates a comprehensive effort to address the complexity of SCD using new technologies. This review explores the potential of CRISPR/Cas9 for treating SCD and evaluates its efficacy, safety, and long-term outcomes compared to traditional treatment approaches. Long-term research is needed to comprehensively assess the safety, effectiveness, and inclusion of CRISPR/Cas9, ensuring its overall efficacy.

Signaling Paradigms of H2S-Induced Vasodilation: A Comprehensive Review

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a gas traditionally considered toxic, is now recognized as a vital endogenous signaling molecule with a complex physiology. This comprehensive study encompasses a systematic literature review that explores the intricate mechanisms underlying H2S-induced vasodilation. The vasodilatory effects of H2S are primarily mediated by activating ATP-sensitive potassium (K_ATP) channels, leading to membrane hyperpolarization and subsequent relaxation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Additionally, H2S inhibits L-type calcium channels, reducing calcium influx and diminishing VSMC contraction. Beyond ion channel modulation, H2S profoundly impacts cyclic nucleotide signaling pathways. It stimulates soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), increasing the production of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). Elevated cGMP levels activate protein kinase G (PKG), which phosphorylates downstream targets like vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) and promotes smooth muscle relaxation. The synergy between H2S and nitric oxide (NO) signaling further amplifies vasodilation. H2S enhances NO bioavailability by inhibiting its degradation and stimulating endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity, increasing cGMP levels and potent vasodilatory responses. Protein sulfhydration, a post-translational modification, plays a crucial role in cell signaling. H2S S-sulfurates oxidized cysteine residues, while polysulfides (H2Sn) are responsible for S-sulfurating reduced cysteine residues. Sulfhydration of key proteins like K_ATP channels and sGC enhances their activity, contributing to the overall vasodilatory effect. Furthermore, H2S interaction with endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF) pathways adds another layer to its vasodilatory mechanism. By enhancing EDHF activity, H2S facilitates the hyperpolarization and relaxation of VSMCs through gap junctions between endothelial cells and VSMCs. Recent findings suggest that H2S can also modulate transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, particularly TRPV4 channels, in endothelial cells. Activating these channels by H2S promotes calcium entry, stimulating the production of vasodilatory agents like NO and prostacyclin, thereby regulating vascular tone. The comprehensive understanding of H2S-induced vasodilation mechanisms highlights its therapeutic potential. The multifaceted approach of H2S in modulating vascular tone presents a promising strategy for developing novel treatments for hypertension, ischemic conditions, and other vascular disorders. The interaction of H2S with ion channels, cyclic nucleotide signaling, NO pathways, ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) scavenging, protein sulfhydration, and EDHF underscores its complexity and therapeutic relevance. In conclusion, the intricate signaling paradigms of H2S-induced vasodilation offer valuable insights into its physiological role and therapeutic potential, promising innovative approaches for managing various vascular diseases through the modulation of vascular tone.

The arsenic bioremediation using genetically engineered microbial strains on aquatic environments: An updated overview

Heavy metal contamination threatens the aquatic environment and human health. Different physical and chemical procedures have been adopted in many regions; however, their adoption is usually limited since they take longer time, are more expensive, and are ineffective in polluted areas with high heavy metal contents. Thus, biological remediation is considered a suitable applicable method for treating contaminates due to its aquatic-friendly features. Bacteria possess an active metabolism that enables them to thrive and develop in highly contaminated water bodies with arsenic (As). They achieve this by utilizing their genetic structure to selectively target As and deactivate its toxic influences. Therefore, this review extensively inspects the bacterial reactions and interactions with As. In addition, this literature demonstrated the potential of certain genetically engineered bacterial strains to upregulate the expression and activity of specific genes associated with As detoxification. The As resistant mechanisms in bacteria exhibit significant variation depending on the genetics and type of the bacterium, which is strongly affected by the physical water criteria of their surrounding aquatic environment. Moreover, this literature has attempted to establish scientific connections between existing knowledge and suggested sustainable methods for removing As from aquatic bodies by utilizing genetically engineered bacterial strains. We shall outline the primary techniques employed by bacteria to bioremediate As from aquatic environments. Additionally, we will define the primary obstacles that face the wide application of genetically modified bacterial strains for As bioremediation in open water bodies. This review can serve as a target for future studies aiming to implement real-time bioremediation techniques. In addition, potential synergies between the bioremediation technology and other techniques are suggested, which can be employed for As bioremediation.

Recent progress in CRISPR-Cas-system for neurological disorders

Different neurological diseases including, Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and Huntington's diseases extant momentous global disease burdens, affecting millions of lives for imposing a heavy disease burden on the healthcare systems. Despite various treatment strategies aimed at alleviating symptoms, treatments remain elusive and ineffective due to the disease's complexity. However, recent advancements in gene therapy via the CRISPR-Cas system offer ground-breaking and targeted treatment options. Based on a bacterial immune mechanism, the CRISPR-Cas system enables precise genome editing, allowing for the alteration of different genetic mutations and the possible cure of genetic diseases. In the context of neurological disorders, the CRISPR-Cas system shows a promising avenue by allowing researchers to conduct genome-editing which is implicated in neurodegenerative disease therapeutics. This book chapter provides an updated overview of the application of the CRISPR-Cas system for addressing target-specific therapeutic approaches for neurodegenerative disorders. Furthermore, we discuss the principles of the CRISPR-Cas mechanism, its role in modeling neurological disorders, identifying molecular targets, and developing gene-based therapies. Additionally, the chapter explores the recent clinical trials and CRISPR-Cas-mediated treatments for neurological conditions. By leveraging the accuracy and versatility of the CRISPR-Cas system, scientists can more effectively handle the genetic underpinnings of neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, the chapter extends the critical viewpoints on ethical considerations and technical limitations related to the clinical deployment of this revolutionizing technique.

Epigenetic therapy potentiates transposable element transcription to create tumor-enriched antigens in glioblastoma cells

Inhibiting epigenetic modulators can transcriptionally reactivate transposable elements (TEs). These TE transcripts often generate unique peptides that can serve as immunogenic antigens for immunotherapy. Here, we ask whether TEs activated by epigenetic therapy could appreciably increase the antigen repertoire in glioblastoma, an aggressive brain cancer with low mutation and neoantigen burden. We treated patient-derived primary glioblastoma stem cell lines, an astrocyte cell line and primary fibroblast cell lines with epigenetic drugs, and identified treatment-induced, TE-derived transcripts that are preferentially expressed in cancer cells. We verified that these transcripts could produce human leukocyte antigen class I-presented antigens using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry pulldown experiments. Importantly, many TEs were also transcribed, even in proliferating nontumor cell lines, after epigenetic therapy, which suggests that targeted strategies like CRISPR-mediated activation could minimize potential side effects of activating unwanted genomic regions. The results highlight both the need for caution and the promise of future translational efforts in harnessing treatment-induced TE-derived antigens for targeted immunotherapy.

Current approaches in CRISPR-Cas systems for hereditary diseases

CRISPR-Cas technologies have drastically revolutionized genetic engineering and also dramatically changed the potential for treating inherited disorders. The potential to correct genetic mutations responsible for numerous hereditary disorders from single-gene disorders to complex polygenic diseases through precise DNA editing is feasible. The tactic now employed in CRISPR-Cas systems for treating inherited disorders is the usage of particular guide RNAs to target and edit disease-causing mutations in the patient's genome. Several methods such as CRISPR-Cas9, CRISPR-Cas12, and CRISPR-Cas13 are being thoroughly researched and optimized to increase effectiveness, accuracy, and safety in gene editing. Additionally, it is predicted that CRISPR-based therapies will be able to treat complex genetic illnesses such as cancer predisposition syndromes, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular conditions in addition to single-gene disorders. The available editing tools and creation of base editing technology facilitate the simultaneous correction of many mutations or accurate nucleotide changes leading to further advances in the development of multiplex editing tools and base editing technology fiction. When combined with other paradigms such as gene therapy using stem cell treatment, CRISPR-Cas promises improved efficacy. Patient treatment and lowering side effects significantly in individual genetic profiles will guide CRISPR-based treatments. These procedures will undoubtedly lead to therapies that are both efficient and curative of a wide range of genetic diseases, ushering in a new era of precision medicine. This chapter discusses about CRISPR Cas9 mechanism and its significance in the treatment of Hereditary disorders.

Nucleic Acid Armor: Fortifying RNA Therapeutics through Delivery and Targeting Innovations for Immunotherapy

RNA is a promising nucleic acid-based biomolecule for various treatments because of its high efficacy, low toxicity, and the tremendous availability of targeting sequences. Nevertheless, RNA shows instability and has a short half-life in physiological environments such as the bloodstream in the presence of RNAase. Therefore, developing reliable delivery strategies is important for targeting disease sites and maximizing the therapeutic effect of RNA drugs, particularly in the field of immunotherapy. In this mini-review, we highlight two major approaches: (1) delivery vehicles and (2) chemical modifications. Recent advances in delivery vehicles employ nanotechnologies such as lipid-based nanoparticles, viral vectors, and inorganic nanocarriers to precisely target specific cell types to facilitate RNA cellular entry. On the other hand, chemical modification utilizes the alteration of RNA structures via the addition of covalent bonds such as N-acetylgalactosamine or antibodies (antibody-oligonucleotide conjugates) to target specific receptors of cells. The pros and cons of these technologies are enlisted in this review. We aim to review nucleic acid drugs, their delivery systems, targeting strategies, and related chemical modifications. Finally, we express our perspective on the potential combination of RNA-based click chemistry with adoptive cell therapy (e.g., B cells or T cells) to address the issues of short duration and short half-life associated with antibody-oligonucleotide conjugate drugs.

The next frontier in immunotherapy: potential and challenges of CAR-macrophages

Chimeric antigen receptor macrophage (CAR-MΦ) represents a significant advancement in immunotherapy, especially for treating solid tumors where traditional CAR-T therapies face limitations. CAR-MΦ offers a promising approach to target and eradicate tumor cells by utilizing macrophages' phagocytic and antigen-presenting abilities. However, challenges such as the complex tumor microenvironment (TME), variability in antigen expression, and immune suppression limit their efficacy. This review addresses these issues, exploring mechanisms of CAR-MΦ action, optimal construct designs, and interactions within the TME. It also delves into the ex vivo manufacturing challenges of CAR-MΦ, discussing autologous and allogeneic sources and the importance of stringent quality control. The potential synergies of integrating CAR-MΦ with existing cancer therapies like checkpoint inhibitors and conventional chemotherapeutics are examined to highlight possible enhanced treatment outcomes. Furthermore, regulatory pathways for CAR-MΦ therapies are scrutinized alongside established protocols for CAR-T cells, identifying unique considerations essential for clinical trials and market approval. Proposed safety monitoring frameworks aim to manage potential adverse events, such as cytokine release syndrome, crucial for patient safety. Consolidating current research and clinical insights, this review seeks to refine CAR-MΦ therapeutic applications, overcome barriers, and suggest future research directions to transition CAR-MΦ therapies from experimental platforms to standard cancer care options.

Delivery of nucleic acid based genome editing platforms via lipid nanoparticles: Clinical applications

CRISPR/Cas technology presents a promising approach for treating a wide range of diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders. Despite its potential, the translation of CRISPR/Cas into effective in-vivo gene therapy encounters challenges, primarily due to the need for safe and efficient delivery mechanisms. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), FDA-approved for RNA delivery, show potential for delivering also CRISPR/Cas, offering the capability to efficiently encapsulate large mRNA molecules with single guide RNAs. However, achieving precise targeting in-vivo remains a significant obstacle, necessitating further research into optimizing LNP formulations. Strategies to enhance specificity, such as modifying LNP structures and incorporating targeting ligands, are explored to improve organ and cell type targeting. Furthermore, the development of base and prime editing technology presents a potential breakthrough, offering precise modifications without generating double-strand breaks (DSBs). Prime editing, particularly when delivered via targeted LNPs, holds promise for treating diverse diseases safely and precisely. This review assesses both the progress made and the persistent challenges faced in using LNP-encapsulated CRISPR-based technologies for therapeutic purposes, with a particular focus on clinical translation.

Exosome theranostics: Comparative analysis of P body and exosome proteins and their mutations for clinical applications

Exosomes are lipid-bilayered vesicles, originating from early endosomes that capture cellular proteins and genetic materials to form multi-vesicular bodies. These exosomes are secreted into extracellular fluids such as cerebrospinal fluid, blood, urine, and cell culture supernatants. They play a key role in intercellular communication by carrying active molecules like lipids, cytokines, growth factors, metabolites, proteins, and RNAs. Recently, the potential of exosomal delivery for therapeutic purposes has been explored due to their low immunogenicity, nano-scale size, and ability to cross cellular barriers. This review comprehensively examines the biogenesis of exosomes, their isolation techniques, and their diverse applications in theranostics. We delve into the mechanisms and methods for loading exosomes with mRNA, miRNA, proteins, and drugs, highlighting their transformative role in delivering therapeutic payloads. Additionally, the utility of exosomes in stem cell therapy is discussed, showcasing their potential in regenerative medicine. Insights into exosome cargo using pre- or post-loading techniques are critical for exosome theranostics. We review exosome databases such as ExoCarta, Expedia, and ExoBCD, which document exosome cargo. From these databases, we identified 25 proteins common to both exosomes and P-bodies, known for mutations in the COSMIC database. Exosome databases do not integrate with mutation analysis programs; hence, we performed mutation analysis using additional databases. Accounting for the mutation status of parental cells and exosomal cargo is crucial in exosome theranostics. This review provides a comprehensive report on exosome databases, proteins common to exosomes and P-bodies, and their mutation analysis, along with the latest studies on exosome-engineered theranostics.

Magnetic Nanoparticle-Assisted Non-Viral CRISPR-Cas9 for Enhanced Genome Editing to Treat Rett Syndrome

The CRISPR-Cas9 technology has the potential to revolutionize the treatment of various diseases, including Rett syndrome, by enabling the correction of genes or mutations in human patient cells. However, several challenges need to be addressed before its widespread clinical application. These challenges include the low delivery efficiencies to target cells, the actual efficiency of the genome-editing process, and the precision with which the CRISPR-Cas system operates. Herein, the study presents a Magnetic Nanoparticle-Assisted Genome Editing (MAGE) platform, which significantly improves the transfection efficiency, biocompatibility, and genome-editing accuracy of CRISPR-Cas9 technology. To demonstrate the feasibility of the developed technology, MAGE is applied to correct the mutated MeCP2 gene in induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural progenitor cells (iPSC-NPCs) from a Rett syndrome patient. By combining magnetofection and magnetic-activated cell sorting, MAGE achieves higher multi-plasmid delivery (99.3%) and repairing efficiencies (42.95%) with significantly shorter incubation times than conventional transfection agents without size limitations on plasmids. The repaired iPSC-NPCs showed similar characteristics as wild-type neurons when they differentiated into neurons, further validating MAGE and its potential for future clinical applications. In short, the developed nanobio-combined CRISPR-Cas9 technology offers the potential for various clinical applications, particularly in stem cell therapies targeting different genetic diseases.

The hope, hype and obstacles surrounding cell therapy

Cell therapy offers hope, but it also presents challenges, most particularly the limited ability of human organs and tissues to regenerate. Since many diseases are associated with irreversible pathophysiological or traumatic changes, stem cells and their derivatives are unable to secure healing. Although regenerative medicine offers chances for improvements in many diseases, such as type one diabetes and Parkinson's disease, it cannot eliminate the primary cause of many of them. While successes can be expected for diseases such as sickle cell disease, this is not the case for hereditary diseases with varied mutation types or for ciliopathies, which start in embryogenesis. In this complicated medical environment, synthetic biology offers some solutions, but their implementation will take many years. Still, positive examples such as CAR-T therapy offer hope.

CRISPR-Cas12/Cas13: Bibliometric analysis and systematic review of its application in infectious disease detection

BACKGROUND

Infectious diseases impose a significant burden on the global public health and economy, resulting in an estimated 15 million deaths out of 57 million annually worldwide. This study examines the current state of CRISPR-Cas12/Cas13 research, focusing on its applications in infectious disease detection and its evolutionary trajectory.

METHODS

A bibliometric analysis and systematic review were conducted by retrieving CRISPR-Cas12/Cas13-related articles published between January 1, 2015 to December 31, 2022, from the Web of Science database. The research protocol was registered with International Platform of Registered Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocols (INPLASY202380062).

RESULTS

Our search identified 1987 articles, of which, 1856 were included in the bibliometric analysis and 445 were used in qualitative analysis. The study reveals a substantial increase in scientific production on CRISPR-Cas12/Cas13, with an annual growth rate of 104.5%. The United States leads in the number of published articles. The systematic review identified 580 different diagnostic assays targeting 170 pathogens, with SARS-CoV-2 dominating with 158 assays. Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA)/reverse transcription-RPA (RT-RPA) emerged as the predominant amplification method, while lateral flow assay was the most common readout method. Approximately 72% of the diagnostic assays developed are suitable for point-of-care testing.

CONCLUSION

The rapid increase in research on CRISPR-Cas12/Cas13 between 2015 and 2022 suggests promising potential for advancements in infectious disease diagnosis. Given the numerous advantages of CRISPR-Cas technology for disease detection over other methods, and the dedicated efforts of scientists from around the world, it is reasonable to anticipate that CRISPR-Cas technology may emerge as a formidable alternative, offering the possibility of expedited point-of-care testing in the not-too-distant future.

CRISPR Manipulation of Age-Related Macular Degeneration Haplotypes in the Complement System: Potential Future Therapeutic Applications/Avenues

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of irreversible vision loss among the elderly in the developed world. Whilst AMD is a multifactorial disease, the involvement of the complement system in its pathology is well documented, with single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in different complement genes representing an increased risk factor. With several complement inhibitors explored in clinical trials showing limited success, patients with AMD are still without a reliable treatment option. This indicates that there is still a gap of knowledge in the functional implications and manipulation of the complement system in AMD, hindering the progress towards translational treatments. Since the discovery of the CRISPR/Cas system and its development into a powerful genome engineering tool, the field of molecular biology has been revolutionised. Genetic variants in the complement system have long been associated with an increased risk of AMD, and a variety of haplotypes have been identified to be predisposing/protective, with variation in complement genes believed to be the trigger for dysregulation of the cascade leading to inflammation. AMD-haplotypes (SNPs) alter specific aspects of the activation and regulation of the complement cascade, providing valuable insights into the pathogenic mechanisms of AMD with important diagnostic and therapeutic implications. The effect of targeting these AMD-related SNPs on the regulation of the complement cascade has been poorly explored, and the CRISPR/Cas system provides an ideal tool with which to explore this avenue. Current research concentrates on the association events of specific AMD-related SNPs in complement genes without looking into the effect of targeting these SNPs and therefore influencing the complement system in AMD pathogenesis. This review will explore the current understanding of manipulating the complement system in AMD pathogenesis utilising the genomic manipulation powers of the CRISPR/Cas systems. A number of AMD-related SNPs in different complement factor genes will be explored, with a particular emphasis on factor H (CFH), factor B (CFB), and complement C3 (C3).

The CRISPR Revolution: Unraveling the mysteries of Life's genetic code

A biotechnological revolution is triggered by CRISPR-Cas systems' variety, measured quality, and proficiency. Identifying nucleic acid biomarkers, one of the methods that use CRISPR for diagnosis, is an extremely sensitive diagnostic method.A broad range of infectious and noninfecting diseases, mutations, and CRISPR deletions associated with genetic disorders have been detected using diagnostics. Furthermore, this technology is used to test proteins and micromolecules. We focus on how Cas proteins can be used to detect diseases in genes, agriculture, and cancer therapy. Furthermore, CRISPR technology has many negative impacts on the health of living organisms, environmental and population structures in spite of its numerous contributions to biomedical science. Therefore, an investigation into the impact of genome editing on nontargeted species is important for these reasons. CRISPR in the future is briefly discussed towards the end of this review.

Recent Progress in Prompt Molecular Detection of Exosomes Using CRISPR/Cas and Microfluidic-Assisted Approaches Toward Smart Cancer Diagnosis and Analysis

Exosomes are essential indicators of molecular mechanisms involved in interacting with cancer cells and the tumor environment. As nanostructures based on lipids and nucleic acids, exosomes provide a communication pathway for information transfer by transporting biomolecules from the target cell to other cells. Importantly, these extracellular vesicles are released into the bloodstream by the most invasive cells, i. e., cancer cells; in this way, they could be considered a promising specific biomarker for cancer diagnosis. In this matter, CRISPR-Cas systems and microfluidic approaches could be considered practical tools for cancer diagnosis and understanding cancer biology. CRISPR-Cas systems, as a genome editing approach, provide a way to inactivate or even remove a target gene from the cell without affecting intracellular mechanisms. These practical systems provide vital information about the factors involved in cancer development that could lead to more effective cancer treatment. Meanwhile, microfluidic approaches can also significantly benefit cancer research due to their proper sensitivity, high throughput, low material consumption, low cost, and advanced spatial and temporal control. Thereby, employing CRISPR-Cas- and microfluidics-based approaches toward exosome monitoring could be considered a valuable source of information for cancer therapy and diagnosis. This review assesses the recent progress in these promising diagnosis approaches toward accurate cancer therapy and in-depth study of cancer cell behavior.

The Cutting-edge of CRISPR for Cancer Treatment and its Future Prospects

CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) is a versatile technology that allows precise modification of genes. One of its most promising applications is in cancer treatment. By targeting and editing specific genes involved in cancer development and progression, CRISPR has the potential to become a powerful tool in the fight against cancer. This review aims to assess the recent progress in CRISPR technology for cancer research and to examine the obstacles and potential strategies to address them. The two most commonly used CRISPR systems for gene editing are CRISPR/Cas9 and CRISPR/Cas12a. CRISPR/Cas9 employs different repairing systems, including homologous recombination (HR) and nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ), to introduce precise modifications to the target genes. However, off-target effects and low editing efficiency are some of the main challenges associated with this technology. To overcome these issues, researchers are exploring new delivery methods and developing CRISPR/Cas systems with improved specificity. Moreover, there are ethical concerns surrounding using CRISPR in gene editing, including the potential for unintended consequences and the creation of genetically modified organisms. It is important to address these issues through rigorous testing and strict regulations. Despite these challenges, the potential benefits of CRISPR in cancer therapy cannot be overlooked. By introducing precise modifications to cancer cells, CRISPR could offer a targeted and effective treatment option for patients with different types of cancer. Further investigation and development of CRISPR technology are necessary to overcome the existing challenges and harness its full potential in cancer therapy.

Molecular Marvels: Small Molecules Paving the Way for Enhanced Gene Therapy

In the rapidly evolving landscape of genetic engineering, the advent of CRISPR-Cas technologies has catalyzed a paradigm shift, empowering scientists to manipulate the genetic code with unprecedented accuracy and efficiency. Despite the remarkable capabilities inherent to CRISPR-Cas systems, recent advancements have witnessed the integration of small molecules to augment their functionality, introducing new dimensions to the precision and versatility of gene editing applications. This review delves into the synergy between CRISPR-Cas technologies based specifically on Cas9 and small-molecule drugs, elucidating the pivotal role of chemicals in optimizing target specificity and editing efficiency. By examining a diverse array of applications, ranging from therapeutic interventions to agricultural advancements, we explore how the judicious use of chemicals enhances the precision of CRISPR-Cas9-mediated genetic modifications. In this review, we emphasize the significance of small-molecule drugs in fine-tuning the CRISPR-Cas9 machinery, which allows researchers to exert meticulous control over the editing process. We delve into the mechanisms through which these chemicals bolster target specificity, mitigate off-target effects, and contribute to the overall refinement of gene editing outcomes. Additionally, we discuss the potential of chemical integration in expanding the scope of CRISPR-Cas9 technologies, enabling tailored solutions for diverse genetic manipulation challenges. As CRISPR-Cas9 technologies continue to evolve, the integration of small-molecule drugs emerges as a crucial avenue for advancing the precision and applicability of gene editing techniques. This review not only synthesizes current knowledge but also highlights future prospects, paving the way for a deeper understanding of the synergistic interplay between CRISPR-Cas9 systems and chemical modulators in the pursuit of more controlled and efficient genetic modifications.

CRISPR-Cas9 delivery strategies with engineered extracellular vesicles

Therapeutic genome editing has the potential to cure diseases by directly correcting genetic mutations in tissues and cells. Recent progress in the CRISPR-Cas9 systems has led to breakthroughs in gene editing tools because of its high orthogonality, versatility, and efficiency. However, its safe and effective administration to target organs in patients is a major hurdle. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are endogenous membranous particles secreted spontaneously by all cells. They are key actors in cell-to-cell communication, allowing the exchange of select molecules such as proteins, lipids, and RNAs to induce functional changes in the recipient cells. Recently, EVs have displayed their potential for trafficking the CRISPR-Cas9 system during or after their formation. In this review, we highlight recent developments in EV loading, surface functionalization, and strategies for increasing the efficiency of delivering CRISPR-Cas9 to tissues, organs, and cells for eventual use in gene therapies.

Antimicrobial resistance expansion in pathogens: a review of current mitigation strategies and advances towards innovative therapy

The escalating problem of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) proliferation in clinically important pathogens has become one of the biggest threats to human health and the global economy. Previous studies have estimated AMR-associated deaths and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) in many countries with a view to presenting a clearer picture of the global burden of AMR-related diseases. Recently, several novel strategies have been advanced to combat resistance spread. These include efflux activity inhibition, closing of mutant selection window (MSW), biofilm disruption, lytic bacteriophage particles, nanoantibiotics, engineered antimicrobial peptides, and the CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technique. The single or integrated deployment of these strategies has shown potentialities towards mitigating resistance and contributing to valuable therapeutic outcomes. Correspondingly, the new paradigm of personalized medicine demands innovative interventions such as improved and accurate point-of-care diagnosis and treatment to curtail AMR. The CRISPR-Cas system is a novel and highly promising nucleic acid detection and manipulating technology with the potential for application in the control of AMR. This review thus considers the specifics of some of the AMR-mitigating strategies, while noting their drawbacks, and discusses the advances in the CRISPR-based technology as an important point-of-care tool for tracking and curbing AMR in our fight against a looming 'post-antibiotic' era.

Advancement in precision diagnosis and therapeutic for triple-negative breast cancer: Harnessing diagnostic potential of CRISPR-cas & engineered CAR T-cells mediated therapeutics

Cancer is characterized by uncontrolled cell growth, disrupted regulatory pathways, and the accumulation of genetic mutations. These mutations across different types of cancer lead to disruptions in signaling pathways and alterations in protein expression related to cellular growth and proliferation. This review highlights the AKT signaling cascade and the retinoblastoma protein (pRb) regulating cascade as promising for novel nanotheranostic interventions. Through synergizing state-of-the-art gene editing tools like the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-Cas system with nanomaterials and targeting AKT, there is potential to enhance cancer diagnostics significantly. Furthermore, the integration of modified CAR-T cells into multifunctional nanodelivery systems offers a promising approach for targeted cancer inhibition, including the eradication of cancer stem cells (CSCs). Within the context of highly aggressive and metastatic Triple-negative Breast Cancer (TNBC), this review specifically focuses on devising innovative nanotheranostics. For both pre-clinical and post-clinical TNBC detection, the utilization of the CRISPR-Cas system, guided by RNA (gRNA) and coupled with a fluorescent reporter specifically designed to detect TNBC's mutated sequence, could be promising. Additionally, a cutting-edge approach involving the engineering of TNBC-specific iCAR and syn-Notch CAR T-cells, combined with the co-delivery of a hybrid polymeric nano-liposome encapsulating a conditionally replicative adenoviral vector (CRAdV) against CSCs, could present an intriguing intervention strategy. This review thus paves the way for exciting advancements in the field of nanotheranostics for the treatment of TNBC and beyond.

How genome editing changed the world of large animal research

The first genetically modified large animals were developed in 1985 by microinjection to increase the growth of agricultural livestock such as pigs. Since then, it has been a difficult trail due to the lack of genetic tools. Although methods and technologies were developed quickly for the main experimental mammal, the mouse, e.g., efficient pronuclear microinjection, gene targeting in embryonic stem cells, and omics data, most of it was-and in part still is-lacking when it comes to livestock. Over the next few decades, progress in genetic engineering of large animals was driven less by research for agriculture but more for biomedical applications, such as the production of pharmaceutical proteins in the milk of sheep, goats, or cows, xeno-organ transplantation, and modeling human diseases. Available technologies determined if a desired animal model could be realized, and efficiencies were generally low. Presented here is a short review of how genome editing tools, specifically CRISPR/Cas, have impacted the large animal field in recent years. Although there will be a focus on genome engineering of pigs for biomedical applications, the general principles and experimental approaches also apply to other livestock species or applications.

Comparative Analysis and Phylogenetic Insights of Cas14-Homology Proteins in Bacteria and Archaea

Type-V-F Cas12f proteins, also known as Cas14, have drawn significant interest within the diverse CRISPR-Cas nucleases due to their compact size. This study involves analyzing and comparing Cas14-homology proteins in prokaryotic genomes through mining, sequence comparisons, a phylogenetic analysis, and an array/repeat analysis. In our analysis, we identified and mined a total of 93 Cas14-homology proteins that ranged in size from 344 aa to 843 aa. The majority of the Cas14-homology proteins discovered in this analysis were found within the Firmicutes group, which contained 37 species, representing 42% of all the Cas14-homology proteins identified. In archaea, the DPANN group had the highest number of species containing Cas14-homology proteins, a total of three species. The phylogenetic analysis results demonstrate the division of Cas14-homology proteins into three clades: Cas14-A, Cas14-B, and Cas14-U. Extensive similarity was observed at the C-terminal end (CTD) through a domain comparison of the three clades, suggesting a potentially shared mechanism of action due to the presence of cutting domains in that region. Additionally, a sequence similarity analysis of all the identified Cas14 sequences indicated a low level of similarity (18%) between the protein variants. The analysis of repeats/arrays in the extended nucleotide sequences of the identified Cas14-homology proteins highlighted that 44 out of the total mined proteins possessed CRISPR-associated repeats, with 20 of them being specific to Cas14. Our study contributes to the increased understanding of Cas14 proteins across prokaryotic genomes. These homologous proteins have the potential for future applications in the mining and engineering of Cas14 proteins.

Design of hypoxia responsive CRISPR-Cas9 for target gene regulation

The CRISPR-Cas9 system is a widely used gene-editing tool, offering unprecedented opportunities for treating various diseases. Controlling Cas9/dCas9 activity at specific location and time to avoid undesirable effects is very important. Here, we report a conditionally active CRISPR-Cas9 system that regulates target gene expression upon sensing cellular environmental change. We conjugated the oxygen-sensing transcription activation domain (TAD) of hypoxia-inducing factor (HIF-1α) with the Cas9/dCas9 protein. The Cas9-TAD conjugate significantly increased endogenous target gene cleavage under hypoxic conditions compared with that under normoxic conditions, whereas the dCas9-TAD conjugate upregulated endogenous gene transcription. Furthermore, the conjugate system effectively downregulated the expression of SNAIL, an essential gene in cancer metastasis, and upregulated the expression of the tumour-related genes HNF4 and NEUROD1 under hypoxic conditions. Since hypoxia is closely associated with cancer, the hypoxia-dependent Cas9/dCas9 system is a novel addition to the molecular tool kit that functions in response to cellular signals and has potential application for gene therapeutics.

Boosting Plant Photosynthesis with Carbon Dots: A Critical Review of Performance and Prospects

Artificially augmented photosynthesis in nano-bionic plants requires tunable nano-antenna structures with physiochemical and optoelectronic properties, as well as unique light conversion capabilities. The use of nanomaterials to promote light capture across photosystems, primarily by carbon dots, has shown promising results in enhancing photosynthesis through tunable uptake, translocation, and biocompatibility. Carbon dots possess the ability to perform both down and up-light conversions, making them effective light promoters for harnessing solar energy beyond visible light wavelengths.This review presents and discusses the recent progress in fabrication, chemistry, and morphology, as well as other properties such as photoluminescence and energy conversion efficiency of nano-antennas based on carbon dots. The performance of artificially boosted photosynthesis is discussed and then correlated with the conversion properties of carbon dots and how they are applied to plant models. The challenges related to the nanomaterial delivery and the performance evaluation practices in modified photosystems, consideration of the reliability of this approach, and the potential avenues for performance improvements through other types of nano-antennas based on alternative nanomaterials are also critically evaluated. It is anticipated that this review will stimulate more high-quality research in plant nano-bionics and provide avenues to enhance photosynthesis for future agricultural applications.