Differential defense reactions in leaf tissues of barley in response to infection by Rhynchosporium secalis and to treatment with a fungal avirulence gene product

Unraveling Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Defense Against Downy Mildew (Peronospora variabilis): Comparative Molecular Analysis of Resistant "Hualhuas" and Susceptible "Real" Cultivars

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a new, promising non-conventional useful crop; however, its susceptibility to downy mildew, caused by Peronospora variabilis, is a key obstacle limiting its productivity in Egypt. Identifying and utilizing resistant quinoa cultivars appear to be reliable and cost-efficient strategies for controlling downy mildew, particularly in resource-limited farmers' fields. This study aimed to evaluate the differential resistance of the Peruvian "Hualhuas" and Bolivian "Real" quinoa cultivars to P. variabilis infection under laboratory conditions to provide precise insight into their basic defense mechanism(s). Inoculated "Hualhuas" plants displayed complete resistance against P. variabilis, with no visible symptoms (incompatible reaction), while those of "Real" plants revealed high susceptibility (compatible reaction), with typical downy mildew lesions on their leaf surfaces. Disease incidence reached about 66% in the inoculated "Real" plants, with most inoculated leaves having lesions of grades 4 and 5 covering up to 90% of their leaf surfaces. Susceptibility indices reached up to 66% in the inoculated "Real" plants. Resistance to P. variabilis observed in the "Hualhuas" plants may have been largely attributed to elevated endogenous H2O2 levels, increased peroxidase (POX) activity and abundance, enhanced phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) activity and expression, as well as the upregulation of the pathogen-related protein 10 gene (PR-10). The results of this study indicate that the quinoa cultivar "Hualhuas" not only is a promising candidate for sustainable control of quinoa downy mildew but also, through a deep understanding of its molecular resistance mechanisms, would provide a possible route to enhance downy mildew resistance in other genotypes.

Two transcription factors, RhERF005 and RhCCCH12, regulate rose resistance to Botrytis cinerea by modulating cytokinin levels

Gray mold caused by the necrotrophic fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea is one of the most destructive diseases in rose (Rosa spp.). Rose infection by B. cinerea leads to severe economic losses due to necrosis, tissue collapse, and rot. In rose, cytokinins (CKs) positively regulate a defense response to B. cinerea, but little is known about the underlying molecular mechanisms. Here, we characterized two ethylene/jasmonic acid-regulated transcription factors, RhEFR005 and RhCCCH12, that bind to the promoter region of PATHOGENESIS-RELATED 10.1 (RhPR10.1) and promote its transcription, leading to decreased susceptibility to B. cinerea. The RhEFR005/RhCCCH12-RhPR10.1 module regulated cytokinin content in rose, and the susceptibility of RhEFR005-, RhCCCH12-, and RhPR10.1-silenced rose petals can be rescued by exogenous CK. In summary, our results reveal that the RhERF005/RhCCCH12-RhPR10.1 module regulates the CK-induced defense response of rose to B. cinerea.

A novel rubber tree PR-10 protein involved in host-defense response against the white root rot fungus Rigidoporus microporus

BACKGROUND

White root rot disease in rubber trees, caused by the pathogenic fungi Rigidoporus microporus, is currently considered a major problem in rubber tree plantations worldwide. Only a few reports have mentioned the response of rubber trees occurring at the non-infection sites, which is crucial for the disease understanding and protecting the yield losses.

RESULTS

Through a comparative proteomic study using the two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2D-PAGE) technique, the present study reveals some distal-responsive proteins in rubber tree leaves during the plant-fungal pathogen interaction. From a total of 12 selected differentially expressed protein spots, several defense-related proteins such as molecular chaperones and ROS-detoxifying enzymes were identified. The expression of 6 candidate proteins was investigated at the transcript level by Reverse Transcription Quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). In silico, a highly-expressed uncharacterized protein LOC110648447 found in rubber trees was predicted to be a protein in the pathogenesis-related protein 10 (PR-10) class. In silico promoter analysis and structural-related characterization of this novel PR-10 protein suggest that it plays a potential role in defending rubber trees against R. microporus infection. The promoter contains WRKY-, MYB-, and other defense-related cis-acting elements. The structural model of the novel PR-10 protein predicted by I-TASSER showed a topology of the Bet v 1 protein family, including a conserved active site and a ligand-binding hydrophobic cavity.

CONCLUSIONS

A novel protein in the PR-10 group increased sharply in rubber tree leaves during interaction with the white root rot pathogen, potentially contributing to host defense. The results of this study provide information useful for white root rot disease management of rubber trees in the future.

Tissue-specific mRNA profiling of the Brassica napus-Sclerotinia sclerotiorum interaction uncovers novel regulators of plant immunity

White mold is caused by the fungal pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and leads to rapid and significant loss in plant yield. Among its many brassicaceous hosts, including Brassica napus (canola) and Arabidopsis, the response of individual tissue layers directly at the site of infection has yet to be explored. Using laser microdissection coupled with RNA sequencing, we profiled the epidermis, mesophyll, and vascular leaf tissue layers of B. napus in response to S. sclerotiorum. High-throughput tissue-specific mRNA sequencing increased the total number of detected transcripts compared with whole-leaf assessments and provided novel insight into the conserved and specific roles of ontogenetically distinct leaf tissue layers in response to infection. When subjected to pathogen infection, the epidermis, mesophyll, and vasculature activate both specific and shared gene sets. Putative defense genes identified through transcription factor network analysis were then screened for susceptibility against necrotrophic, hemi-biotrophic, and biotrophic pathogens. Arabidopsis deficient in PR5-like RECEPTOR KINASE (PR5K) mRNA levels were universally susceptible to all pathogens tested and were further characterized to identify putative interacting partners involved in the PR5K signaling pathway. Together, these data provide insight into the complexity of the plant defense response directly at the site of infection.

Pyramiding of scald resistance genes in four spring barley MAGIC populations

Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) of four Multi-parent Advanced Generation Inter-Cross (MAGIC) populations identified nine regions on chromosomes 1H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H and 7H associated with resistance against barley scald disease. Three of these regions are putatively novel resistance Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL). Barley scald is caused by Rhynchosporium commune, one of the most important barley leaf diseases that are prevalent in most barley-growing regions. Up to 40% yield losses can occur in susceptible barley cultivars. Four MAGIC populations were generated in a Nordic Public-Private Pre-breeding of spring barley project (PPP Barley) to introduce resistance to several important diseases. Here, these MAGIC populations consisting of six to eight founders each were tested for scald resistance in field trials in Finland and Iceland. Eight different model covariate combinations were compared for GWAS studies, and the models that deviated the least from the expected p-values were selected. For all QTL, candidate genes were identified that are predicted to be involved in pathogen defence. The MAGIC progenies contained new haplotypes of significant SNP-markers with high resistance levels. The lines with successfully pyramided resistance against scald and mildew and the significant markers are now distributed among Nordic plant breeders and will benefit development of disease-resistant cultivars.

Identification of QTLs conferring resistance to scald (Rhynchosporium commune) in the barley nested association mapping population HEB-25

BACKGROUND

Barley scald, caused by the fungus Rhynchosporium commune, is distributed worldwide to all barley growing areas especially in cool and humid climates. Scald is an economically important leaf disease resulting in yield losses of up to 40%. To breed resistant cultivars the identification of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) conferring resistance to scald is necessary. Introgressing promising resistance alleles of wild barley is a way to broaden the genetic basis of scald resistance in cultivated barley. Here, we apply nested association mapping (NAM) to map resistance QTLs in the barley NAM population HEB-25, comprising 1420 lines in BC1S3 generation, derived from crosses of 25 wild barley accessions with cv. Barke.

RESULTS

In scald infection trials in the greenhouse variability of resistance across and within HEB-25 families was found. NAM based on 33,005 informative SNPs resulted in the identification of eight reliable QTLs for resistance against scald with most wild alleles increasing resistance as compared to cv. Barke. Three of them are located in the region of known resistance genes and two in the regions of QTLs, respectively. The most promising wild allele was found at Rrs17 in one specific wild donor. Also, novel QTLs with beneficial wild allele effects on scald resistance were detected.

CONCLUSIONS

To sum up, wild barley represents a rich resource for scald resistance. As the QTLs were linked to the physical map the identified candidate genes will facilitate cloning of the scald resistance genes. The closely linked flanking molecular markers can be used for marker-assisted selection of the respective resistance genes to integrate them in elite cultivars.

Recent insights into barley and Rhynchosporium commune interactions

Rhynchosporium commune is the causal pathogen of scald in barley (Hordeum vulgare), a foliar disease that can reduce yield by up to 40% in susceptible cultivars. R. commune is found worldwide in all temperate growing regions and is regarded as one of the most economically important barley pathogens. It is a polycyclic pathogen with the ability to rapidly evolve new virulent strains in response to resistance genes deployed in commercial cultivars. Hence, introgression and pyramiding of different loci for resistance (qualitative or quantitative) through marker-assisted selection is an effective way to improve scald resistance in barley. This review summarizes all 148 resistance quantitative trait loci reported at the date of submission of this review and projects them onto the barley physical map, where it is clear many loci co-locate on chromosomes 3H and 7H. We have summarized the major named resistance loci and reiterated the renaming of Rrs15 (CI8288) to Rrs17. This review provides a comprehensive resource for future discovery and breeding efforts of qualitative and quantitative scald resistance loci.

Contrasting nutrient-disease relationships: Potassium gradients in barley leaves have opposite effects on two fungal pathogens with different sensitivities to jasmonic acid

Understanding the interactions between mineral nutrition and disease is essential for crop management. Our previous studies with Arabidopsis thaliana demonstrated that potassium (K) deprivation induced the biosynthesis of jasmonic acid (JA) and increased the plant's resistance to herbivorous insects. Here, we addressed the question of how tissue K affects the development of fungal pathogens and whether sensitivity of the pathogens to JA could play a role for the K-disease relationship in barley (Hordeum vulgare cv. Optic). We report that K-deprived barley plants showed increased leaf concentrations of JA and other oxylipins. Furthermore, a natural tip-to-base K-concentration gradient within leaves of K-sufficient plants was quantitatively mirrored by the transcript levels of JA-responsive genes. The local leaf tissue K concentrations affected the development of two economically important fungi in opposite ways, showing a positive correlation with powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis) and a negative correlation with leaf scald (Rhynchosporium commune) disease symptoms. B. graminis induced a JA response in the plant and was sensitive to methyl-JA treatment whereas R. commune initiated no JA response and was JA insensitive. Our study challenges the view that high K generally improves plant health and suggests that JA sensitivity of pathogens could be an important factor in determining the exact K-disease relationship.

Comparative genomics to explore phylogenetic relationship, cryptic sexual potential and host specificity of Rhynchosporium species on grasses

BACKGROUND

The Rhynchosporium species complex consists of hemibiotrophic fungal pathogens specialized to different sweet grass species including the cereal crops barley and rye. A sexual stage has not been described, but several lines of evidence suggest the occurrence of sexual reproduction. Therefore, a comparative genomics approach was carried out to disclose the evolutionary relationship of the species and to identify genes demonstrating the potential for a sexual cycle. Furthermore, due to the evolutionary very young age of the five species currently known, this genus appears to be well-suited to address the question at the molecular level of how pathogenic fungi adapt to their hosts.

RESULTS

The genomes of the different Rhynchosporium species were sequenced, assembled and annotated using ab initio gene predictors trained on several fungal genomes as well as on Rhynchosporium expressed sequence tags. Structures of the rDNA regions and genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphisms provided a hypothesis for intra-genus evolution. Homology screening detected core meiotic genes along with most genes crucial for sexual recombination in ascomycete fungi. In addition, a large number of cell wall-degrading enzymes that is characteristic for hemibiotrophic and necrotrophic fungi infecting monocotyledonous hosts were found. Furthermore, the Rhynchosporium genomes carry a repertoire of genes coding for polyketide synthases and non-ribosomal peptide synthetases. Several of these genes are missing from the genome of the closest sequenced relative, the poplar pathogen Marssonina brunnea, and are possibly involved in adaptation to the grass hosts. Most importantly, six species-specific genes coding for protein effectors were identified in R. commune. Their deletion yielded mutants that grew more vigorously in planta than the wild type.

CONCLUSION

Both cryptic sexuality and secondary metabolites may have contributed to host adaptation. Most importantly, however, the growth-retarding activity of the species-specific effectors suggests that host adaptation of R. commune aims at extending the biotrophic stage at the expense of the necrotrophic stage of pathogenesis. Like other apoplastic fungi Rhynchosporium colonizes the intercellular matrix of host leaves relatively slowly without causing symptoms, reminiscent of the development of endophytic fungi. Rhynchosporium may therefore become an object for studying the mutualism-parasitism transition.

Transcriptome Analysis of the Barley-Rhynchosporium secalis Interaction

Leaf scald caused by the infection of Rhynchosporium secalis, is a worldwide crop disease resulting in significant loss of barley yield. In this study, a systematic sequencing of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) was chosen to obtain a global picture of the assembly of genes involved in pathogenesis. To identify a large number of plant ESTs, which are induced at different time points, an amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) display of complementary DNA (cDNA) was utilized. Transcriptional changes of 140 ESTs were observed, of which 19 have no previously described function. Functional annotation of the transcripts revealed a variety of infection-induced host genes encoding classical pathogenesis-related (PR) or genes that play a role in the signal transduction pathway. The expression analyses by a semi-quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) revealed that Rar1 and Rpg4 are defense inducible genes, and were consistent with the cDNA-AFLP data in their expression patterns. Hence, the here presented transcriptomic approach provides novel global catalogue of genes not currently represented in the EST databases.

Effector-triggered defence against apoplastic fungal pathogens

R gene-mediated host resistance against apoplastic fungal pathogens is not adequately explained by the terms pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered immunity (PTI) or effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Therefore, it is proposed that this type of resistance is termed 'effector-triggered defence' (ETD). Unlike PTI and ETI, ETD is mediated by R genes encoding cell surface-localised receptor-like proteins (RLPs) that engage the receptor-like kinase SOBIR1. In contrast to this extracellular recognition, ETI is initiated by intracellular detection of pathogen effectors. ETI is usually associated with fast, hypersensitive host cell death, whereas ETD often triggers host cell death only after an elapsed period of endophytic pathogen growth. In this opinion, we focus on ETD responses against foliar fungal pathogens of crops.

Pathogenesis related-10 proteins are small, structurally similar but with diverse role in stress signaling

Pathogenesis related-10 proteins are small proteins with cytosolic localization, conserved three dimensional structures and single intron at 185 bp position. These proteins have a broad spectrum of roles significantly in biotic and abiotic stresses. The RNase activity, ligand binding activity, posttranslational modification (phosphorylation) and phytohormone signaling provide some information into the mechanism of the regulation of PR-10 proteins, however the presence of isoforms makes it difficult to decipher its exact mode of function. The involvement of phosphorylation/dephosphorylation events in its activation is interesting and provides unique and unbiased insights into the complexity of its regulation. Studies on upstream region of different PR-10 genes indicate the presence of cis-acting elements for WRKY, RAVI, bZ1P, ERF, SEBF and Pti4 transcription factors indicating their role in regulating PR-10 promoter. In this review, we discuss in detail the structure and mechanism of regulation of PR-10 proteins.

Breeding aflatoxin-resistant maize lines using recent advances in technologies - a review

Aflatoxin contamination caused by Aspergillus flavus infection of corn is a significant and chronic threat to corn being used as food or feed. Contamination of crops at levels of 20 ng g(-1) or higher (as regulated by the USFDA) by this toxin and potent carcinogen makes the crop unsalable, resulting in a significant economic burden on the producer. This review focuses on elimination of this contamination in corn which is a major US crop and the basis of many products. Corn is also "nature's example" of a crop containing heritable resistance to aflatoxin contamination, thereby serving as a model for achieving resistance to aflatoxin contamination in other crops as well. This crop is the largest production grain crop worldwide, providing food for billions of people and livestock and critical feedstock for production of biofuels. In 2011, the economic value of the US corn crop was US$76 billion, with US growers producing an estimated 12 billion bushels, more than one-third of the world's supply. Thus, the economics and significance of corn as a food crop and the threat to food safety due to aflatoxin contamination of this major food crop have prompted the many research efforts in many parts of the world to identify resistance in corn to aflatoxin contamination. Plant breeding and varietal selection has been used as a tool to develop varieties resistance to disease. This methodology has been employed in defining a few corn lines that show resistance to A. flavus invasion; however, no commercial lines have been marketed. With the new tools of proteomics and genomics, identification of resistance mechanisms, and rapid resistance marker selection methodologies, there is an increasing possibility of finding significant resistance in corn, and in understanding the mechanism of this resistance.

Rhynchosporium commune: a persistent threat to barley cultivation

Rhynchosporium commune is a haploid fungus causing scald or leaf blotch on barley, other Hordeum spp. and Bromus diandrus.

TAXONOMY

Rhynchosporium commune is an anamorphic Ascomycete closely related to the teleomorph Helotiales genera Oculimacula and Pyrenopeziza.

DISEASE SYMPTOMS

Rhynchosporium commune causes scald-like lesions on leaves, leaf sheaths and ears. Early symptoms are generally pale grey oval lesions. With time, the lesions acquire a dark brown margin with the centre of the lesion remaining pale green or pale brown. Lesions often merge to form large areas around which leaf yellowing is common. Infection frequently occurs in the leaf axil, which can lead to chlorosis and eventual death of the leaf.

LIFE CYCLE

Rhynchosporium commune is seed borne, but the importance of this phase of the disease is not fully understood. Debris from previous crops and volunteers, infected from the stubble from previous crops, are considered to be the most important sources of the disease. Autumn-sown crops can become infected very soon after sowing. Secondary spread of disease occurs mainly through splash dispersal of conidia from infected leaves. Rainfall at the stem extension growth stage is the major environmental factor in epidemic development. DETECTION AND QUANTIFICATION: Rhynchosporium commune produces unique beak-shaped, one-septate spores both on leaves and in culture. The development of a specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and, more recently, quantitative PCR (qPCR) has allowed the identification of asymptomatic infection in seeds and during the growing season.

DISEASE CONTROL

The main measure for the control of R. commune is the use of fungicides with different modes of action, in combination with the use of resistant cultivars. However, this is constantly under review because of the ability of the pathogen to adapt to host plant resistance and to develop fungicide resistance.

Characterization of resistance to pine wood nematode infection in Pinus thunbergii using suppression subtractive hybridization

BACKGROUND

Pine wilt disease is caused by the pine wood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, which threatens pine forests and forest ecosystems worldwide and causes serious economic losses. In the 40 years since the pathogen was identified, the physiological changes occurring as the disease progresses have been characterized using anatomical and biochemical methods, and resistant trees have been selected via breeding programs. However, no studies have assessed the molecular genetics, e.g. transcriptional changes, associated with infection-induced physiological changes in resistant or susceptible trees.

RESULTS

We constructed seven subtractive suppression hybridization (SSH) cDNA libraries using time-course sampling of trees inoculated with pine wood nematode at 1, 3, or 7 days post-inoculation (dpi) in susceptible trees and at 1, 3, 7, or 14 dpi in resistant trees. A total of 3,299 sequences was obtained from these cDNA libraries, including from 138 to 315 non-redundant sequences in susceptible SSH libraries and from 351 to 435 in resistant SSH libraries. Using Gene Ontology hierarchy, those non-redundant sequences were classified into 15 subcategories of the biological process Gene Ontology category and 17 subcategories of the molecular function category. The transcriptional components revealed by the Gene Ontology classification clearly differed between resistant and susceptible libraries. Some transcripts were discriminative: expression of antimicrobial peptide and putative pathogenesis-related genes (e.g., PR-1b, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) was much higher in susceptible trees than in resistant trees at every time point, whereas expression of PR-9, PR-10, and cell wall-related genes (e.g., for hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein precursor and extensin) was higher in resistant trees than in susceptible trees at 7 and 14 dpi.

CONCLUSIONS

Following inoculation with pine wood nematode, there were marked differences between resistant and susceptible trees in transcript diversity and the timing and level of transcripts expressed in common; in particular, expression of stress response and defense genes differed. This study provided new insight into the differences in the physiological changes between resistant and susceptible trees that have been observed in anatomical and biochemical studies.

Defense gene expression is potentiated in transgenic barley expressing antifungal peptide Metchnikowin throughout powdery mildew challenge

Transgenesis of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) from different origins has emerged as an option for improvement of crop disease resistance since proof-of-concept for their activities against microbial phytopathogens is provided, persistently. Nevertheless, a more systematic approach based on knowledge of AMPs modes of action including elucidation of their cellular targets and possible impact on immune system considerably improves and diversifies the armory against harmful plant diseases. In present study, the impact of Metchnikowin (Mtk) expression in barley in terms of modulating different immune pathways was investigated. Monitoring of transcript abundance of different genes involved in key immune pathways of SAR, ISR, and redox milieu during interaction of Mtk barley with biotrophic Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei (Bgh) demonstrated that several immune responses are modulated in Mtk transgenic plants. Present findings substantiate the higher activation of SAR pathway as well as ISR pathway in transgenic plants. Regarding susceptibility factors, nonetheless MLO gene is expressed more in Mtk plants and should lead to an increased cellular accessibility to Bgh, its impact is presumably overwhelmed by other mechanism(s) so that the plants show more resistance when challenging with Bgh. On the other hand, no obvious difference was observed between expression level of Bax inhibitor-1 (BI-1) in transgenic and wild type plants, which could be an indicative of its neutrality in resistance/susceptibility of transgenic plants to Bgh. The provided evidence on the involved pathways in Mtk-induced resistance improves our knowledge concerning impacts of AMPs expressed in diverse plant species on immune system of relevant transgenic plants.

Effects of a novel pathogenesis-related class 10 (PR-10) protein from Crotalaria pallida Roots with papain inhibitory activity against root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita

A novel pathogenesis-related class 10 (PR-10) protein with papain inhibitory activity, named CpPRI, was purified from Crotalaria pallida roots by ammonium sulfate precipitation followed by three reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatographies (HPLCs). CpPRI is made up of a single polypeptide chain with a M(r) of 15 kDa, as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). This protein exhibited a K(i) value of 1.8 x 10(-9) M and operates via a noncompetitive inhibition mechanism. The alignment of the N-terminal amino acid sequence of CpPRI with other proteins revealed its identity with PR-10 proteins. CpPRI acts against digestive proteinase from root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita and demonstrated nematostatic and nematicide effects on this parasite in bioassays. In a localization study, fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate (FITC)-CpPRI was observed to internalize and diffuse over the entire J2 body after 6 h of incubation. This fact could explain the natural tolerance of this plant species to nematodes.

Discovery and characterization of proteins associated with aflatoxin-resistance: evaluating their potential as breeding markers

Host resistance has become a viable approach to eliminating aflatoxin contamination of maize since the discovery of several maize lines with natural resistance. However, to derive commercial benefit from this resistance and develop lines that can aid growers, markers need to be identified to facilitate the transfer of resistance into commercially useful genetic backgrounds without transfer of unwanted traits. To accomplish this, research efforts have focused on the identification of kernel resistance-associated proteins (RAPs) including the employment of comparative proteomics to investigate closely-related maize lines that vary in aflatoxin accumulation. RAPs have been identified and several further characterized through physiological and biochemical investigations to determine their causal role in resistance and, therefore, their suitability as breeding markers. Three RAPs, a 14 kDa trypsin inhibitor, pathogenesis-related protein 10 and glyoxalase I are being investigated using RNAi gene silencing and plant transformation. Several resistant lines have been subjected to QTL mapping to identify loci associated with the aflatoxin-resistance phenotype. Results of proteome and characterization studies are discussed.

Promoters of the barley germin-like GER4 gene cluster enable strong transgene expression in response to pathogen attack

Immunity of plants triggered by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) is based on the execution of an evolutionarily conserved defense response that includes the accumulation of pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins as well as multiple other defenses. The most abundant PR transcript of barley (Hordeum vulgare) leaf epidermis attacked by the powdery mildew fungus Blumeria graminis f. sp hordei encodes the germin-like protein GER4, which has superoxide dismutase activity and functions in PAMP-triggered immunity. Here, we show that barley GER4 is encoded by a dense cluster of tandemly duplicated genes (GER4a-h) that underwent several cycles of duplication. The genomic organization of the GER4 locus also provides evidence for repeated gene birth and death cycles. The GER4 promoters contain multiple WRKY factor binding sites (W-boxes) preferentially located in promoter fragments that were exchanged between subfamily members by gene conversion. Mutational analysis of TATA-box proximal W-boxes used GER4c promoter-beta-glucuronidase fusions to reveal their enhancing effects and functional redundancy on pathogen-induced promoter activity. The data suggest enhanced transcript dosage as an evolutionary driving force for the local expansion and functional redundancy of the GER4 locus. In addition, the GER4c promoter provides a tool to study signal transduction of PAMP-triggered immunity and to engineer strictly localized and pathogen-regulated disease resistance in transgenic cereal crops.

PR10 expression in maize and its effect on host resistance against Aspergillus flavus infection and aflatoxin production

Maize (Zea mays L.) is a major crop susceptible to Aspergillus flavus infection and subsequent contamination with aflatoxins, the potent carcinogenic secondary metabolites of the fungus. Protein profiles of maize genotypes resistant and susceptible to A. flavus infection and/or aflatoxin contamination have been compared, and several resistance-associated proteins have been found, including a pathogenesis-related protein 10 (PR10). In this study, RNA interference (RNAi) gene silencing technology was employed to further investigate the importance of PR10. An RNAi gene silencing vector was constructed and introduced into immature Hi II maize embryos through both bombardment and Agrobacterium infection procedures. PR10 expression was reduced by 65% to more than 99% in transgenic callus lines from bombardment. The RNAi-silenced callus lines also showed increased sensitivity to heat stress treatment. A similar reduction in PR10 transcript levels was observed in seedling leaf and root tissues developed from transgenic kernels. When inoculated with A. flavus, RNAi-silenced mature kernels produced from Agrobacterium-mediated transformation showed a significant increase in fungal colonization and aflatoxin production in 10 and six, respectively, of 11 RNAi lines compared with the non-silenced control. Further proteomic analysis of RNAi-silenced kernels revealed a significant reduction in PR10 production in eight of 11 RNAi lines that showed positive for transformation. A significant negative correlation between PR10 expression at either transcript or protein level and kernel aflatoxin production was observed. The results indicate a major role for PR10 expression in maize aflatoxin resistance.

Identifying Aflatoxin Resistance-related Proteins/Genes through Proteomics and RNAi Gene Silencing1

Aflatoxins are carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced mainly by Aspergillus flavus Link ex. Fries, and A. prarasiticus Speare during infection of susceptible crops, such as maize, cottonseed, peanuts and tree nuts. This paper will review research efforts in identifying aflatoxin resistance-related proteins/genes in maize. Similar strategies may be useful in peanut. For maize, although genotypes resistant to A. flavus infection or aflatoxin production have been identified, the incorporation of resistance into commercial lines has been slow due to the lack of selectable markers and poor understanding of host resistance mechanisms. Recently, resistance-associated proteins (RAPs) were identified through proteomic comparison of constitutive protein profiles between resistant and susceptible maize genotypes. These proteins belong to three major groups based on their peptide sequence homologies: storage proteins, stress-related proteins, and antifungal proteins. Preliminary characterization of some of these RAPs suggest that they play a direct role in host resistance, such as pathogenesis-related protein 10 (PR10), or an indirect role, such as glyoxalase I (GLX I), through enhancing the host stress tolerance. To verify whether these RAPs play a role in host resistance, RNA interference (RNAi) gene silencing technique was used to silence the expression of these genes in maize. RNAi vectors (glx I RNAi and pr10 RNAi) were constructed using Gateway technology, and then transformed into immature maize embryos using both bombardment and Agrobacterium infection. The extent of gene silencing in transgenic callus tissues ranged from 20% to over 99%. The RNAi silenced transgenic maize seeds have also been obtained from plants regenerated from Agrobacterium transformed callus lines. Kernel screen assay of the transgenic maize kernels demonstrated a significant increase in susceptibility to A. flavus colonization and aflatoxin production in some of the silenced transgenic lines compared with non-silenced control kernels, suggesting the direct involvement of these two proteins in aflatoxin resistance in maize.

Expression profiling and mapping of defence response genes associated with the barley-Pyrenophora teres incompatible interaction

Barley net- and spot-form of net blotch disease are caused by two formae of the hemibiotrophic fungus Pyrenophora teres (P. t. f. teres and P. t. f. maculata). In the present study, suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) was used in combination with quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR to identify and profile the expression of defence response (DR) genes in the early stages of both barley-P. teres incompatible and compatible interactions. From a pool of 307 unique gene transcripts identified by SSH, 45 candidate DR genes were selected for temporal expression profiling in infected leaf epidermis. Differential expression profiles were observed for 28 of the selected candidates, which were grouped into clusters depending on their expression profiles within the first 48 h after inoculation. The expression profiles characteristic of each gene cluster were very similar in both barley-P. t. f. teres and barley-P. t. f. maculata interactions, indicating that resistance to both pathogens could be mediated by induction of the same group of DR genes. Chromosomal map locations for 21 DR genes were identified using four doubled-haploid mapping populations. The mapped DR genes were distributed across all seven barley chromosomes, with at least one gene mapping to within 15 cM of another on chromosomes 1H, 2H, 5H and 7H. Additionally, some DR genes appeared to co-localize with loci harbouring known resistance genes or quantitative trait loci for net blotch resistance on chromosomes 6H and 7H, as well as loci associated with resistance to other barley diseases. The DR genes are discussed with respect to their map locations and potential functional role in contributing to net blotch disease resistance.

The rice pathogen-related protein 10 (JIOsPR10) is induced by abiotic and biotic stresses and exhibits ribonuclease activity

We previously reported that rice blast fungus or jasmonic acid induced the expression of rice pathogenesis-related class 10 (JIOsPR10) proteins (Kim et al. 2003, 2004). However, no further studies have been carried out to examine the expression, localization, and enzymatic activity of this protein in either developmental tissues or in tissues under abiotic stress conditions. In this study, rice JIOsPR10 was examined by Western blot analysis, immunolocalization, and biochemical assays. Western blots revealed that the JIOsPR10 protein was expressed in developmental tissues, including in flower and root. The protein was also expressed under abiotic stresses, such as occurs during senescence and wounding. Using immunohistochemical techniques, we determined that expression of JIOsPR10 was localized to the palea of flower, in the exodermis, and inner part of the endodermis of the root. In senescencing tissues of leaf and coleoptiles, its expression was localized in vascular bundles. The RNase activity using JIOsPR10 recombinant protein was determined and abolished after treatment with DTT in a native in-gel assay. To test this, we created JIOsPR10 mutant proteins containing serine substitutions of amino acids C81S, C83S, or both and examined their RNase activities. The activity of the C83S mutant was decreased in the agarose gel assay compared to the wild type. Taken together, we hypothesize that the JIOsPR10 protein possesses RNase activity that is sensitive to DTT, suggesting the importance of the disulfide bonding between cysteine residues and that it might play a role in constitutive self-defense mechanisms in plants against biotic and abiotic stresses.

Parallel expression profiling of barley-stem rust interactions

The dominant barley stem rust resistance gene Rpg1 confers resistance to many but not all pathotypes of the stem rust fungus Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici (Pgt). Transformation of Rpg1 into susceptible cultivar Golden Promise rendered the transgenic plants resistant to Pgt pathotype MCC but not to Pgt pathotype QCC. Our objective was to identify genes that are induced/repressed during the early stages of pathogen infection to elucidate the molecular mechanisms and role of Rpg1 in defense. A messenger ribonucleic acid expression analysis using the 22K Barley1 GeneChip was conducted in all pair-wise combinations of two isolines (cv. Golden Promise and Rpg1 transgenic line G02-448F-3R) and two Pgt pathotypes (MCC and QCC) across six time points. Analysis showed that a total of 34 probe sets exhibited expression pattern differences between Golden Promise (susceptible) and G02-448F-3R (resistant) infected with Pgt-MCC. A total of 14 probe sets exhibited expression pattern differences between Pgt-MCC (avirulent) and Pgt-QCC (virulent) inoculated onto G02-448F-3R. These differentially expressed genes were activated during the early infection process, before the hypersensitive response or fungal growth inhibition occurred. Our analysis provides a list of candidate signaling components, which can be analyzed for function in Rpg1-mediated disease resistance.

Oxalate-degrading bacteria can protect Arabidopsis thaliana and crop plants against botrytis cinerea

Botrytis cinerea and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum secrete oxalic acid as a pathogenicity factor with a broad action. Consequently, it should be possible to interfere with the infection process by degrading oxalic acid during the interaction of these pathogens with their hosts. We have evaluated the potential of oxalate-degrading bacteria to protect plants against pathogenic fungi. Such bacteria were isolated from agricultural soil and selected on agar plates with Ca-oxalate as the sole carbon source. Four strains were retained with a medium-to-strong protective activity on Arabidopsis thaliana leaves against B. cinerea and S. sclerotiorum. They can provide 30 to 70% protection against fungal infection in different pathosystems, including B. cinerea on A. thaliana, cucumber, grapevine, and tomato. The oxalate-degrading bacteria induced only some marker genes for common plant signaling pathways for defenses, but protective effects were slightly reduced in A. thaliana mutants impaired in the ethylene and jasmonic acid signaling pathways. More detailed studies on the protective mechanism were performed in ox-strain B, identified as Cupriavidus campinensis, by analysis of transposon-tagged mutants that have a reduced ability to degrade oxalic acid.

Identification of a Maize Kernel Pathogenesis-Related Protein and Evidence for Its Involvement in Resistance to Aspergillus flavus Infection and Aflatoxin Production

ABSTRACT Aflatoxins are carcinogens produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus during infection of susceptible crops such as maize. Several aflatoxin-resistant maize genotypes have been identified and kernel proteins have been suggested to play an important role in resistance. In the present study, one protein (#717), which was expressed fivefold higher in three resistant lines compared with three susceptible ones, was identified using proteomics. This protein was sequenced and identified as a pathogenesis-related protein (PR-10) based on its sequence homology. To assess the involvement of this PR-10 protein (ZmPR-10) in host resistance of maize against fungal infection and aflatoxin production, the corresponding cDNA (pr-10) was cloned. It encodes a protein of 160 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass of 16.9 kDa and an iso-electric point of 5.38. The expression of pr-10 during kernel development increased fivefold between 7 and 22 days after pollination, and was induced upon A. flavus infection in the resistant but not in the susceptible genotype. The ZmPR-10 overexpressed in Escherichia coli exhibited a ribonucleolytic and antifungal activities. Leaf extracts of transgenic tobacco plants expressing maize pr-10 also demonstrated RNase activity and inhibited the growth of A. flavus. This evidence suggests that ZmPR-10 plays a role in kernel resistance by inhibiting fungal growth of A. flavus.

Profiling of wheat class III peroxidase genes derived from powdery mildew-attacked epidermis reveals distinct sequence-associated expression patterns

A cDNA library was constructed from leaf epidermis of diploid wheat (Triticum monococcum) infected with the powdery mildew fungus (Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici) and was screened for genes encoding peroxidases. From 2,500 expressed sequence tags (ESTs), 36 cDNAs representing 10 peroxidase genes (designated TmPRX1 to TmPRX10) were isolated and further characterized. Alignment of the deduced amino acid sequences and phylogenetic clustering with peroxidases from other plant species demonstrated that these peroxidases fall into four distinct groups. Differential expression and tissue-specific localization among the members were observed during the B. graminis f. sp. tritici attack using Northern blots and reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction analyses. Consistent with its abundance in the EST collection, TmPRX1 expression showed the highest induction during pathogen attack and fluctuated in response to the fungal parasitic stages. TmPRX1 to TmPRX6 were expressed predominantly in mesophyll cells, whereas TmPRX7 to TmPRX10, which feature a putative C-terminal propeptide, were detectable mainly in epidermal cells. Using TmPRX8 as a representative, we demonstrated that its C-terminal propeptide was sufficient to target a green fluorescent protein fusion protein to the vacuoles in onion cells. Finally, differential expression profiles of the TmPRXs after abiotic stresses and signal molecule treatments were used to dissect the potential role of these peroxidases in multiple stress and defense pathways.

The genome sequence of the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe grisea

Magnaporthe grisea is the most destructive pathogen of rice worldwide and the principal model organism for elucidating the molecular basis of fungal disease of plants. Here, we report the draft sequence of the M. grisea genome. Analysis of the gene set provides an insight into the adaptations required by a fungus to cause disease. The genome encodes a large and diverse set of secreted proteins, including those defined by unusual carbohydrate-binding domains. This fungus also possesses an expanded family of G-protein-coupled receptors, several new virulence-associated genes and large suites of enzymes involved in secondary metabolism. Consistent with a role in fungal pathogenesis, the expression of several of these genes is upregulated during the early stages of infection-related development. The M. grisea genome has been subject to invasion and proliferation of active transposable elements, reflecting the clonal nature of this fungus imposed by widespread rice cultivation.

Proteomic analysis of pathogen-responsive proteins from rice leaves induced by rice blast fungus,Magnaporthe grisea

Proteomic approaches using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) were adopted to identify proteins from rice leaf that are differentially expressed in response to the rice blast fungus, Magnaporthe grisea. Microscopic observation of inoculated leaf with M. grisea revealed that callose deposition and hypersensitive response was clearly visible in incompatible interactions but excessive invading hypha with branches were evident in compatible interactions. Proteins were extracted from leaves 24, 48, and 72 hours after rice blast fungus inoculation. Eight proteins resolved on the 2-DE gels were induced or increased in the inoculated leaf. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight analysis of these differentially displayed proteins showed them to be two receptor-like protein kinases (RLK), two beta-1.3-glucanases (Glu1, Glu2), thaumatin-like protein (TLP), peroxidase (POX 22.3), probenazole-inducible protein (PBZ1), and rice pathogenesis-related 10 (OsPR-10). Of these proteins, RLK, TLP, PBZ, and OsPR-10 proteins were induced more in the incompatible interactions than in compatible ones. A phytohormone, jasmonic acid also induced all eight proteins in leaves. To confirm whether the expression profile is equal to the 2-DE data, seven cDNA clones were used as probes in Northern hybridization experiments using total RNA from leaf tissues inoculated with incompatible and compatible rice blast fungal races. The genes encoding POX22.3, Glu1, Glu2, TLP, OsRLK, PBZ1, and OsPR-10 were activated in inoculated leaves, with TLP, OsRLK, PBZ1, and OsPR-10 being expressed earlier and more in incompatible than in compatible interactions. These results suggest that early and high induction of these genes may provide host plants with leading edges to defend themselves. The localization of two rice PR-10 proteins, PBZ1 and OsPR-10, was further examined by immunohistochemical analysis. PBZ1 accumulated highly in mesophyll cells under the attachment site of the appressorium. In contrast, OsPR-10 expression was mainly localized to vascular tissue.

Large-scale analysis of the barley transcriptome based on expressed sequence tags

To provide resources for barley genomics, 110,981 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were generated from 22 cDNA libraries representing tissues at various developmental stages. This EST collection corresponds to approximately one-third of the 380,000 publicly available barley ESTs. Clustering and assembly resulted in 14,151 tentative consensi (TCs) and 11 073 singletons, altogether representing 25 224 putatively unique sequences. Of these, 17.5% showed no significant similarity to other barley ESTs present in dbEST. More than 41% of all barley genes are supposed to belong to multigene families and approximately 4% of the barley genes undergo alternative splicing. Based on the functional annotation of the set of unique sequences, the functional category 'Energy' was further analysed to reveal tissue- and stage-specific differences in gene expression. Hierarchical clustering of 362 differentially expressed TCs resulted in the identification of seven major clusters. The clusters reflect biochemical pathways predominantly activated in specific tissues and at various developmental stages. During seed germination glycolysis could be identified as the most predominant biochemical pathway. Germination-specific glycolysis is characterized by the coordinated expression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, whose antagonistic actions possibly regulate the flux of amino acids into protein biosynthesis and gluconeogenesis respectively. The expression of defence-related and antioxidant genes during germination might be controlled by the ethylene-signalling pathway as concluded from the coordinated expression of those genes and the transcription factors (TF) EIN3 and EREBPG. Moreover, because of their predominant expression in germinating seeds, TF of the AP2 and MYB type are presumably major regulators of germination.