Androgen actions and the ovary

Androgen Inhibition of Reproductive Neuroendocrine Function in Females and Transgender Males

Ovarian function is controlled by pituitary secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), which in turn are governed by gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) secreted from the brain. A fundamental principle of reproductive axis regulation is negative feedback signaling by gonadal sex steroids back to the brain to fine-tune GnRH and gonadotropin secretion. Endogenous negative feedback effects can be mimicked by exogenous steroid treatments, including androgens, in both sexes. Indeed, a growing number of clinical and animal studies indicate that high levels of exogenous androgens, in the typically male physiological range, can inhibit LH secretion in females, as occurs in males. However, the mechanisms by which male-level androgens inhibit GnRH and LH secretion still remain poorly understood, and this knowledge gap is particularly pronounced in transgender men (individuals designated female at birth but identifying as male). Indeed, many transgender men take long-term gender-affirming hormone therapy that mimics male-level testosterone levels. The impact of such gender-affirming testosterone on the reproductive axis, both at the ovarian and neuroendocrine level, is a long-understudied area that still requires further investigation. Importantly, the few concepts of androgen actions in females mostly come from studies of polycystic ovary syndrome, which does not recapitulate a similar androgen milieu or a pathophysiology of inhibited LH secretion as occurs in testosterone-treated transgender men. This review summarizes clinical evidence indicating that exogenous androgens can impair neuroendocrine reproductive function in both female individuals and transgender men and highlights emerging experimental data supporting this in recently developed transgender rodent models.

The effect of coenzyme Q10 intake on metabolic profiles in women candidates for in-vitro fertilization: a randomised trial

Objective

Infertility and the pathogenesis of polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) are both influenced by insulin resistance and dyslipidemia. Presumably, adding coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) to these patients' diets will be beneficial. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effects of CoQ10 supplementation on metabolic profiles in women candidates for in-vitro fertilization (IVF).

Trial design and methods

For this randomized, double-blinded, parallel, placebo-controlled clinical experiment, 40 PCOS-positive infertile women who were IVF candidates were included. They ranged in age from 18 to 40. The 20 participants in the two intervention groups received either CoQ10 or a placebo for 8 weeks. The expression of glucose transporter 1 (GLUT-1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR), as well as metabolic profiles such as insulin metabolism and lipid profiles were evaluated. Quantitative RT-PCR determined the expression of GLUT-1, PPAR-γ, and LDLR on peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Lipid profiles and fasting glucose were assessed using enzymatic kits, and insulin was determined using Elisa kit.

Results

In comparison to the placebo, CoQ10 supplementation significantly reduced blood insulin levels (-0.3±1.0 vs. 0.5±0.7, P=0.01) and insulin resistance (-0.1±0.2 vs. 0.1±0.2, P=0.01), and increased PPAR-γ expression (P=0.01). In infertile PCOS patients' candidates for IVF, CoQ10 supplementation showed no appreciable impact on other metabolic profiles. Also, CoQ10 supplementation revealed no significant impact on GLUT-1 (P=0.30), or LDLR (P=0.27) expression. Within-group changes in insulin levels (P=0.01) and insulin resistance (P=0.01) showed a significant elevation in the placebo group. When we adjusted the analysis for baseline BMI, baseline values of variables, and age, our findings were not affected.

Conclusions

Eight weeks of CoQ10 supplementation demonstrated positive benefits on PPAR-γ expression, insulin resistance, and serum insulin in infertile PCOS women candidates for IVF.

Fathers and sons, mothers and daughters: Sex-specific genetic architecture for fetal testosterone in a wild mammal

Testosterone plays a critical role in mediating fitness-related traits in many species. Although it is highly responsive to environmental and social conditions, evidence from several species show a heritable component to its individual variation. Despite the known effects that in utero testosterone exposure have on adult fitness, the heritable component of individual testosterone variation in fetuses is mostly unexplored. Furthermore, testosterone has sex-differential effects on fetal development, i.e., a specific level may be beneficial for male fetuses but detrimental for females, producing sexual conflict. Such sexual conflict may be resolved by the evolution of a sex-specific genetic architecture of the trait. Here, we quantified fetal testosterone levels in a wild species, free-ranging nutrias (Myocastor coypus) using hair-testing and estimated testosterone heritability between parent and offspring from the same and opposite sex. We found that in utero accumulated hair testosterone levels were heritable between parents and offspring of the same sex. Moreover, there was a low additive genetic covariance between the sexes, and a low cross-sex genetic correlation, suggesting a potential for sex-specific trait evolution, expressed early on, in utero.

A Comprehensive Review of the Role of Biomarkers in the Early Detection of Endocrine Disorders in Critical Illnesses

Endocrine disorders pose significant challenges in the management of critically ill patients, contributing to morbidity and mortality in intensive care settings. Timely detection of these disorders is essential to optimizing patient outcomes. Biomarkers, as measurable indicators of biological processes or disease states, play a crucial role in the early identification and monitoring of endocrine dysfunction. This comprehensive review examines the role of biomarkers in the early detection of endocrine disorders in critical illnesses. We provide an overview of common endocrine disorders encountered in the intensive care unit (ICU) and discuss the impact of endocrine dysregulation on patient outcomes. Additionally, we classify biomarkers and explore their significance in diagnosing and monitoring endocrine disorders, including thyroid dysfunction, adrenal insufficiency, and hypopituitarism. Furthermore, we discuss the clinical applications of biomarkers, including their utility in guiding therapeutic interventions, monitoring disease progression, and predicting outcomes in critical illnesses. Emerging trends and future directions in biomarker research are also highlighted, emphasizing the need for continued investigation into novel biomarkers and technological advancements. Finally, we underscore the potential of biomarkers to revolutionize the early detection and management of endocrine disorders in critical illnesses, ultimately improving patient care and outcomes in the ICU.

Polycystic ovary syndrome

Despite affecting ~11-13% of women globally, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a substantially understudied condition. PCOS, possibly extending to men's health, imposes a considerable health and economic burden worldwide. Diagnosis in adults follows the International Evidence-based Guideline for the Assessment and Management of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome, requiring two out of three criteria - clinical or biochemical hyperandrogenism, ovulatory dysfunction, and/or specific ovarian morphological characteristics or elevated anti-Müllerian hormone. However, diagnosing adolescents omits ovarian morphology and anti-Müllerian hormone considerations. PCOS, marked by insulin resistance and hyperandrogenism, strongly contributes to early-onset type 2 diabetes, with increased odds for cardiovascular diseases. Reproduction-related implications include irregular menstrual cycles, anovulatory infertility, heightened risks of pregnancy complications and endometrial cancer. Beyond physiological manifestations, PCOS is associated with anxiety, depression, eating disorders, psychosexual dysfunction and negative body image, collectively contributing to diminished health-related quality of life in patients. Despite its high prevalence persisting into menopause, diagnosing PCOS often involves extended timelines and multiple health-care visits. Treatment remains ad hoc owing to limited understanding of underlying mechanisms, highlighting the need for research delineating the aetiology and pathophysiology of the syndrome. Identifying factors contributing to PCOS will pave the way for personalized medicine approaches. Additionally, exploring novel biomarkers, refining diagnostic criteria and advancing treatment modalities will be crucial in enhancing the precision and efficacy of interventions that will positively impact the lives of patients.

Testosterone Supplementation Promotes Estrogen Synthesis of Buffalo Cumulus Cells Surrounding In Vitro-Matured Oocytes

Cumulus cells (CCs) synthesize estrogens that are essential for follicular development. However, the effects of androgen on estrogen production in buffalo CCs remain unknown. In the present study, the impacts of testosterone on estrogen synthesis of buffalo CCs surrounding in vitro-matured oocytes were investigated. The results showed that testosterone supplementation improved both the expression levels of estrogen synthesis-related genes (CYP11A1, CYP19A1, and 17β-HSD) and the secretion levels of estradiol in buffalo CCs surrounding in vitro-matured oocytes. Furthermore, testosterone treatment enhanced the sensitivity of buffalo CCs surrounding in vitro-matured oocytes to follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). This study indicated that testosterone supplementation promoted the estrogen synthesis of buffalo CCs surrounding in vitro-matured oocytes mainly through strengthening the responsiveness of CCs to FSH. The present study serves as a foundation of acquiring high-quality recipient oocytes for buffalo somatic cell nuclear transfer.

Molecular Mechanisms in the Etiology of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): A Multifaceted Hypothesis Towards the Disease with Potential Therapeutics

Among the premenopausal women, Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) is the most prevalent endocrinopathy affecting the reproductive system and metabolic rhythms leading to disrupted menstrual cycle. Being heterogeneous in nature it is characterized by complex symptomology of oligomennorhoea, excess of androgens triggering masculine phenotypic appearance and/or multiple follicular ovaries. The etiology of this complex disorder remains somewhat doubtful and the researchers hypothesize multisystem links in the pathogenesis of this disease. In this review, we attempt to present several hypotheses that tend to contribute to the etiology of PCOS. Metabolic inflexibility, aberrant pattern of gonadotropin signaling along with the evolutionary, genetic and environmental factors have been discussed. Considered a lifelong endocrinological implication, no universal treatment is available for PCOS so far however; multiple drug therapy is often advised along with simple life style intervention is mainly advised to manage its cardinal symptoms. Here we aimed to present a summarized view of pathophysiological links of PCOS with potential therapeutic strategies.

Promising drug candidates for the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) as alternatives to the classical medication metformin

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a prevalent hormonal disorder that affects women of reproductive age. It is characterized by abnormal production of androgens, typically present in small quantities in females. This study aimed to investigate the therapeutic potential of Irosustat (STX64), STX140, and compound 1G as new drug candidates for the treatment of letrozole-induced PCOS in female Wistar rats. 36 rats were divided into six groups of equal size. PCOS was induced in all groups, except the normal control group, by administering letrozole orally (1 mg/kg/day for 35 days). The onset of abnormal estrous cycle was confirmed by examining daily vaginal smears under a microscope. Subsequently, each rat group was assigned to a different treatment regimen, including one control group, one letrozole group, one metformin group (500 mg/kg/day) as a reference drug, and the other groups received a different drug candidate orally for 30 days. After treatment, blood collection was performed for biochemical measurements and determination of oxidative stress markers. The rats were dissected to separate ovaries and uterus for morphological, histological, and western blotting studies. Treatment with the drug candidates improved the ovaries and uterus weight measurements compared to the untreated PCOS group. The three tested drug candidates demonstrated promising improvements in lipid profile, blood glucose level, testosterone, progesterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and estradiol levels. In addition, western blotting confirmed their promising effects on Akt, mTOR, and AMPK-α pathways. This study led to the discovery of three promising drug candidates for the management of PCOS as alternatives to metformin.

Selenium Nanoparticles Modulate Steroidogenesis-Related Genes and Improve Ovarian Functions via Regulating Androgen Receptors Expression in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Rat Model

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) occurs during the reproductive period in women and is characterized by reproductive, endocrine, and metabolic disorders. Androgen plays a decisive role in its pathogenesis due to the interaction between hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance, which might be improved by selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs). The present study aimed to clarify the effect of SeNPs on androgen synthesis and action in the PCOS model and the resulting effect on ovarian function. Fifty-five 7-week-old female albino rats (90-105 g) were divided equally into five groups: control (C), fed a standard diet for 11 weeks; high-fat diet (HFD) group, fed HFD for 11 weeks; HFD and letrozole (L) (HFD + L), fed HFD for 11 weeks and administrated orally with L, at a daily dose of 1 mg/kg BW, for three weeks from the 7th to 9th week of the trial; HFD + L + 0.1SeNPs and HFD + L + 0.2SeNPs groups, treated the same as HFD + L group and orally gavaged SeNPs at daily doses of 0.1 and 0.2 mg/kg BW, respectively, during the last 14 day of the experiment. Daily determination of estrous cycle was performed, and at the end of the experimental period, BMI, serum glucose, insulin, HOMA-IR, lipid profile, sex hormones, TNF-α, IL6, oxidative stress biomarkers, ovarian mRNA expression of different proteins and enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, pathological examination, and immunohistochemical staining for androgen receptor (AR) were evaluated. Treatment of SeNPs restored estrous cyclicity, decreased BMI, and insulin resistance, improved dyslipidemia, reduced serum testosterone, and improved ovarian histopathology in PCOS rats. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant impacts of SeNPs were remarkably noticed. Administration of SeNPs decreased androgen synthesis and expression of ovarian AR protein by decreasing the mRNA expression of STAR, Cyp11A1, Cyp17A1, and HSD17B3 and increasing the expression of Cyp19α1. Conclusively, SeNPs decreased androgen synthesis and blocked the vicious circle initiated by excessive androgen secretion via decreased AR expression. Thus, it may effectively treat PCOS cases by eliminating its reproductive, endocrine, and metabolic dysfunctions.

Classification of Atretic Small Antral Follicles in the Human Ovary

The reproductive lifespan in humans is regulated by a delicate cyclical balance between follicular recruitment and atresia in the ovary. The majority of the small antral follicles present in the ovary are progressively lost through atresia without reaching dominance, but this process remains largely underexplored. In our study, we investigated the characteristics of atretic small antral follicles and proposed a classification system based on molecular changes observed in granulosa cells, theca cells, and extracellular matrix deposition. Our findings revealed that atresia spreads in the follicle with wave-like dynamics, initiating away from the cumulus granulosa cells. We also observed an enrichment of CD68+ macrophages in the antrum during the progression of follicular atresia. This work not only provides criteria for classifying three stages of follicular atresia in small antral follicles in the human ovary but also serves as a foundation for understanding follicular degeneration and ultimately preventing or treating premature ovarian failure. Understanding follicular remodeling in the ovary could provide a means to increase the number of usable follicles and delay the depletion of the follicular reserve, increasing the reproductive lifespan.

Testosterone supplementation improves estrogen synthesis of buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) granulosa cells

Granulosa cells (GCs) synthesize estrogens needed for follicular growth. However, the effects of androgen on estrogen production in buffalo GCs remain unclear. In this study, the impacts of testosterone on estrogen synthesis in buffalo GCs were examined. The results showed that testosterone that was added to cell medium at a concentration of 10-7  mol/L and applied to GCs for 48 or 72 h enhanced the estrogen synthesis of buffalo GCs. This study provides a theoretical basis for further exploration of ovarian endocrine mechanism for steroidogenesis.

Androgen signalling in the ovaries and endometrium

Currently, our understanding of hormonal regulation within the female reproductive system is largely based on our knowledge of estrogen and progesterone signalling. However, while the important functions of androgens in male physiology are well known, it is also recognized that androgens play critical roles in the female reproductive system. Further, androgen signalling is altered in a variety of gynaecological conditions, including endometriosis and polycystic ovary syndrome, indicative of regulatory roles in endometrial and ovarian function. Co-regulatory mechanisms exist between different androgens, estrogens, and progesterone, resulting in a complex network of steroid hormone interactions. Evidence from animal knockout studies, in vitro experiments, and human data indicate that androgen receptor expression is cell-specific and menstrual cycle stage-dependent, with important regulatory roles in the menstrual cycle, endometrial biology, and follicular development in the ovaries. This review will discuss the expression and co-regulatory interactions of androgen receptors, highlighting the complexity of the androgen signalling pathway in the endometrium and ovaries, and the synthesis of androgens from additional alternative pathways previously disregarded as male-specific. Moreover, it will illustrate the challenges faced when studying androgens in female biology, and the need for a more in-depth, integrative view of androgen metabolism and signalling in the female reproductive system.

Estrogen and progesterone receptors and antioxidant enzymes are expressed differently in the uterus of domestic cats during the estrous cycle

Sex steroids and antioxidant enzymes are important in female sexual development and adequate modulation of the estrous cycle, pregnancy, and fetal development. Therefore, modifications in its signaling or expression in the genital system are associated with reproductive dysfunctions. However, the spatial-temporal expression profile of receptors for sex steroids and antioxidant enzymes in the uterus of domestic cats throughout the estrous cycle needs to be studied. Cats in proestrus/estrus (N = 6), diestrus, (N = 7), and anestrus (N = 6) were used to evaluate the uterine expression of estrogen alpha (ERα), progesterone (PR), and androgen (AR) receptors and of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), catalase and glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPX1) by immunohistochemistry and qPCR. The uterus of cats in diestrus showed lower protein and mRNA expression of ERα and PR compared to proestrus/estrus and anestrus, mainly in the luminal and glandular epithelium and myometrium, different from catalase and SOD1, which showed higher expression in diestrus in relation to other phases of the cycle. GPX1, on the other hand, showed lower uterine gene expression in diestrus compared to proestrus/estrus and anestrus. No significant differences in AR expression were observed. In conclusion, ERα and PR sex steroid receptors and antioxidant enzymes are expressed differently in the uterus of domestic cats during the estrous cycle.

Female infertility in the era of obesity: The clash of two pandemics or inevitable consequence?

Obesity is an epidemic that has led to a rise in the incidence of many comorbidities: among others, reduced fertility is often under-evaluated in clinical practice. The mechanisms underlying the link between reduced fertility and obesity are numerous, with insulin resistance, hyperglycaemia and the frequent coexistence of polycystic ovary syndrome being the most acknowledged. However, several other factors concur, such as gut microbiome alterations, low-grade chronic inflammation and oxidative stress. Not only do women with obesity take longer to conceive, but in vitro fertilization (IVF) is also less likely to succeed. We herein provide an updated state-of-the-art regarding the molecular bases of what we could define as dysmetabolic infertility, focusing on the clinical aspects, as well as possible treatment.

A refined culture system of oocytes from early antral follicles promotes oocyte maturation and embryo development in cattle

In brief

The proposed culture system improves the current state of in vitro culture of growing oocytes in the bovine species and allows access to the untapped gamete reserve, thus improving reproductive efficiency.

Abstract

The present study aimed to improve the in vitro culture of bovine oocytes collected from early antral follicles (EAFs) to support the progressive acquisition of meiotic and developmental competence. The rationale that drove the development of such a culture system was to maintain as much as possible the physiological conditions that support the oocyte growth and differentiation in vivo. To this extent, oocytes were cultured for 5 days, which parallels the transition from early to medium antral follicles (MAFs) in the bovine, and supports promoting a 3D-like structure were provided. Additionally, the main hormones (follicle-stimulating hormone, estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone) were added in concentrations similar to the ones previously observed in bovine EAFs. The meiotic arrest was imposed using cilostamide. The cultured cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) reached a mean diameter of 113.4 ± 0.75 µm and showed a progressive condensation of the chromatin enclosed in the germinal vesicle (GV), together with a gradual decrease in the global transcriptional activity, measured by 5-ethynyl uridine incorporation. The described morpho-functional changes were accompanied by an increased ability to mature and develop to the blastocyst stage in vitro, although not matching the rates obtained by MAF-retrieved oocytes. The described system improves the current state of in vitro culture of growing oocytes in the bovine species, and it can be used to increase the number of gametes usable for in vitro embryo production in animals of high genetic merit or with specific desirable traits.

Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: The Relevant Role of the Theca and Granulosa Cells in the Pathogenesis of the Ovarian Dysfunction

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common heterogeneous endocrine disorder among women of reproductive age. The pathogenesis of PCOS remains elusive; however, there is evidence suggesting the potential contribution of genetic interactions or predispositions combined with environmental factors. Among these, endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have been proposed to potentially contribute to the etiology of PCOS. Granulosa and theca cells are known to cooperate to maintain ovarian function, and any disturbance can lead to endocrine disorders, such as PCOS. This article provides a review of the recent knowledge on PCOS pathophysiology, the role of granulosa and theca cells in PCOS pathogenesis, and the evidence linking exposure to EDCs with reproductive disorders such as PCOS.

Potential roles of genistein in polycystic ovary syndrome: A comprehensive systematic review

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is one of the most prevalent polygenic endocrine disorders in reproductive-age women. Genistein is a soy-isolated phytoestrogen and isoflavone with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, estrogenic, and antineoplastic activity. This systematic review aimed to investigate the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of actions of genistein in PCOS. The present study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol. We searched PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Google Scholar databases up to February 2022 using relative keywords. Studies published in English evaluated genistein's effects on PCOS, and its related symptoms were considered. Out of 298 records screened, only 13 articles met the inclusion criteria: Nine animal and 4 human studies. The results of the current study indicated that genistein supplementation may effectively improve PCOS-related symptoms by decreasing insulin resistance and anthropometric indices, improving ovarian morphology and regulating reproductive hormones, and reducing oxidative stress and inflammation by influencing biological pathways. According to the current literature, genistein may diminish the dues of PCOS. Therefore, this study shows that genistein can be considered an effective agent. in reducing the complications of PCOS. However, further studies are recommended for a broad conclusion on the exact mechanism of genistein in PCOS patients.

Distinctions in PCOS Induced by Letrozole Vs Dehydroepiandrosterone With High-fat Diet in Mouse Model

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a complex health condition associated with metabolic disturbances and infertility. Recent data suggest that the prevalence of PCOS is increasing among women globally, although the etiology of these trends is undefined. Consequently, preclinical models that better reflect the biology of PCOS are urgently needed to facilitate research that can lead to the discovery of prevention strategies or improved management. The existing animal models have several limitations as they do not reflect all the PCOS features metabolically and/or phenotypically. Therefore, there is no clear consensus on the use of appropriate animal model and selection of the most appropriate PCOS-inducing agent. To that end, we have established a Swiss albino mouse model of PCOS based on 3 weeks of daily treatment with letrozole (50 μg/day; intraperitoneal) and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA, 6 mg/100 g body weight; subcutaneous) in 5-week-old female mice fed on normal or high-fat diet (HFD). Mice were regularly assessed for body weight, blood glucose, and estrous cycle. Three weeks after drug administration, mice were sacrificed and assessed for blood-based metabolic parameters as well as ovarian function. Our results indicate that DHEA combined with HFD produces changes mimicking those of clinical PCOS, including elevated serum testosterone and luteinizing hormone, dyslipidemia, poor ovarian microenvironment, and development of multiple ovarian cysts, recapitulating cardinal features of PCOS. In comparison, normal diet and/or letrozole produced fewer features of PCOS. The data from the experimental models presented here can improve our understanding of PCOS, a growing concern in women's health.

Basal serum level of Δ4-androstenedione reflects the ovaries' ability to respond to stimulation in IVF cycles: setting up a new reliable index of both ovarian reserve and response

PURPOSE

Adequate androgen levels are necessary for regular follicular growth, progression beyond the pre-antral stage, and prevention of follicular atresia. The main purpose of this study was to investigate whether baseline androgen levels had a predictive value on stimulation outcomes in IVF cycles. The secondary purpose was to compare the possible predictive value of androgens with that of already known markers.

METHODS

The study included 91 infertile patients aged 30-45 years awaiting the first IVF cycle. All women underwent the same stimulation protocol and the same starting dose of recombinant FSH. As stimulation outcomes, the number of follicles recruited, estradiol and progesterone levels on the day of trigger, the total dose of gonadotropins administered, and the number of oocytes collected were recorded. Multiple linear regression and multivariate logistic regression were used to evaluate the significant predictive value of the variables for response to controlled ovarian stimulation (COS). By studying the reliability of different markers, an attempt was made to develop a single index with the highest predictive value.

RESULTS

Pearson's correlation revealed a statistically significant inverse correlation between oocytes collected and age (r =  - 0.333, p < 0.001) and a positive correlation with AMH (anti-müllerian hormone) (r = 0.360, p < 0.001), antral follicle count (AFC) (r = 0.639, p < 0.001), and androstenedione (Δ4-A) (r = 0.359, p < 0.001). No significant correlation was reported with FSH (r =  - 0.133, p = 0.207) and total testosterone (r = 0.180, p = 0.088). In COS good responders, the G-index (= AMH ng/mL*AFC/Δ4-A ng/dL) revealed a significantly higher level (p < 0.001) than AMH, AFC, and Δ4-A alone.

CONCLUSION

Baseline serum Δ4-A, presumably crucial for ensuring a regular follicular growth, is a reliable marker of ovarian response to stimulation. Since the ovarian capacity to respond to gonadotropins does not depend exclusively on the presence of follicles, we suggest a new index, the G-index, able to contemplate both the ovarian reserve and the Δ4-A level.

Cortisol safeguards oogenesis by promoting follicular cell survival

The role of glucocorticoids in oogenesis remains to be elucidated. cyp11c1 encodes the key enzyme involved in the synthesis of cortisol, the major glucocorticoid in teleosts. In our previous study, we mutated cyp11c1 in tilapia and analyzed its role in spermatogenesis. In this study, we analyzed its role in oogenesis. cyp11c1^+/- XX tilapia showed normal ovarian morphology but poor egg quality, as indicated by the mortality of embryos before 3 d post fertilization, which could be partially rescued by the supplement of exogenous cortisol to the mother fish. Transcriptome analyses revealed reduced expression of maternal genes in the eggs of the cyp11c1^+/- XX fish. The cyp11c1^-/- females showed impaired vitellogenesis and arrested oogenesis due to significantly decreased serum cortisol. Further analyses revealed decreased serum E2 level and expression of amh, an important regulator of follicular cell development, and increased follicular cell apoptosis in the ovaries of cyp11c1^-/- XX fish, which could be rescued by supplement of either exogenous cortisol or E2. Luciferase assays revealed a direct regulation of cortisol and E2 on amh transcription via GRs or ESRs. Taken together, our results demonstrate that cortisol safeguards oogenesis by promoting follicular cell survival probably via Amh signaling.

An Ovarian Steroid Metabolomic Pathway Analysis in Basal and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)-like Gonadotropin Conditions Reveals a Hyperandrogenic Phenotype Measured by Mass Spectrometry

Prior work has demonstrated that murine ovarian explants and isolated ovarian follicles can recapitulate human-like 28-day cycles in vitro with normal patterns of estradiol and progesterone secretion in response to gonadotropin stimulation. The objective of this study was to manipulate the gonadotropin stimulation protocol to mimic polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and assess the resulting changes in ovarian steroidogenesis. A secondary aim of the study was to develop a high-throughput, sensitive, and specific liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) assay to measure seven steroid hormones (estrone, estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone, and dihydrotestosterone) in conditioned culture media. Ovaries were harvested from 12-day-old CD-1 mice and cultured for 28 days, with ovulation induction on culture day 14. Media were supplemented human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG, a luteinizing hormone analog) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) at ratios of 1:0 (standard media), 1:1 (physiologic ratio), and 3:1 (PCOS-like ratio). Ovaries cultured in PCOS-like media displayed hyperandrogenism and impaired ovulation, two key features of a PCOS-like phenotype. Taken together, this first-of-its-kind presentation of hormone levels from single tissues creates a map of the enzymatic steps most acutely affected by gonadotropin dysregulation and may provide opportunities for assessing other potential insults in PCOS pathogenesis.

Partially purified non-polar phytocomponents from Aloe barbadensis Mill. gel restores metabolic and reproductive comorbidities in letrozole-induced polycystic ovary syndrome rodent model- an "in-vivo" study

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In India, Kumaryasava, a popular Aloe barbadensis Mill. gel preparation has therapeutic value in treatment of female reproductive disorders like menstrual disturbances and menopausal problems. Despite their widespread use, only a limited number of studies have probed into the scientific evidence for their varied bioactivities. In this regard, studies have demonstrated that Aloe vera gel has the potential to modulate steroidogenic activity in letrozole induced polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) rat. However, isolation and identification of the bioactive molecule/s from Aloe vera gel and studying their molecular targets will underpin the treatment regime for PCOS.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The Partially Purified Non-Polar Phytocomponents (PPNPP)- LP1 and LP3 were isolated from the petroleum ether extract of Aloe vera gel by column chromatography. Based upon the GC-MS analysis, LP1 and LP3 comprised of n-Hexadecanoic acid and Campesterol acetate with an abundance of 97.07%, and 96.07% respectively. For evaluation of their bioactivities, eighty 3-4 months female Balb/c mice were classified as 10 groups with 8 animals in each group. Groups were control (C), PCOS (0.5 mg/kg/day Letrozole orally for 21days), PCOS treated orally for 60 days with Aloe vera gel (AVG) (10 mg/kg/day) (PCOS + AVG), PCOS treated orally for 60 days with petroleum ether extract (PE) of Aloe vera gel (25 μg/kg/day) (PCOS + PE), PCOS treated orally for 60 days with LP1 (0.5 μg/kg/day) (PCOS + LP1), PCOS treated orally for 60 days with commercially available pure compound-n-Hexadecanoic acid (HA) (0.5 μg/kg/day) (PCOS + HA), PCOS treated orally for 60 days with LP3 (0.01 μg/kg/day) (PCOS + LP3), PCOS treated orally for 60 days with commercially available pure compound- Campesterol acetate (CA) (0.01 μg/kg/day) (PCOS + CA), PCOS treated orally for 60 days with Metformin (100 mg/kg/day) (PCOS + Metformin) and PCOS treated orally for 60 days with DMSO (Vehicle) (PCOS + DMSO). Body weight, Oral glucose tolerance test, lipid profile, fasting glucose, insulin, estrus cycle, hormonal profile, gene expression of gonadotropin receptors (Fshr and Lhr), steroid receptors (Ar, Esr1, Esr2 and Pgr) and steroidogenic markers (Star, Hsd3b1, Cyp19a1 and Amh) were analysed in the ovaries. Polycystic ovarian morphology was assessed through histopathological changes of ovary. Toxicity markers- SGOT, SGPT and creatinine were also measured at the end of the study.

RESULTS

Mice treated with letrozole demonstrated significant increase in body weight, glucose intolerance, fasting insulin levels, HOMA-IR, triglycerides levels as well as testosterone levels, and a significant decline in the progesterone levels as compared to the control animals. PCOS animals also exhibited arrested estrus cyclicity, disrupted ovarian histopathology with the presence of multiple peripheral cysts and abnormal gene expression of gonadotropin receptor, steroid receptor and steroid markers. Oral administration of AVG, PE extract of AVG, LP3 and metformin greatly alleviated these complications in PCOS animals.

CONCLUSION

The above findings indicate the effectiveness of LP3, isolated from Aloe vera gel against letrozole induced PCOS in mice and may be used in the treatment of PCOS as an alternative to metformin.

Hyperandrogenism and Polycystic ovary syndrome: Effects in pregnancy and offspring development

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is one of the major endocrine disorders affecting women of reproductive age. Its etiology remains unclear. It is suggested that environmental factors, and particularly the intrauterine environment, play key roles in PCOS development. Besides the role of androgens in PCOS pathogenesis, exposure to endocrine disruptors, as is Bisphenol A, could also contribute to its development. Although PCOS is considered one of the leading causes of ovarian infertility, many PCOS patients can get pregnant. Some of them by natural conception and others by assisted reproductive technique treatments. As hyperandrogenism (one of PCOS main features) affects ovarian and uterine functions, PCOS women, despite reaching pregnancy, could present high-risk pregnancies, including implantation failure, an increased risk of gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, and preterm birth. Moreover, hyperandrogenism may also be maintained in these women during pregnancy. Therefore, as an altered uterine milieu, including hormonal imbalance, could affect the developing organisms, monitoring these patients throughout pregnancy and their offspring development is highly relevant. The present review focuses on the impact of androgenism and PCOS on fertility issues and pregnancy-related outcomes and offspring development. The evidence suggests that the increased risk of pregnancy complications and adverse offspring outcomes of PCOS women would be due to the factors involved in the syndrome pathogenesis and the related co-morbidities. A better understanding of the involved mechanisms is still needed and could contribute to a better management of these women and their offspring. This article is categorized under: Reproductive System Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology Reproductive System Diseases > Environmental Factors.

Long-term Hyperandrogenemia and/or Western-style Diet in Rhesus Macaque Females Impairs Preimplantation Embryogenesis

Hyperandrogenemia and obesity are common in women with polycystic ovary syndrome, but it is currently unclear how each alone or in combination contribute to reproductive dysfunction and female infertility. To distinguish the individual and combined effects of hyperandrogenemia and an obesogenic diet on ovarian function, prepubertal female rhesus macaques received a standard control (C) diet, testosterone (T) implants, an obesogenic Western-style diet (WSD), or both (T + WSD). After 5 to 6 years of treatment, the females underwent metabolic assessments and controlled ovarian stimulations. Follicular fluid (FF) was collected for steroid and cytokine analysis and the oocytes fertilized in vitro. Although the T + WSD females exhibited higher insulin resistance compared to the controls, there were no significant differences in metabolic parameters between treatments. Significantly higher concentrations of CXCL-10 were detected in the FF from the T group, but no significant differences in intrafollicular steroid levels were observed. Immunostaining of cleavage-stage embryos revealed multiple nuclear abnormalities in the T, WSD, and T + WSD groups. Single-cell DNA sequencing showed that while C embryos contained primarily euploid blastomeres, most cells in the other treatment groups were aneuploid. Despite yielding a higher number of mature oocytes, T + WSD treatment resulted in significantly reduced blastocyst formation rates compared to the T group. RNA sequencing analysis of individual blastocysts showed differential expression of genes involved in critical implantation processes between the C group and other treatments. Collectively, we show that long-term WSD consumption reduces the capacity of fertilized oocytes to develop into blastocysts and that the addition of T further impacts gene expression and embryogenesis.

Pathology of hyperandrogenemia in the oocyte of polycystic ovary syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common ovulatory disorder in the world and is associated with multiple adverse outcomes. The phenotype is widely varied, with several pathologies contributing to the spectrum of the disease including insulin resistance, obesity and hyperandrogenemia. Of these, the role of hyperandrogenemia and the mechanism by which it causes dysfunction remains poorly understood. Early studies have shown that androgens may affect the metabolic pathways of a cell, and this may pose hazards at the level of the mitochondria. As mitochondria are strictly maternally inherited, this would provide an exciting explanation not only to the pathophysiology of PCOS as a disease, but also to the inheritance pattern. This review seeks to summarize what is known about PCOS and associated adverse outcomes with focus on the role of hyperandrogenemia and specific emphasis on the oocyte.

A Proper Increasing in the Testosterone Level May Be Associated With Better Pregnancy Outcomes for Patients With Tubal or Male Infertility During in vitro Fertilization/Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection

We aimed to investigate the relationship between testosterone (T) levels and pregnancy outcomes in patients with tubal or male infertility at different times during in vitro fertilization (IVF)/intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) cycles. Patients with tubal or male infertility and normal androgen levels undergoing IVF/ICSI were consecutively recruited. We performed a longitudinal analysis of T levels at three time points (i.e., T0: baseline, T1: trigger day, and T2: day after the trigger day) in three groups with different pregnancy outcomes (i.e., group 1: no pregnancy; group 2: clinical pregnancy but no live birth; and group 3: live birth) as repeated measurement data using linear mixed-effects models. We also plotted fitted curves depicting the relationship between T levels and a number of oocytes retrieved at different time points and identified the inflection points of the curves. In total, 3,012 patients were recruited. Groups 1 and 3 had improvements in T levels at the three time points. After refitting, the slope in group 3 was significantly higher than that in group 1 (P = 0.000). Curves that reflected the association between T levels and numbers of retrieved oocytes presented an upward trend before a certain inflection point, after which the curves had no obvious changes or fell with increasing T levels. The inflection points for T0, T1, and T2 were calculated as 0.45, 0.94, and 1.09, respectively. A faster upward trend in T levels might be associated with better pregnancy outcomes. Within a range lower than a T level inflection point, more oocytes and embryos could be obtained with increasing T levels.

Systemic and Intrafollicular Androgen Concentrations in Cycling Mares

The evidence that androgens regulate the folliculogenesis supports the hypothesis that intrafollicular testosterone (T), androstenedione (A₄) and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) could be modified along follicular growth. The objective of this study was to evaluate the changes and related relationships between systemic and intrafollicular T, A₄ and DHEA in post-deviation and impending ovulation follicles. Sixty ovaries were taken after the slaughter of 30 clinically healthy mares. In according to the sizes, the follicles were classified in 3 different categories, as small (20-30 mm), medium (31-40 mm) and large (≥ 41 mm), and the follicular fluid (FF) samplings were extracted from each single follicle. Intrafollicular concentrations of T, A_4, and DHEA were significantly higher than systemic ones. Intrafollicular and systemic T and A₄ concentrations were strongly and positively correlated, and DHEA negatively. A₄ was the predominant androgen in FF. T and A₄ were positively and DHEA negatively correlated with the follicular diameter. T and A₄ significantly increased in large and medium than small follicle sizes. DHEA was significantly higher in small than medium and large follicle size. The increase of intrafollicular androgens suggests the presence of androgenic environment based in the biotransformation of DHEA in A₄ and later in T in the follicles, and the progressive oestradiol-17β (E₂) production with the advance of follicular growth. The evidence of significant correlations between systemic and intrafollicular androgens considerably helps to understanding more deeply the role of these steroids in the physiology of follicular development in the mare, adding a new segment of scientific literature.

Early preantral follicles of the domestic cat express gonadotropin and sex steroid signalling potential

Key biomolecular processes which regulate primordial ovarian follicle dormancy and early folliculogenesis in mammalian ovaries are not fully understood. The domestic cat is a useful model to study ovarian folliculogenesis and is the most relevant for developing in vitro growth methods to be implemented in wild felid conservation breeding programs. Previously, RNA-sequencing of primordial, primary, and secondary follicle samples from domestic cat implicated ovarian steroidogenesis and steroid reception during follicle development. Here we aimed to identify which sex steroid biosynthesis and metabolism enzymes, gonadotropin receptors, and sex steroid receptors are present and may be potential regulators. Differential gene expression, functional annotation, and enrichment analyses were employed and protein localisation was studied too. Gene transcripts for PGR, PGRMC1, AR (steroid receptors), CYP11A1, CYP17A1, HSD17B1 and HSD17B17 (steroidogenic enzymes), and STS (steroid metabolising enzyme) were significantly differentially expressed (Q values of ≤0.05). Differential gene expression increased in all transcripts during follicle transitions apart from AR which decreased by the secondary stage. Immunohistochemistry localised FSHR and LHCGR to oocytes at each stage. PGRMC1 immunostaining was strongest in granulosa cells whereas AR was strongest in oocytes throughout each stage. Protein signals for steroidogenic enzymes were only detectable in secondary follicles. Products of these significantly differentially expressed genes may regulate domestic cat preantral folliculogenesis. In vitro growth could be optimised as all early follicles express gonadotropin and steroid receptors meaning hormone interaction and response may be possible. Protein expression analyses of early secondary follicles supported its potential for producing sex steroids.

The role of polymorphism in various potential genes on polycystic ovary syndrome susceptibility and pathogenesis

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common endocrinopathies affecting the early reproductive age in women, whose pathophysiology perplexes many researchers till today. This syndrome is classically categorized by hyperandrogenism and/or hyperandrogenemia, menstrual and ovulatory dysfunction, bulky multi follicular ovaries on Ultrasonography (USG), and metabolic abnormalities such as hyperinsulinemia, dyslipidemia, obesity. The etiopathogenesis of PCOS is not fully elucidated, but it seems that the hypothalamus-pituitary-ovarian axis, ovarian, and/or adrenal androgen secretion may contribute to developing the syndrome. Infertility and poor reproductive health in women's lives are highly associated with elevated levels of androgens. Studies with ovarian theca cells taken from PCOS women have demonstrated increased androgen production due to augmented ovarian steroidogenesis attributed to mainly altered expression of critical enzymes (Cytochrome P450 enzymes: CYP17, CYP21, CYP19, CYP11A) in the steroid hormone biosynthesis pathway. Despite the heterogeneity of PCOS, candidate gene studies are the widely used technique to delineate the genetic variants and analyze for the correlation of androgen biosynthesis pathway and those affecting the secretion or action of insulin with PCOS etiology. Linkage and association studies have predicted the relationship between genetic variants and PCOS risk among families or populations. Several genes have been proposed as playing a role in the etiopathogenesis of PCOS, and the presence of mutations and/or polymorphisms has been discovered, which suggests that PCOS has a vital heritable component. The following review summarizes the influence of polymorphisms in crucial genes of the steroidogenesis pathway leading to intraovarian hyperandrogenism which can result in PCOS.

The contradictory role of androgens in cutaneous and major burn wound healing

Wound healing is a complex process involving four overlapping phases: haemostasis, inflammation, cell recruitment and matrix remodeling. In mouse models, surgical, pharmacological and genetic approaches targeting androgen actions in skin have shown that androgens increase interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α production and reduce wound re-epithelization and matrix deposition, retarding cutaneous wound healing. Similarly, clinical studies have shown that cutaneous wound healing is slower in men compared to women. However, in major burn injury, which triggers not only local wound-healing processes but also systemic hypermetabolism, the role of androgens is poorly understood. Recent studies have claimed that a synthetic androgen, oxandrolone, increases protein synthesis, improves lean body mass and shortens length of hospital stay. However, the possible mechanisms by which oxandrolone regulates major burn injury have not been reported. In this review, we summarize the current findings on the roles of androgens in cutaneous and major burn wound healing, as well as androgens as a potential therapeutic treatment option for patients with major burn injuries.

Recreating the Follicular Environment: A Customized Approach for In Vitro Culture of Bovine Oocytes Based on the Origin and Differentiation State

The mammalian ovary is a large source of oocytes organized into follicles at various stages of folliculogenesis. However, only a limited number of them can be used for in vitro embryo production (IVEP), while most have yet to complete growth and development to attain full meiotic and embryonic developmental competence. While the in vitro growth of primordial follicles in the ovarian cortex has the potential to produce mature oocytes, it is still at an experimental stage. The population of early antral follicles (EAFs), instead, may represent a reserve of oocytes close to completing the growth phase, which might be more easily exploited in vitro and could increase the number of female gametes dedicated to IVEP.Here we present in vitro culture strategies that have been developed utilizing physiological parameters to support the specific needs of oocytes at distinct stages of differentiation, in order to expand the source of female gametes for IVEP by maximizing the attainment of fertilizable oocytes. Furthermore, these culture systems provide powerful tools to dissect the molecular processes that direct the final differentiation of the mammalian oocyte.

Nuclear receptors: Key regulators of somatic cell functions in the ovulatory process

The development of the ovarian follicle to its culmination by ovulation is an essential element of fertility. The final stages of ovarian follicular growth are characterized by granulosa cell proliferation and differentiation, and steroid synthesis under the influence of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). The result is a population of granulosa cells poised to respond to the ovulatory surge of luteinizing hormone (LH). Members of the nuclear receptor superfamily of transcription factors play indispensable roles in the regulation of these events. The key regulators of the final stages of follicular growth that precede ovulation from this family include the estrogen receptor beta (ESR2) and the androgen receptor (AR), with additional roles for others, including steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1) and liver receptor homolog-1 (LRH-1). Following the LH surge, the mural and cumulus granulosa cells undergo rapid changes that result in expansion of the cumulus layer, and a shift in ovarian steroid hormone biosynthesis from estradiol to progesterone production. The nuclear receptor best associated with these events is LRH-1. Inadequate cumulus expansion is also observed in the absence of AR and ESR2, but not the progesterone receptor (PGR). The terminal stages of ovulation are regulated by PGR, which increases the abundance of the proteases that are directly responsible for rupture. It further regulates the prostaglandins and cytokines associated with the inflammatory-like characteristics of ovulation. LRH-1 regulates PGR, and is also a key regulator of steroidogenesis, cellular proliferation, and cellular migration, and cytoskeletal remodeling. In summary, nuclear receptors are among the panoply of transcriptional regulators with roles in ovulation, and several are necessary for normal ovarian function.

The antiandrogenic vinclozolin induces differentiation delay of germ cells and changes in energy metabolism in 3D cultures of fetal ovaries

Vinclozolin is a pesticide with antiandrogenic activity as an endocrine disruptor compound. Its effects upon the progression of primordial follicles were assessed in cultures of mouse fetal ovaries from the onset of meiotic differentiation of germ cells (13.5 days post coitum) and from both in vivo exposed mice and in vitro exposed ovaries. Exposure of ovaries to vinclozolin—at in vitro dosages ranging from 10 to 200 μM and in 3D ex vivo culture following in vivo exposure to 50 mg/kg bw/day—showed delays in meiocyte differentiation and in follicle growth, even at the lowest in vitro dose exposure. Immunofluorescent analysis showed the presence of the proteins MSY2 and NOBOX in the primary follicles but no difference in the level of protein signals or in the number of follicles in relation to treatment. However, assessing the cytological differentiation of germ cells by detecting the synaptonemal complex protein SYCP3, the exposure to vinclozolin delayed meiotic differentiation from both in vitro- and in vivo-exposed ovaries. These effects were concomitant with changes in the energy metabolism, detected as a relative increase of glycolytic metabolism in live-cell metabolic assays in exposed ovaries.

Androgens regulate follicle stage-dependent pro- and anti-apoptosis in teleost ovaries through ZIP9 activation of different G proteins†

Androgens mediate a number of processes in mammalian and teleost ovaries in a follicle-stage dependent manner, including follicle growth, survival, and apoptosis. We recently reported that the membrane androgen receptor ZIP9 mediates apoptosis in Atlantic croaker granulosa/theca (G/T) cells from mature ovarian follicles, but the effects of androgens on early stage G/T cells in this model remains unknown. Here we show that testosterone mediates pro- and anti-apoptotic responses in a follicle stage-dependent manner in croaker ovarian follicle cells. Testosterone treatment decreased the incidence of apoptosis in G/T cells from early stage follicles (diameter <300 μm) but increased apoptosis in G/T cells from late stage follicles (diameter >400 μm). Small interfering RNA targeting ZIP9, but not the nuclear androgen receptor, blocked the anti-apoptotic response, indicating ZIP9 mediates anti-apoptotic in addition to pro-apoptotic responses. Testosterone treatment of early stage G/T cells resulted in opposite signaling outcomes from those previously characterized for the ZIP9-mediated apoptotic response including decreased cAMP and intracellular free zinc levels, and downregulation of pro-apoptotic member mRNA expression. While ZIP9-mediated apoptosis involves activation of a stimulatory G protein (Gs), activators of Gs signaling antagonized the anti-apoptotic response. Proximity ligation and G protein activation assays indicated that in G/T cells from early stage follicles ZIP9 is in close proximity and activates an inhibitory G protein, while in G/T cells from late stage follicles ZIP9 is in close proximity and activates Gs. This study demonstrates that ZIP9 mediates opposite survival responses of croaker G/T cells by activating different G proteins in a follicle stage-dependent manner.

Functions of interleukin-6 in ovulation of female climbing perch, Anabas testudineus

In mammals, interleukin 6 (IL-6) has an important function during ovulation, however, the functions of IL-6 in fish have not been elucidated. In the present study, there was quantification of de novo synthesis of ovarian IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) in control and hCG-treated fish and results were compared with those from an in vitro study where there was evaluation of the regulatory functions of gonadotropins and TNFα of IL-6 secretions. Relatively greater concentrations of ovarian IL-6 at the post-GVBD (post-germinal vesicle breakdown) stage indicates IL-6 modulates ovulatory processes. The hCG-induced increase in relative abundance of IL-6 (in vitro) mRNA transcript and secretion from the ovary were attenuated when there was administration of the inhibitor of TNFα secreting enzyme, TAPI-I, which indicates TNFα modulates IL-6 secretion. Treatments with IL-6 induced a marked increase in ovulation rate in vitro when there was induction of activating matrix metalloproteinase (MMP). Furthermore, treatment with IL-6 resulted in production of prostaglandin as indicated by the IL-6 induced increase in the abundance of ptgs2 mRNA transcript in the ovary of Anabas testudineus. Furthermore, results indicate the source of IL-6 in the ovary is the granulosa cells with secretion of IL-6 being induced by the additions of hCG and TNFα in the medium. There was also an IL-6-induced increase in abundance of receptors (IL-6 Rα and gp130) to which it binds indicating IL-6 autoregulates this population of receptors. Results from this study, for the first time, elucidate the reproductive functions of IL-6 in a teleost fish.

Vascular mechanisms of testosterone: The non-genomic point of view

Testosterone (T) is the predominant endogenous androgen in the bloodstream. At the vascular level, T presents genomic and non-genomic effects, and both effects may overlap. The genomic actions assume that androgens can freely cross the plasma membrane of target cells and bind to nuclear androgen receptors, inducing gene transcription and protein synthesis. The non-genomic effects have a more rapid onset and may be related to the interaction with protein/receptor/ion channels of the plasma membrane. The key T effect at the vascular level is vasorelaxation, which is primarily due to its rapid effect. Thus, the main purpose of this review is to discuss the T non-genomic effects at the vascular level and the molecular pathways involved in its vasodilator effect observed in in vivo and in vitro studies. In this sense, the nuclear receptor activation, the influence of vascular endothelium and the activation or inhibition of ion channels (potassium and calcium channels, respectively) will be reviewed regarding all the data that corroborated or not. Moreover, this review also provides a brief update on the association of T with the risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, namely metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity, atherosclerosis, dyslipidaemia, and hypertension. In summary, in this paper we consider the non-genomic vascular mode of action of androgen in physiological conditions and the main risk factors for cardiovascular diseases.

Androgenic Modulation in the Primary Ovarian Growth of the Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica

Anguilla japonica seedling production is urgently required for eel aquaculture due to the species' severely dwindling population. This study aimed to understand androgenic modulation of the primary ovarian growth, a critical development phase in females, in this semelparous fish. Through histological analysis, primordial to primary follicle transition was observed before hormone injection, and eels injected with SPH + MT showed greater synchronous follicle development than those injected with SPH alone. An in vivo experiment revealed a positive correlation (p < 0.05, r = 0.94) between the mRNA expression of arα and increasing gonadal somatic index (GSI) < 0.75% before SPH injection. Another positive correlation was seen between arβ expression and GSI (p < 0.05, r = 0.97) after weekly SPH injections for three weeks. fshr expression was high in the SPH + MT-injected group. Significantly high fshr mRNA levels were found after weekly MT injections for two weeks (p < 0.05), whereas the expression levels dropped after flutamide injection. arα and arβ expressions revealed different patterns before and after SPH induction. In this study, androgen modulation was found with regard to ARs expressions during primary growth and the primordial to primary follicle transition prior to hormone induction. This modulation continuously affected fshr expression and vitellogenic development after SPH induction during ovarian growth in the Japanese eel.

Identifying genes associated with the development of human polycystic ovary syndrome

The pathophysiology of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is confusing until today as it is a multifactorial endocrine disorder. It is presented with altered gonadotropin levels, bulky multi-follicular ovaries, infertility, and obesity. This complex pathophysiology is linked with insulin resistance and hyperandrogenism. Hyperandrogenemia significantly contributes towards cosmetic anomalies including hirsutism, acne, and alopecia in the PCOS women. The preexisting insulin resistance in women with PCOS is likely to aggravate the increased levels of androgen. The review findings have shown that in the steroidogenic pathway, ovarian steroidogenesis patterns classify mainly towards the hypertrophy of theca cells along with alteration in the expression of key enzymes. The association of polymorphisms in genes encoding the process of an intricate cascade of steroidogenesis is delineated. The emergence of an unanimously accepted genetic marker for susceptible PCOS was affected based on inconsistent findings. The present study has provided a comprehensive summary of the impact of polymorphisms among the common androgen-related genes to govern the genetic predisposition.

Sexually opposite effects of testosterone on mating success in wild rock hyrax

Although males and females share traits, their motivations and needs may be different, due to life-history disparities that lead to divergent selection pressures. Proximate mechanisms underlying differences between the sexes include hormones that mediate the development and activation of suites of traits. Testosterone is associated with morphological features, physiological processes, and social behaviors in both sexes. However, even if present in similar concentrations in the circulation, testosterone often affects males and females differently. We combined behavioral mating observations of the wild polygynandrous rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) with hair testosterone that represents long-term integrated levels. We found that whereas copulation success increases with the rise in testosterone in males it decreases in females. We did not find an association between testosterone and choosiness in either sex. However, we found that males with higher testosterone mate-guarded females with lower testosterone. Our findings show disassortative mating and mate-guarding in respect to testosterone and provide clues to the cost of testosterone for females, in terms of copulation success. These results open up intriguing questions relating to the role of testosterone in mediating a similar trade-off in male and female reproductive success.

Flutamide-induced alterations in transcriptional profiling of neonatal porcine ovaries

Background

Androgens are involved in the regulation of ovarian development during fetal/neonatal life. Environmental chemicals displaying anti-androgenic activities may affect multiple signal transduction pathways by blocking endogenous androgen action. The aim of the current study was to examine effects of the anti-androgen flutamide on the expression of coding transcripts and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in neonatal porcine ovaries. By employing RNA-Seq technology we aimed to extend our understanding of the role of androgens in neonatal folliculogenesis and examine the impact of the anti-androgen flutamide on ovarian function.

Method

Piglets were subcutaneously injected with flutamide (50 mg/kg BW) or corn oil (controls) between postnatal days 1 and 10 (n = 3/group). Ovaries were excised from the 11-day-old piglets and total cellular RNAs were isolated and sequenced.

Results

Flutamide-treated piglet ovaries showed 280 differentially expressed genes (DEGs; P-adjusted < 0.05 and log₂ fold change ≥1.0) and 98 differentially expressed lncRNAs (DELs; P-adjusted < 0.05 and log₂FC ≥ 1.0). The DEGs were assigned to GO term, covering biological processes, molecular functions and cellular components, which linked the DEGs to functions associated with cellular transport, cell divisions and cytoskeleton. In addition, STRING software demonstrated strongest interactions between genes related to cell proliferation. Correlations between DEGs and DELs were also found, revealing that a majority of the genes targeted by the flutamide-affected lncRNAs were associated with intracellular transport and cell division.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that neonatal exposure of pigs to flutamide alters the expression of genes involved in ovarian cell proliferation, ovarian steroidogenesis and oocyte fertilization, which in turn may affect female reproduction in adult life.

Circulating miRNA Profiling of Women at High Risk for Ovarian Cancer

Survival of epithelial ovarian cancer patients remains poor without significant change over many decades. There is a need to better identify women at high risk (HR) for ovarian cancer. We propose that miRNA dysregulation may play critical roles in the early stages of ovarian cancer development. Circulating miRNAs may represent an important biomarker in this context, and miRNA profiling of serum in women at HR compared to those at low risk (LR) may give insights in tumor initiation pathways. There is also rationale for a specific focus on regulation of the androgen and its related hypoxia pathways in tumor initiation. We hypothesized that subsets of these pathway related miRNAs may be downregulated in the HR state. Serum from four HR and five LR women were sequenced and analyzed for 2083 miRNAs. We found 137 miRNAs dysregulated between the HR and LR groups, of which 36 miRNAs were overexpressed in HR and the vast majority (101 miRNAs or 74%) downregulated in the HR, when compared to LR serum. mRNA targets for the differentially expressed miRNAs were analyzed from three different miRNA-mRNA interaction resources. Functional association analysis of hypoxia and androgen pathway mRNA targets of dysregulated miRNAs in HR serum revealed that all but one of the miRNAs that target 52 hypoxia genes were downregulated in HR compared to LR serum. Androgen pathway analysis also had a similar expression pattern where all but one of the miRNAs that target these 135 identified genes were downregulated in HR serum. Overall, there were 91 differentially expressed miRNA-mRNA pairings in the hypoxia analysis. In the androgen-related analysis, overall, there were 429 differentially expressed miRNA-mRNA pairs. Our pilot study suggests that almost all miRNAs that are conserved and/or validated are downregulated in the HR compared to LR serum. This study, which requires validation, suggests that, via miRNA dysregulation, involvement of both hypoxia and its related androgen pathways may contribute to the HR state. This pilot study is the first report to our knowledge that studies circulating miRNA profiling of HR and LR women.

11-Ketotestosterone induces oocyte growth, but does not affect oocyte cytology in pre-vitellogenic captive beluga, Huso huso L

An effect of 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT) on growth of previtellogenic (PV) ovaries of eel, salmon and Atlantic cod has been demonstrated. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 11-KT treatment (in vivo) on ovarian growth, on hormonal and biochemical changes in blood, and on ovarian mRNA levels of lipidation-related genes in captive beluga with PV oocytes. In addition, the potential involvement of lipoprotein lipase (Lpl), an important enzyme for extracellular hydrolysis of lipoprotein-associated lipids, was evaluated. Twelve beluga (4-year olds) were treated with an intraperitoneal slow-release implant of either 11-KT (2.5 mg) or a compressed matrix (control). Ovarian biopsy was done to obtain pre- (day 0: T0) and post-treatment (day 21: T21) data on histology and target gene expression. Three weeks of exposure resulted in an increase in serum 11-KT levels from 2.2 ng/mL to 83 ng/mL but did not yield significant changes in serum levels of triacylglycerides and cholesterol. Furthermore, 11-KT implantation increased oocyte diameters from 259 μm (T0) to 309 μm by T21. Regardless of the increase in oocyte size, ovaries remained in the PV stage, mostly as late perinucleolar oocytes. Meanwhile, at the molecular level, the expression of lipidation-related transcripts [lpl, apolipoprotein E (apoe), very low density lipoprotein receptors (vldlr), low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 8-like (lrp8)] was significantly up-regulated after three weeks. Immunostaining for Lpl by Western blotting indicated three immunoreactive bands (70, 58 and 37 kDa) in ovarian homogenates from beluga, but signal intensity was not affected by treatment. Altogether, the administration of 11-KT increased 11-KT serum levels, oocyte size, and the expression of genes associated with lipid uptake. However, this treatment did not advance ovarian development beyond the PV stage.

Maternal β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB) supplementation during pregnancy affects early folliculogenesis in the ovary of newborn piglets

Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) is a leucine metabolite with protein anabolic effects. This study was designed to determine whether prenatal HMB treatment has an effect on oogenesis and folliculogenesis in the ovary of newborn piglets. HMB decreased the number of egg nests and primordial follicles and increased the pool of developing follicles compared to the control group. Although the percentage of TUNEL-positive oocytes within the egg nests was higher in HMB-treated group no increase in the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and active caspase-3 expression was observed. Moreover, the granulosa cell proliferation index and StAR protein expression were higher in HMB-treated group. In contrast to the control group, the expression of E-cadherins was reduced after the HMB treatment. In addition, a significant increase in the serum level of gonadotropins and steroid hormones was detected in HMB-treated piglets. In conclusion, prenatal HMB treatment dysregulates hormonal homeostasis which impairs early folliculogenesis in piglets.

Effects of icariin on ovarian function in d-galactose-induced aging mice

In this study, effects of icariin (Ica) on were examined in a mouse model of d-galactose (D-gal)-induced ovarian aging. Kunming white mice were divided into three groups: aging group induced with D-gal, experiment group treated with Ica at low (50 mg/kg), middle (100 mg/kg) and high (200 mg/kg) concentrations, and control group with no treatment. Ovarian histomorphology, serum FSH, LH and E2 levels, and reproductive function were compared among the groups. Ovarian expression of Amh, Bax and Bcl-2 was examined by qPCR and western blotting. Our results showed that diameters of secondary and tertiary follicles were significantly reduced in the aging group when compared with control group (P < 0.01), and were restored to normal in Ica 100 and Ica 200 treatment groups. The diameter of atretic follicles was significantly smaller in the aging group compared with control group and Ica 200 treatment group (P < 0.05). The proportion of secondary and atretic follicles was higher in the aging group compared with control group, Ica 100 and 200 treatment groups, whereas the proportion of tertiary and mature follicles was reduced in the aging group versus control, Ica 100 and 200 groups. The aging group lacked mature follicles, whereas Ica treatment induced mature follicle development. Primary and secondary follicles exhibited similar theca cell numbers and theca interna and externa cell layers in all groups examined, whereas theca interna and externa cell layers were decreased and increased, respectively, in tertiary follicles of aging group compared with control and I 200 groups. In the aging group, FSH and LH levels were significantly higher than those in control and Ica 200 groups (P < 0.05), and the E2 level was significantly reduced compared with control (P < 0.01), Ica 200 (P < 0.01), and Ica 100 (P < 0.05) groups. Serum hormone levels were equivalent in the control, Ica 100 and Ica 200 groups. The pregnancy rate was reduced in the aging group compared with other groups. The average litter size per birth, birth litter weight, and weaning weight of litters were all significantly lower in the aging group compared with control, Ica 100 and 200 groups (P < 0.05). The ovarian expression of AMH and Bcl-2 mRNA was significantly reduced in the aging group compared with those in control and Ica-treated groups (P < 0.01). In contrast, Bax expression was significantly higher in the aging group compared with all other groups (P < 0.01), and the Bcl-2/Bax ratio was markedly reduced in aging group compared with control, Ica 100 and 200 groups (P < 0.01), and Ica 50 group (P < 0.05). Ovarian expression of AMH protein was elevated in the Ica 100 group compared with the aging, control and Ica 50 groups (P < 0.01) and Ica 200 group (P < 0.05). Ovarian Bcl-2 protein levels and the Bcl-2/Bax ratio were significantly higher in the Ica 100 group than those in the Ica 50, 200 and aging groups (P < 0.05), and were similar or reduced (P < 0.05), respectively, compared to those in control group. Ovarian Bax expression was similar in each group. These findings suggest that Ica can improve ovarian follicular development, inhibit follicular atresia, decrease FSH and LH levels and increase E2, upregulate ovarian AMH expression and increase the Bcl-2/Bax ratio in aging mice. Therefore, Ica can partially restore ovarian function of aging mice and enhance their fertility. Optimal reproductive effects were obtained with the Ica 100 group.

Dehydroepiandrosterone Ameliorates Abnormal Mitochondrial Dynamics and Mitophagy of Cumulus Cells in Poor Ovarian Responders

Mitochondrial dysfunction is related to reproductive decline in humans, with consequences for in vitro fertilization (IVF). We assessed whether dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) could regulate mitochondrial homeostasis and mitophagy of cumulus cells (CCs) in poor ovarian responders (PORs). A total of 66 women who underwent IVF treatment at the Reproductive Medicine Center of Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital were included in this study. Twenty-eight normal ovarian responders (NOR) and 38 PORs were enrolled. PORs were assigned to receive DHEA supplementation (n = 19) or not (n = 19) before IVF cycles. DHEA prevents mitochondrial dysfunction by decreasing the activation of DNM1L and MFF, and increasing MFN1 expression. Downregulation of PINK1 and PRKN occurred after DHEA treatment, along with increased lysosome formation. DHEA not only promoted mitochondrial mass but also improved mitochondrial homeostasis and dynamics in the CCs of POR. We also observed effects of alterations in mRNAs known to regulate mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy in the CCs of POR. DHEA may prevent mitochondrial dysfunction through regulating mitochondrial homeostasis and mitophagy.

Intrafollicular level of steroid hormones and the expression of androgen receptor in the equine ovary at puberty

Steroidogenic activity in the equine ovary from birth to puberty has been poorly investigated. This study aimed to examine the capability of the ovarian follicles of prepubertal and pubertal fillies to produce steroid hormones and to evaluate the expression and cellular localization of androgen receptor (AR) in their ovaries. The ovaries of 6-18 month-old fillies were divided into two groups: prepubertal (PrP) - without preovulatory follicle (pF) and corpus luteum (CL), and ovulating/postpubertal (Ov/pB) - with pF and/or CL in at least one of the gonads. Adult mares (Me) were used as a control. The concentration of progesterone (P4), testosterone (T) and estradiol (E2) in follicular fluid (FF) was measured by radioimmunoassay. AR distribution was assessed by immunohistochemistry, while AR protein expression was examined by Western blot analysis. In the female groups, E2 concentration in FF of small follicles (<10 mm) was low and increased with the diameter of the follicle reaching the greatest value in pF (Ov/pB and Me group). In follicles (11-30 mm) of PrP fillies, the concentration of E2 was similar to that from Ov/pB fillies, but less than half (P < 0.05) than in Me follicles. In FF from all classes of follicles of Ov/pB fillies, the concentration of all steroids was similar to that in Me. AR immunolocalization, predominantly nuclear, was observed in all types of follicular cells (granulosa and theca cells) as well as in stroma and luteal cells. The pattern of staining was dependent on the follicle size and the group of females. In smaller antral follicles and in pF, the nuclear AR staining in granulosa cells was stronger than that found in follicles of 21-25 mm. In theca interna cells of pF, both nuclear and faint cytoplasmic reactions were seen. In luteal cells, AR labeling was noted in the nuclei and the cytoplasm: the strongest one in the early CL and almost negative in the late CL. AR protein expression in filly and mare ovarian tissues was confirmed by Western blot analysis and detected as a single band at approximately 110 kDa. In summary, the ovaries of fillies aged at least 6 months are capable of active steroidogenesis. ARs are present either in the cell nuclei or cytoplasm of all compartments of the equine ovary. AR expression in follicular and stroma cells may indicate the sensitivity of the filly ovarian tissue to androgens, the impact of androgens on folliculogenesis and the development of the equine ovary via a receptor-mediated pathway.

Histopathological changes in androgenized ovaries are recovered by melatonin treatment

Nandrolone decanoate (ND) is a synthetic steroid, which promotes adverse effects on the ovarian tissue, and melatonin (MLT) exhibits a number of beneficial properties in the reproductive system. This study evaluated the general features of the ovarian tissue and the immunoexpression of sex steroid receptors in ND-treated rats that were submitted to short-term melatonin treatment. Adult rats received mineral oil (control group) and ND at doses of 7.5 mg/kg for 15 days (ND-treated group). The treatment with MLT (10mg/kg for 7 days) was given alone, before or in combination with ND. All ND-treated animals showed persistent dioestrus. In the androgenized groups that received MLT, ovarian morphology and size, and the number/area of corpora lutea were recovered. The number of healthy and atretic follicles was recovered when MLT was administered prior to ND; this was similar to the ovaries of control and MLT groups. There was a decrease in estrogen receptors immunostaining in the follicles of androgenized rats that were treated with MLT, and pretreatment with MLT reduced the expression of androgen receptor in atretic follicles and corpora lutea, when compared with ND-treated group. We conclude that MLT treatment recovered the histopathological aspects of the androgenized ovaries, and MLT pretreatment was the most effective.

A pharmacogenetic approach to improve low ovarian response: The role of CAG repeats length in the androgen receptor gene

The AR (androgen receptor) polymorphism is associated with POR risk. Furthermore, the use of androgens in POR remains controversial. Our data could clarify the effectiveness of androgen pretreatment. AR genotyping could help us to identify patients at risk for POR and POR patients that will be benefited of androgen pretreatment.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this project was to investigate if the AR (androgen receptor) polymorphism could be used to identify patients at risk for POR and that will benefit from androgens pretreatment.

STUDY DESIGN

To evaluate the POR risk we performed a cohort study including 231 patients (54 POR and 177 control). Moreover, we included 88 IVF-cycles performed by 44 POR-patients to assess the effect on ovarian response. All patients performed two cycles: a standard ovarian stimulation and a second one with androgen preparation. We compare the results in pair from each.

RESULTS

POR showed the highest frequency of CAG repeats at 24 vs 22 in controls. Only 33% of POR have alleles with a repeat number below 23, compared with 50% of controls (p < 0.05). According to AR polymorphism ovarian response differences were shown. Patients that carried CAG repeats in AR gene between 22 and 24 showed an increased in the number of oocytes (2.61 in cycles without androgens vs 5.11 when they were pretreated with androgens; p < 0.05). For the patients that carried repeats lower than 22 and higher than 24, no differences were reported in the number of oocytes obtained in the cycle with or without androgens (2.94 vs 2.56; p = 0.88). Similar results were obtained for mature oocytes in patients that carry a number of CAG repeats between 22 and 24 (1.86 MII in cycles without androgens vs 4.04 MII when they were pretreated with androgens; p < 0.05). No differences in the number of MII oocytes were found in patients that get out of 22 and 24 repeats between the two cycles (2.31 vs 2.13; p = 0.88).

CONCLUSION

The AR polymorphism is associated with POR risk, patients with repeats greater than 22 show a higher risk. Our data suggest that AR genotype could play a role in natural ovarian aging. Furthermore, the use of androgens in POR remains controversial. Our data suggest that the AR genotype could clarify the effectiveness of the androgen pretreatment. AR genotyping could help us to identify patients at risk of POR and POR patients that could benefit from transdermal testosterone pretreatment.

The impact of genome variation and diet on the metabolic phenotype and microbiome composition of Drosophila melanogaster

The metabolic phenotype of an organism depends on a complex regulatory network, which integrates the plethora of intrinsic and external information and prioritizes the flow of nutrients accordingly. Given the rise of metabolic disorders including obesity, a detailed understanding of this regulatory network is in urgent need. Yet, our level of understanding is far from completeness and complicated by the discovery of additional layers in metabolic regulation, such as the impact of the microbial community present in the gut on the hosts’ energy storage levels. Here, we investigate the interplay between genome variation, diet and the gut microbiome in the shaping of a metabolic phenotype. For this purpose, we reared a set of fully sequenced wild type Drosophila melanogaster flies under basal and nutritionally challenged conditions and performed metabolic and microbiome profiling experiments. Our results introduce the fly as a model system to investigate the impact of genome variation on the metabolic response to diet alterations and reveal candidate single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with different metabolic traits, as well as metabolite-metabolite and metabolite-microbe correlations. Intriguingly, the dietary changes affected the microbiome composition less than anticipated. These results challenge the current view of a rapidly changing microbiome in response to environmental fluctuations.