A narrative review about the intricate crosstalk among endometrium, adipose tissue, and neurons in endometriosis. The multifaceted role of leptin

Endometriosis is a highly prevalent gynecological disease characterized by the presence of endometrium-like tissue outside the uterus, whose etiopathology is far from being elucidated. The most frequent complains of patients are pelvic pain and infertility. Increasing evidence supports the systemic impact of endometriosis suggesting that an intricate crosstalk among distinct organs underlies the development of the disease. In this setting, endometriosis patients present an increased risk for developing other diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular pathologies, and autoimmune diseases, and manifest neurologic disturbances, including neuropathic hyperalgesia. Whilst the ovary-secreted estrogen dependency of ectopic endometrium growth is well established, we conjecture that adipose tissue-secreted molecules also intervene in endometriosis development and pain manifestation. In fact, women with endometriosis present a peculiar pattern of adipokine secretion that ensues the disease onset. Unexpectedly, the levels of adipose tissue-secreted molecules in those women present similarities with those found in patients with obesity, despite the recognized association of low body mass index with endometriosis. Taking this evidence into consideration, we hypothesize that endometriosis patients present a dysfunctional adipose tissue, which is associated with enhanced metabolism and unregulated browning that not only intervene in the control of body weight but also in peculiar pain processing pathways.

Treatment of endometriosis with mifepristone mediated by nanostructured lipid carriers

Mifepristone, a progesterone receptor antagonist, was initially used to terminate early pregnancy. As scientific research advanced, it emerged to be effective in the treatment of various tumors and tumor-like conditions such as endometriosis. Despite the therapeutic potential of mifepristone, its therapeutic effect is still far from ideal because the drug is difficult to dissolve and to accumulate in the target tissue sites. To address this issue, mifepristone-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (Mif-NLC) were prepared by a simple solvent diffusion method and their anti-endometriosis performance and mechanisms were initially investigated. By optimizing the preparation protocol, we obtained uniform and spheroidal Mif-NLC with an average particle size of 280 nm. The encapsulation rate and drug loading capacity were 64.67% ± 0.15% and 2.7% ± 0.014%, respectively, as measured by UV spectrophotometry. The in vitro release kinetics indicated that mifepristone was released from NLC in a sustained-release manner. Compared with free mifepristone, Mif-NLC exhibited enhanced cellular uptake and inhibition of invasion activity in primary mesenchymal cells of endometriosis. A certain reduction in the size of endometriotic cysts was observed in animals compared to controls. The induction of autophagy via Mif-NLC may serve as the molecular mechanism underlying this effect. Furthermore, observation of uterine structures showed negligible toxic effects. This suggested that mifepristone encapsulated in NLC can improve its bioavailability and anti-endometriosis efficacy, which provided a new strategy for the treatment of endometriosis.

Role of computed tomography in imaging of endometriosis

Endometriosis is a chronic systemic disease characterized by the presence of endometrium-like glands and/or stroma outside the uterus, usually with an associated inflammatory process. It affects around 5-10% of women worldwide, with chronic pelvic pain and infertility being the predominant symptoms. Although suspected clinically, transvaginal ultrasound (TVUS) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are the primary imaging tools for diagnosing pelvic endometriosis, as well as helping in pre-surgical mapping. Computed tomography (CT) is not the preferred imaging modality for detection or depiction of disease extent. However, CT of the abdomen and pelvis is often performed as the initial imaging test in women presenting with acute or non-specific abdominal/ pelvic pain. CT features of endometriosis can vary depending on the organ affected, and the correct diagnosis is often not suspected due to its nonspecific CT appearance and overlap with other pathologies. Ovarian endometriomas (OMAs), the most recognized phenotype of endometriosis, may appear as hyperdense adnexal masses either in the expected location of the ovaries or positioned posterior to the uterus. Endometriomas may rupture, presenting with hemoperitoneum. The uterus may be distorted and acutely retroflexed from deep endometriosis along the posterior uterine surface. The bowel can be affected by endometriosis, especially the rectosigmoid colon, presenting as enhancing soft tissue bridging from the posterior uterine surface to the anterior rectal wall. Small bowel involvement may present with recurrent small bowel obstructions. Involvement of the urinary system may present with ureteral obstruction or a bladder wall mass. Given such varied appearances, a high degree of clinical suspicion and knowledge of CT features suggestive of endometriosis is required to facilitate an early diagnosis. This review paper therefore describes the imaging findings of endometriosis that can be recognized on an abdominopelvic CT, with the goal of decreasing the existing delay to accurate diagnosis and improving long term patient outcomes.

Analysis of the Biopsychosocial Impacts Associated with Endometriosis to Improve Patient Care

Endometriosis is a non-malignant, inflammatory condition that impacts individuals across various hormonal stages, including before their first menstruation, throughout their reproductive years, and after menopause. This condition arises when tissue resembling the uterine lining grows outside the uterus, resulting in inflammation and a range of symptoms, such as dysmenorrhea, pain during intercourse, chronic discomfort, and challenges with fertility. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the medical strategies implemented to address the pathology of endometriosis, highlighting its significant impact on the quality of life of the individuals affected by this condition. Endometriosis can influence various aspects of life, including physical health, emotional well-being, social interactions, and professional performance. Usually, to assess the quality of life in women with endometriosis, validated instruments, such as different questionnaire types, are used to measure the physical, psychological, social, and reproductive health impacts. To improve the quality of life of the women experiencing endometriosis, several supportive strategies are proposed. The findings underscore the necessity of managing endometriosis through a multidisciplinary approach that encompasses both medical and surgical interventions, lifestyle modifications, and psychological support.

Biomarkers of endometriosis

Endometriosis represents a diverse disease characterized by three distinct phenotypes: superficial peritoneal lesions, ovarian endometriomas, and deep infiltrating endometriosis. The most widely accepted pathophysiological hypothesis for endometriosis is rooted in retrograde menstruation, a phenomenon observed in most patients. Endometriosis is closely linked to infertility, but having endometriosis does not necessarily imply infertility. The disease can impact fertility through various mechanisms affecting the pelvic cavity, ovaries, and the uterus itself. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) indeed represent a fascinating and essential component of the regulatory machinery within cells. Discovered in the early 1990s, miRNAs have since been identified as critical players in gene expression control. Unfortunately, ovarian endometrioma is a common gynecologic disorder for which specific serum markers are currently lacking. Some have examined urocortin for its ability to differentiate endometriomas from other benign ovarian cysts. Another potential marker, Cancer Antigen 125 (CA-125) is a well-established indicator for epithelial cell ovarian cancer and its levels can be elevated in conditions such as endometriosis. CA-125 is derived from coelomic epithelia, including the endometrium, fallopian tube, ovary, and peritoneum. In this review we examine the pathophysiologic basis for endometriosis and highlight potential markers to more fully characterize the underlying biochemical processes linked to this multifaceted disease state.

Identification of hub biomarkers and immune cell infiltrations participating in the pathogenesis of endometriosis

Endometriosis (EM) is a chronic disease that can cause pain and infertility in patients. As is well known, immune cell infiltrations (ICIs) play important roles in the pathogenesis of EM. However, the pathogenesis and biomarkers of EM that can be used in clinical practice and their relationship with ICIs still need to be elucidated. The gene expression datasets of EM and the healthy control were obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). To identify the central modules and explore the correlation between the gene network and EM, weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was executed. The hub genes were screened using machine learning. The qRT-PCR results showed that only CHMP4C and KAT2B differentially expressed in ectopic tissues compared to the normal. Subsequently, the samples were clustered based on the expression of CHMP4C and KAT2B. Depending on the differential expression genes of the two 2rG Clusters, the samples were divided into two gene Clusters. Significant differences in immune cell infiltrations were observed among the two 2rG Clusters and the two gene Clusters. Furthermore, varied immune checkpoint genes were shown to be correlated with EM. The qRT-PCR results showed that the two genes were significantly related to the ICI genes in EM. Hub genes CHMP4C and KAT2B are involved in the pathogenesis of EM by regulating ICI.

Gut Microbiota, Circulating Metabolites and Risk of Endometriosis: A Two-Step Mendelian Randomization Study

Epidemiological studies and animal models have suggested a possible link between gut microbiota (GM), circulating metabolites, and endometriosis (EMs) pathogenesis. However, whether these associations are causal or merely due to confounding factors remains unclear. We conducted a two-sample and two-step Mendelian randomization (MR) study to elucidate the potential causal relationship between GM and EMs, and the mediating role of circulating metabolites. Our MR analysis revealed that higher abundances of class Negativicutes, and order Selenomonadales, as well as genera Dialister, Enterorhabdus, Eubacterium xylanophilum group, Methanobrevibacter were associated with an increased risk of EMs (Odds Ratio (OR) range: 1.0019-1.0037). Conversely, higher abundances of genera Coprococcus 1 and Senegalimassilia were linked to reduced risk of EMs (OR range: 0.9964-0.9967). Additionally, elevated levels of circulating metabolites such as 1-eicosatrienoyl-glycerophosphocholine and 1-oleoylglycerophosphocholine were found to be associated with heightened risk of EMs (OR range: 2.21-3.16), while higher concentrations of 3-phenylpropionate and dihomo-linolenate were protective (OR range: 0.285-0.535). Two-step MR analysis indicated that specific microbial taxa, notably genus Enterorhabdus and order Selenomonadales, might function as mediators linking circulating metabolites to the risk of EMs. Our findings suggest a probable causal relationship between GM, circulating metabolites, and EMs, indicating that GM may mediate the influence of circulating metabolites on the pathophysiology of EMs. These results offer new leads for future mechanistic studies and could inform clinical translational research.

The causality between gut microbiota and endometriosis: a bidirectional Mendelian randomization study

Background

Observational studies and animal experiments had suggested a potential relationship between gut microbiota abundance and pathogenesis of endometriosis (EMs), but the relevance of this relationship remains to be clarified.

Methods

We perform a two-sample bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to explore whether there is a causal correlation between the abundance of the gut microbiota and EMs and the direction of causality. Genome-wide association study (GWAS) data ukb-d-N80, finn-b-N14-EM, and MiBinGen were selected. Inverse variance weighted (IVW), weighted median, and MR Egger are selected for causal inference. The Cochran Q test, Egger intercept test, and leave-one-out analysis are performed for sensitivity analyses.

Results

In the primary outcome, we find that a higher abundance of class Negativicutes, genus Dialister, genus Enterorhabdus, genus Eubacterium xylanophilum group, genus Methanobrevibacter and order Selenomonadales predict a higher risk of EMs, and a higher abundance of genus Coprococcus and genus Senegalimassilia predict a lower risk of EMs. During verifiable outcomes, we find that a higher abundance of phylum Cyanobacteria, genus Ruminococcaceae UCG002, and genus Coprococcus 3 predict a higher risk of EMs, and a higher abundance of genus Flavonifracto, genus Bifidobacterium, and genus Rikenellaceae RC9 predict a lower risk of EMs. In primary reverse MR analysis, we find that EMs predict a lower abundance of the genus Eubacterium fissicatena group, genus Prevotella7, genus Butyricicoccus, family Lactobacillaceae, and a higher abundance of genus Ruminococcaceae UCG009. In verifiable reverse MR analysis, we find that EMs predict a lower abundance of the genus Ruminococcaceae UCG004 and a higher abundance of the genus Howardella.

Conclusion

Our study implies a mutual causality between gut microbiota abundance and the pathogenesis of EMs, which may provide a novel direction for EMs diagnosis, prevention, and treatment, may promote future functional or clinical analysis.

The Critical Role of Host and Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles in Endometriosis

Endometriosis is a chronic, inflammatory, oestrogen-dependent disorder that is defined by the presence of endometrium-like tissue in the extra-uterine environment. It is estimated to affect approximately 10% of women of reproductive age, and the cause is still largely unknown. The heterogenous nature and complex pathophysiology of the disease results in diagnostic and therapeutic challenges. This review examines the emerging role of host extracellular vesicles (EVs) in endometriosis development and progression, with a particular focus on bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs). EVs are nano-sized membrane-bound particles that can transport bioactive molecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, and therefore play an essential role in intercellular communication. Due to their unique cargo composition, EVs can play a dual role, both in the disease pathogenesis and as biomarkers. Both host and bacterial EVs (HEVs and BEVs) have been implicated in endometriosis, by modulating inflammatory responses, angiogenesis, tissue remodelling, and cellular proliferation within the peritoneal microenvironment. Understanding the intricate mechanisms underlying EVs in endometriosis pathophysiology and modulation of the lesion microenvironment may lead to novel diagnostic tools and therapeutic targets. Future research should focus on uncovering the specific cargo, the inter-kingdom cell-to-cell interactions, and the anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial mechanisms of both HEVs and BEVs in endometriosis in the hope of discovering translational findings that could improve the diagnosis and treatment of the disease.

A seed or soil problem in early endometriosis: stromal cell origin drives cellular invasion and coupling over mesothelial cell origin

OBJECTIVE

To study the role of the mesothelial cells in early endometriosis lesion formation by assessing in vitro cell-to-cell communication and invasion of endometrial cells across a mesothelial cell monolayer, with both cell types derived from both patients with endometriosis and control patients.

DESIGN

Laboratory-based experimental study.

SETTING

University hospital and laboratory.

PATIENT(S)

Consenting reproductive-age women who underwent laparoscopy for gynecologic reasons and were confirmed to have either endometriosis with pathology tissue diagnosis (n = 8) or no endometriosis n = 8) at the time of surgery.

INTERVENTION(S)

Primary stromal cells cultured from endometrial pipelle biopsies and primary mesothelial cells cultured from peritoneal explants were used in transmesothelial invasion assays and gap junction coupling assays.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Comparison of potential for lesion formation, using in vitro models, of both primary endometrial and mesothelial cells from patients with endometriosis and control patients, establishing the former as the primary disease driver.

RESULT(S)

When comparing mesothelial cells from control patients with those from patients with endometriosis, there was no significant difference in the amount of stromal cell invasion across either barrier. In contrast, when comparing stromal cell origin, the amount of invasion by endometriosis stromal cells was greater than control stromal cells regardless of whether the mesothelial cell monolayer was derived from patients with the disease or control patients. Additionally, primary mesothelial cells induced more gap junction coupling, a requirement for invasion, in stromal cells from patients with endometriosis than control patients, again independent of mesothelial origin. The notable exception was mesothelial cells derived from endometriotic lesion-affected areas that showed depressed ability to support invasion.

CONCLUSION(S)

Although both endometrial and mesothelial cells need to function for establishment of endometriosis lesions, the endometrium seems to be the key player, serving as an ideal target for diagnostic strategies and therapeutic intervention. While this notion is consistent with previous studies, to our knowledge, we are the first to directly test both primary mesothelial and endometrial cells from patients with endometriosis and control patients to compare propensities for mesothelial invasion.

Circ_0001495 influences the development of endometriosis through the miRNA-34c-5p/E2F3 axis

Endometriosis is a chronic gynecological condition characterized by the presence of endometrial glands and stroma outside the uterine cavity., accounting for 7% of all female malignant tumors and 20%- 30% of malignant tumors of the female reproductive system. Multiple studies have shown that circular RNA (circRNA) has the potential to become a targeted target and marker for EM. However, the roles of circ_0001495 in EM are still unclear. Our research aims to reveal the molecular mechanism of circ_0001495 in EM. In this study, RT-PCR or western blot were conducted to determine mRNA and protein expression. cell viability, proliferation, migration, invasion, and apoptosis were assessed by CCK-8, EdU, wound healing, transwell, and flow cytometry analyses, respectively. Additionally, the targeting relationship between miR-34c-5p and circ_0001495 or E2F3 was confirmed through dual-luciferase reporter gene assay. We found significant overexpression of circ_0001495 in EM tissues and cells. Knockdown of circ_0001495 inhibited the proliferation, migration and invasion of ectopic endometrial stromal cells (EESCs) and increased cell apoptosis. Moreover, we found that circ_0001495 regulated E2F3 levels by interacting with miR-34c-5p in EESC. Furthermore, in vitro, miR-34c-5p inhibition or E2F3 overexpression could attenuate the effect of circ_0001495 silencing on EM progression. In addition, the vivo experiment demonstrated that inhibition of circ_0001495 could repress the development of endometriosis by regulating the miR-34c-5p/E2F3 axis. In conclusion, our study suggested that circ_0001495 promoted EM progression in vitro and in vivo through the miR-34c-5p/E2F3 axis, which might be a potential therapeutic target for EM.

The Known, the Unknown and the Future of the Pathophysiology of Endometriosis

Endometriosis is one of the most common causes of chronic pelvic pain and infertility, affecting 10% of women of reproductive age. A delay of up to 9 years is estimated between the onset of symptoms and the diagnosis of endometriosis. Endometriosis is currently defined as the presence of endometrial epithelial and stromal cells at ectopic sites; however, advances in research on endometriosis have some authors believing that endometriosis should be re-defined as "a fibrotic condition in which endometrial stroma and epithelium can be identified". There are several theories on the etiology of the disease, but the origin of endometriosis remains unclear. This review addresses the role of microRNAs (miRNAs), which are naturally occurring post-transcriptional regulatory molecules, in endometriotic lesion development, the inflammatory environment within the peritoneal cavity, including the role that cytokines play during the development of the disease, and how animal models have helped in our understanding of the pathology of this enigmatic disease.

[Physiotherapeutic differential diagnosis of back pain associated with endometriosis]

BACKGROUND

Endometriosis (EM) is one of the most common gynecologic conditions in our society. The diagnosis takes an average of 7 to 10 years. To shorten this period, this syndrome needs more attention. The aim of this article is to show overlaps between EM and low back pain (LBP) and to describe their relevance for physiotherapeutic screening.

OBJECTIVES

What clinical signs do the syndromes EM and LBP have in common and to what extent can physiotherapeutic screening take gynecological aspects into account and be adapted accordingly?

RESULTS

To answer this question, the two syndromes were screened for overlaps. These overlaps were then related to the existing literature and case studies. The current research situation shows overlaps of the two syndromes with regard to the etiology, the pain mechanism as well as a psychosocial aspect. The literature shows that more women than men are affected by LBP and other chronic pain syndromes. EM occurs almost exclusively in women and, like LBP, is considered a chronic pain syndrome. Thus, a common pain mechanism of the two syndromes is discussed in the literature. The most frequent overlap of the two syndromes is shown by the occurrence of LBP as a frequent symptom of EM. This connection can be justified by structural causes as well as by a reflex pain presentation.

CONCLUSION

In a physiotherapeutic setting, evidence of EM can be observed in the history and physical examination. Considering these factors may help shorten the diagnosis time of endometriosis by referring for further evaluation if gynecologic involvement is suspected in LBP. A comprehensive history is important and should cover urologic, gynecologic, as well as sexual history. In this article, the term woman is used to refer to the biological female sex and is not related to individual gender identity. The clinical picture mainly affects women, which is why in the following work, as far as it concerns the people suffering from the disease, it is not used in the opposite sense.

Progesterone resistance in endometriosis: A pathophysiological perspective and potential treatment alternatives

Background

Endometriosis is a common gynecological disease affecting women of reproductive age. Patients with endometriosis frequently experience severe chronic pain and have higher chances to experience infertility. Progesterone resistance is a major problem that develops during the medical treatment of endometriosis, which often leads to treatment failure of hormonal therapies. Previous studies indicated that the dysregulation of progesterone receptors (PR) is the primary factor leading to progesterone resistance in endometriosis.

Methods

This review article systematically reviewed and summarized findings extracted from previously published papers available on PubMed, encompassing both experimental studies and clinical trials.

Main findings

Various determinants influencing PR expression in endometriosis have been identified, including the environmental toxins, microRNAs, cell signaling pathways, genetic mutations, and the pro-inflammatory cytokines. The selective estrogen/progesterone receptor modulators have emerged as novel therapeutic approaches for treating endometriosis, offering potential improvements in overcoming progesterone resistance.

Conclusion

Concerns and limitations persist despite the newly developed drugs. Therefore, studies on unraveling new therapeutic targets based on the molecular mechanisms of progesterone resistance is warranted for the development potential alternatives to overcome hormonal treatment failure in endometriosis.

Distinct molecular targets of ProEGCG from EGCG and superior inhibition of angiogenesis signaling pathways for treatment of endometriosis

Endometriosis is a common chronic gynecological disease with endometrial cell implantation outside the uterus. Angiogenesis is a major pathophysiology in endometriosis. Our previous studies have demonstrated that the prodrug of epigallocatechin gallate (ProEGCG) exhibits superior anti-endometriotic and anti-angiogenic effects compared to epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). However, their direct binding targets and underlying mechanisms for the differential effects remain unknown. In this study, we demonstrated that oral ProEGCG can be effective in preventing and treating endometriosis. Additionally, 1D and 2D Proteome Integral Solubility Alteration assay-based chemical proteomics identified metadherin (MTDH) and PX domain containing serine/threonine kinase-like (PXK) as novel binding targets of EGCG and ProEGCG, respectively. Computational simulation and BioLayer interferometry were used to confirm their binding affinity. Our results showed that MTDH-EGCG inhibited protein kinase B (Akt)-mediated angiogenesis, while PXK-ProEGCG inhibited epidermal growth factor (EGF)-mediated angiogenesis via the EGF/hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1a)/vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) pathway. In vitro and in vivo knockdown assays and microvascular network imaging further confirmed the involvement of these signaling pathways. Moreover, our study demonstrated that ProEGCG has superior therapeutic effects than EGCG by targeting distinct signal transduction pathways and may act as a novel antiangiogenic therapy for endometriosis.

Digestive system deep infiltrating endometriosis: What do we know

Digestive system infiltrating endometriosis (DSIE) is an uncommon form of endometriosis in the digestive system. DSIE often occurs in the intestines (especially the sigmoid rectum), liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Clinically, DSIE presents with the same symptoms as endometriosis, including cyclic pain, bleeding and infertility, in addition to specific biliary/intestinal obstruction and gastrointestinal bleeding. Compared to general endometriosis, DSIE has unique biological behaviour and pathophysiological mechanisms. Most DSIEs are deep invasive endometrioses, characterized by metastasis to the lymph nodes and lymphatic vessels, angiogenesis, peripheral nerve recruitment, fibrosis and invasion of surrounding tissues. DSIE-related peripheral angiogenesis is divided into three patterns: angiogenesis, vasculogenesis and inosculation. These patterns are regulated by interactions between multiple hypoxia-hormone cytokines. The nerve growth factors regulate the extensive neurofibril recruitment in DSIE lesions, which accounts for severe symptoms of deep pain. They are also associated with fibrosis and the aggressiveness of DSIE. Cyclic changes in DSIE lesions, recurrent inflammation and oxidative stress promote repeated tissue injury and repair (ReTIAR) mechanisms in the lesions, accelerating fibril formation and cancer-related mutations. Similar to malignant tumours, DSIE can also exhibit aggressiveness derived from collective cell migration mediated by E-cadherin and N-cadherin. This often makes DSIE misdiagnosed as a malignant tumour of the digestive system in clinical practice. In addition to surgery, novel treatments are urgently required to effectively eradicate this lesion.

Primary Retroperitoneal Carcinomas: New Insights into Pathogenesis and Clinical Management in Comparison with Ovarian Carcinomas and Carcinoma of Unknown Primary

Primary retroperitoneal carcinomas are very rare tumors. Their pathogenesis remains unknown but may be associated with that of ovarian carcinomas, considering the similarity in morphology and gender preference. Although metaplasia of coelomic epithelium is the most widely accepted theory, the pathogenesis of retroperitoneal carcinomas may differ by histologic subtype, like ovarian carcinomas. Mucinous carcinoma, which develops in both women and men, may originate in both primordial germ cells and Walthard cell nests that may be derived from the fallopian tube. Serous carcinomas may be associated with endosalpingiosis, the presence of fallopian tube-like epithelium outside the fallopian tube, and a remnant Müllerian tract. Endometrioid and clear cell carcinomas appear to be associated with extraovarian endometriosis. Additionally, both carcinomas in the retroperitoneal lymph nodes may be metastatic diseases from endometrial and/or renal cell cancer that regress spontaneously (carcinoma of unknown primary). Retroperitoneal carcinomas are difficult to diagnose, as they have no characteristic symptoms and signs. Surgery is the cornerstone of treatment, but the necessity of chemotherapy may depend on histological subtype. Further studies are necessary, in particular studies on endosalpingiosis, as endosalpingiosis is a poorly understood condition, although it is associated with the development of both serous and mucinous carcinomas.

Sox-2 positive cells identified in lymph nodes from endometriosis patients may play a role in the disease pathogenesis

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to characterize Sox-2 in sentinel lymph nodes and randomly obtained lymph nodes from endometriosis (EM) patients for the first time.

STUDY DESIGN

This prospective study analyzed tissue samples from surgical specimens collected from May until December 2007 in the Endometriosis Center Charité, Berlin. Lymph node samples from 38 women aged between 22 and 49 years who underwent laparoscopy due to symptomatic EM were analyzed. The material was obtained either randomly or, in the case of deep infiltrating endometriosis, detected using 4 cc Patent Blue®, labeled intraoperatively, which made the sentinel lymph nodes available for histological examination. Together with hematoxylin and eosin staining, the sections were evaluated by immunohistochemistry with antibodies against estrogen and progesterone receptors and Sox-2. Using double-immunofluorescence microscopy, the colocalization of Sox-2 and estrogen receptors were evaluated.

RESULTS

Sox-2-positive cells were identified in the lymph nodes' cortical and medullary zones, with a higher expression in the medullary layer. Occasionally, Sox-2 positive stained cell groups, called cell nests, could also be detected. The number of Sox-2 positive cells in the sentinel lymph nodes was almost three times higher than in the random lymph nodes (p = 0.031). A significant five-fold increase (p = 0.0013) in Sox-2 expression was seen in the estrogen and progesterone receptor (ER/PR) positive patient group compared to the progesterone receptor positive group or hormone receptor negative patients. Identical hormone-related Sox-2 expression was also detected separately for the sentinel lymph node group (p = 0.0174). Sox-2 showed pronounced colocalisation with estrogen receptors.

CONCLUSION

The lymphatic involvement in EM is evidence of a systemic disease manifestation and provides evidence of an immune system failure. In recent years, many theories have been studied, but there is no single theory that could explain all aspects of EM. The future concept of EM is likely to incorporate the elements from all the pathogenetic theories already described. Through this study, stem cells and lymphatic metastasis theories were incorporated.

Research advances in drug therapy of endometriosis

Endometriosis is one of the most common benign gynecological disorders in reproductive-aged women. The major symptoms are chronic pelvic pain and infertility. Despite its profound impact on women's health and quality of life, its pathogenesis has not been fully elucidated, it cannot be cured and the long-term use of drugs yields severe side effects and hinders fertility. This review aims to present the advances in pathogenesis and the newly reported lead compounds and drugs managing endometriosis. This paper investigated Genetic changes, estrogen-dependent inflammation induction, progesterone resistance, imbalance in proliferation and apoptosis, angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis and neurogenesis, and tissue remodeling in its pathogenesis; and explored the pharmacological mechanisms, constitutive relationships, and application prospects of each compound in the text. To date, Resveratrol, Bay1316957, and bardoxifene were effective against lesions and pain in controlled animal studies. In clinical trials, Quinagolide showed no statistical difference with the placebo group; the results of phase II clinical trial of the IL-33 antibody have not been announced yet; clinical trial stage III of vilaprisan was suspended due to drug toxicity. Elagolix was approved for the treatment of endometriosis-related pain, but clinical studies of Elagolix for the pretreatment of patients with endometriosis to before In vitro fertilization treatment have not been fulfilled. The results of a clinical study of Linzagolix in patients with moderate to severe endometriosis-related pain have not been disclosed yet. Letrozole improved the fertility of patients with mild endometriosis. For endometriosis patients with infertility, oral GnRH antagonists and aromatase inhibitors are promising drugs, especially Elagolix and Letrozole.

Therapeutic effects of melatonin on endometriosis, targeting molecular pathways: Current knowledge and future perspective

Endometriosis, the very serious disease in women creates a huge financial burden worldwide, which is comparable to diabetes mellitus. In addition to the typical pelvic pain, endometriosis is related to low life quality and decreased work efficiency; clinical consequences include mood complaints, metabolic impairments, inflammation, immunologic problems, and elevated malignancy risks. Several risk factors are correlated with endometriosis including elevated oxidative and nitrosative stress, long-lasting inflammation, raised immune tolerance, as well as autoimmunity. Melatonin is a natural molecule present throughout both the plant and animal kingdoms. It has numerous functions as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent. Due to the anti-proliferative, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-invasive features of melatonin, it performances as a beneficial agent to limit endometriosis; this involves several pathways including antiestrogenic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptosis effects, as well as reducing the growth of E2-induced endometriotic tissue. Moreover, melatonin can favor sleep quality and decrease the unwanted signs in the patients. However, most of the data on melatonin accured from experimental works and additional clinical trials are needed. This review summarizes what is currently known regarding the influence of melatonin on endometriosis. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL: Not applicable.

Endometriosis and inflammatory immune responses: Indian experience

Endometriosis is a public health disorder affecting ∼ 247 million women globally and ∼ 42 million women in India. Women with endometriosis suffer from dysmenorrhea, chronic pelvic pain, dyspareunia, dyschezia, fatigue, depression, and infertility leading to significant socioeconomic impact and morbidity. The etiology of endometriosis is not understood well even after 100 years of research. Currently, there is no permanent cure for endometriosis. The inflammatory immune response is one of the important features of etiopathogenesis of endometriosis and therefore understanding the inflammatory immune response would lead to a better understanding of this enigmatic disorder and may also lead to biomarker discovery for diagnosis of endometriosis. We investigated the autoimmune etiology of endometriosis in the Indian population. Using the proteomics approach, anti-endometrial antibodies (AEAs) were detected in Indian women with endometriosis [anti-endometrial antibodies - tropomyosin 3 (TPM3), stomatin-like protein2 (SLP-2), and tropomodulin 3 (TMOD3)]. The studies on AEAs provided a better understanding of autoimmune mechanisms in endometriosis. All three subtypes of endometriosis; superficial peritoneal, ovarian endometrioma, and deep infiltrating endometriosis were reported in Indian women. In this review, we discuss our experiences of the inflammatory immune response, autoimmunity, comorbidities, and clinical phenotypes in women with endometriosis in India.

Promotion of BST2 expression by the transcription factor IRF6 affects the progression of endometriosis

Background

Endometriosis (EM) is a benign, multifactorial, immune-mediated inflammatory disease that is characterized by persistent activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway and some features of malignancies, such as proliferation and lymphangiogenesis. To date, the pathogenesis of EM is still unclear. In this study, we investigated whether BST2 plays a role in the development of EM.

Methods

Bioinformatic analysis was performed with data from public databases to identify potential candidate targets for drug treatment. Experiments were conducted at the cell, tissue, and mouse EM model levels to characterize the aberrant expression patterns, molecular mechanisms, biological behaviors of endometriosis as well as treatment outcomes.

Results

BST2 was significantly upregulated in ectopic endometrial tissues and cells compared with control samples. Functional studies indicated that BST2 promoted proliferation, migration, and lymphangiogenesis and inhibited apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. The transcription factor (TF) IRF6 induced high BST2 expression by directly binding the BST2 promoter. The underlying mechanism by which BST2 functions in EM was closely related to the canonical NF-κB signaling pathway. New lymphatic vessels may serve as a channel for the infiltration of immune cells into the endometriotic microenvironment; these immune cells further produce the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β, which in turn further activates the NF-κB pathway to promote lymphangiogenesis in endometriosis.

Conclusion

Taken together, our findings provide novel insight into the mechanism by which BST2 participates in a feedback loop with the NF-κB signaling pathway and reveal a novel biomarker and potential therapeutic target for endometriosis.

Radiotherapy for successful symptom control in recurrent refractory endometriosis: A case report

ABSTRACT

Endometriosis is a benign gynecological condition which induces a chronic inflammatory process, characterized by the presence of endometrium-like tissue outside the uterus. Treatment options for endometriosis include medical, surgical, or both. Irrespective of the treatment approach, recurrence of symptoms is not rare. We report the use of radiotherapy in a patient with recurrent refractory endometriosis, not responding to conventional treatments. At lower doses, radiotherapy can modulate the inflammatory cascade and can also does ovarian ablation. She was treated using 6MV photons with a four-field box to a total dose of 30Gy in 10 fractions. The pelvic radiotherapy field also included the ovarian remnant. Her symptoms regressed within one week of radiation treatment and is now symptom free for six months, with good quality of life.

NeiyiKangfu tablets control the progression of endometriosis through inhibiting RAF/MEK/ERK signal pathway by targeting RKIP

BACKGROUND

NeiyiKangfu tablets (NYKF) are widely used clinically for the treatment of endometriosis (EMS), whose mechanism of action has been extensively studied. Researchers have found that NYKF may control the development of ectopic lesions by inhibiting angiogenesis and inflammatory cytokine secretion. Nevertheless, NYKF's mechanism of action remains unclear.

METHODS

In the present study, the function of NYKF in the progression of EMS and the associated underlying mechanism was investigated by in vivo and in vitro experiments. EMS model mice were treated with NYKF and the pro-inflammatory factors and apoptosis of ectopic endometrium as well as RAF/mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling activation were assessed. In addition, human endometriosis-derived immortalized entopic stromal (hEM15A) cells transfected with or without RAF kinase inhibitor protein (RKIP)-small-interfering RNA (siRNA) were also treated with NYKF and the proliferation, migration, apoptosis, and RAF/MEK/ERK signaling activation were measured by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), flow cytometry, Transwell, and western blot, respectively.

RESULTS

Results showed that NYKF increased the expression of RKIP, inhibited RAF/MEK/ERK signaling activation, and induced apoptosis while inhibiting proliferation and migration both in EMS mice and hEM15A cells. RKIP knockdown could inhibit the effect of NYKF treatment, leading to the activation of RAF/MEK/ERK signaling and the proliferation and migration of hEM15A cells.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, these results suggest that NYKF treatment promotes apoptosis and inhibits proliferation and migration in EMS by inhibiting the RAF/MEK/ERK signaling pathway by targeting RKIP.

Prominent Pseudo-Angiovascular invasion by benign gallbladder epithelium and bile emboli in a patient with delayed cholecystectomy due to COVID-19 positive test

Lymphovascular invasion is a hallmark of malignant neoplasms, however the presence of benign epithelium within vessels has been reported in benign processes, albeit infrequently. The proposed mechanism to explain this phenomenon entails mechanical displacement of benign epithelium into the vascular spaces during surgical manipulation or diagnostic interventions. We report a case of numerous benign epithelial vascular emboli in a cholecystectomy specimen. A 29-year-old male presented with acute calculous cholecystitis. Surgery was delayed for several weeks due to COVID-19 infection. Histologic examination of the gallbladder showed subacute cholecystitis, widespread vascular epithelial emboli with associated fibrin deposition and bile embolism supporting an in vivo process. The epithelial emboli were localized in small veins and arterioles with D2–40−/CD31+/CD34+ endothelium. The displaced epithelium showed benign cytologic features, was negative for p53 expression, and had a Ki-67 labelling index like the benign background mucosa, supporting a benign process. There was no evidence of dysplasia or malignancy in the specimen after thorough sampling. Persistent inflammation, mucosal ulceration, transmural mucosal herniation (Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses), and protracted surgical manipulation secondary to adhesive disease are favored to be the underlying causes of this unusual histologic finding. Although we presume an uneventful outcome, clinical follow up was recommended. COVID-19 infection likely contributed to this phenomenon by causing a delay in the surgical management.

Role of macrophages in the immunopathogenesis of adenomyosis

The aim of the research: to study pathophysiological mechanisms of adenomyosis development by determining the role of macrophages in the uterine microenvironment. Materials and methods: a prospective study has been conducted on 35 women. There were 20 (57.1 %) who had adenomyosis of I degree. The control group consisted of 15 (34.3 %) gynecologically healthy women. The patients underwent general clinical, instrumental (ultrasound, hysteroscopy) examinations. Fragments of the uterine wall obtained by hysterorectoscopy were used for morphological study. The method of immunohistochemical determination of CD68+ and CD163+ macrophages was used to analyze the characteristics of phenotypic equivalents of M1 and M2 macrophages in uterine tissue samples. Results: The increase in the number of macrophages in the myometrium of patients with adenomyosis revealed in this study, which is found in large numbers in the areas of infiltration of the stroma of myometrial cells in close association with the perivascular region, can be regarded as the basis of the mechanism for the formation of endometrioid heterotopia. Furthermore, distortion of the CD68/CD163 ratio of macrophages is characterized by proinflammatory shift. Conclusions: The study's main result is an increase in the quantitative indicators of CD68+ macrophages associated with adenomyosis, which indicates an immunopathological process in adenomyosis.

Increased Angiogenesis and Lymphangiogenesis in Adenomyosis Visualized by Multiplex Immunohistochemistry

There is evidence for increased angiogenesis in the (ectopic) endometrium of adenomyosis patients under the influence of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). VEGF stimulates both angiogenesis and lymph-angiogenesis. However, information on lymph vessels in the (ectopic) endometrium of adenomyosis patients is lacking. In this retrospective matched case-control study, multiplex immunohistochemistry was performed on thirty-eight paraffin embedded specimens from premenopausal women who had undergone a hysterectomy at the Amsterdam UMC between 2001 and 2018 to investigate the evidence for (lymph) angiogenesis in the (ectopic) endometrium or myometrium of patients with adenomyosis versus controls with unrelated pathologies. Baseline characteristics of both groups were comparable. In the proliferative phase, the blood and lymph vessel densities were, respectively, higher in the ectopic and eutopic endometrium of patients with adenomyosis than in the endometrium of controls. The relative number of blood vessels without α-smooth muscle actinin (α SMA) was higher in the eutopic and ectopic endometrium of adenomyosis patients versus controls. The level of VEGF staining intensity was highest in the myometrium but did not differ between patients with adenomyosis or controls. The results indicate increased angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis in the (ectopic) endometrium affected by adenomyosis. The clinical relevance of our findings should be confirmed in prospective clinical studies.

The Gut Microbiota: A Double Edge Sword in Endometriosis

Endometriosis that afflicts 1 in 10 women of reproductive age is characterized by growth of endometrial tissue in the extra-uterine sites and encompasses metabolic-, immunologic- and endocrine-disruption. Importantly, several comorbidities are associated with endometriosis, especially autoimmune disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease. Primarily thought of as a condition arising from retrograde menstruation, emerging evidence uncovered a functional link between the gut microbiota and endometriosis. Specifically, recent findings revealed altered gut microbiota profiles in endometriosis and in turn this altered microbiota appears to be causal in the disease progression, implying a bi-directional crosstalk. In this review, we discuss the complex etiology and pathogenesis of endometriosis emphasizing on this recently recognized role of gut microbiome. We review the gut microbiome structure and functions and its complex network of interactions with the host for maintenance of homeostasis that is crucial for disease prevention. We highlight the underlying mechanisms on how some bacteria promotes disease progression and others protects against endometriosis. Further, we highlight the areas that require future emphases in the gut microbiome-endometriosis nexus and the potential microbiome-based therapies for amelioration of endometriosis.

Role of AMPK/mTOR, mitochondria, and ROS in the pathogenesis of endometriosis

Endometriosis is the presence of endometrial tissue outside the uterine cavity usually in the ovaries, fallopian tube, and pelvic cavity. It's a chronic enigmatic gynecological condition associated with dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, pelvic pain, and infertility. Endometriosis lesions exist in a unique microenvironment characterized by increased concentrations of hormones, inflammation, and oxidative stress. This environment promotes cell survival through the binding of membrane receptors and subsequent cascading activation of intracellular kinases that stimulate a cellular response. In endometriosis, well-established signaling pathways, mTOR and AMPK, are altered via steroid hormones and other factors to promote cell growth, migration, and proliferation. This is accompanied by dysfunction in the mitochondria that increase energy production to sustain proliferation demands consequently leading to reactive oxygen species overproduction. This review aims to summarize the role of altered mTOR/AMPK signaling pathway, mitochondrial dysfunction, and reactive oxygen species overproduction along with providing therapeutic and diagnostic approaches. Highlighting these factors would provide a better understanding to reach a coherent theory for the pathogenesis of endometriosis.

Indocyanine green-guided sentinel lymph node mapping during laparoscopic surgery with vaginal cuff closure but no uterine manipulator for cervical cancer

BACKGROUND

Lymph node metastasis is a critical prognostic factor in cervical cancer. Considering the potential complications of lymphadenectomy and desirability of avoiding systemic lymphadenectomy, accurate intraoperative prediction of the existence of lymph node metastasis is important in patients undergoing surgery for cervical cancer. We evaluated the feasibility and value of indocyanine green (ICG) use for sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping during laparoscopic surgery performed for cervical cancer.

METHODS

This single-center cohort study included 77 patients undergoing a new laparoscopic radical surgery method with pelvic lymphadenectomy for early-stage cervical cancer. The surgery, performed without using a uterine manipulator, included creation of a vaginal cuff. Bilateral ICG-guided SLN mapping and rapid histopathological examination were performed, and results were analyzed in relation to final histopathologic diagnoses.

RESULTS

The SLN pelvic side-specific detection rate was 93.5%, sensitivity (SLN-positive cases/SLN-detected pelvic lymph node-positive cases) was 100%, intraoperative negative predictive value (NPV) was 97.8%, and final pathological NPV was 100%. The detection rate was significantly lower for tumors ≥ 2 cm in diameter than for tumors < 2 cm in diameter. Micrometastases were missed by intraoperative examination in 3 cases.

CONCLUSION

The high NPV suggests the feasibility and usefulness of ICG-based SLN mapping plus rapid intraoperative examination for identification of metastatic SLNs. Use of ICG-based mapping for intraoperative identification of SLNs in patients undergoing this new laparoscopic surgery method for early-stage cervical cancer was particularly effective for tumors < 2 cm in diameter. However, incorporating a search for micrometastases into rapid intraoperative histopathologic examination may be necessary.

Endometriosis in para-aortic lymph node resembling a malignancy: a case report and literature review

BACKGROUND

Endometriosis is a common benign gynecological disease characterized by growing-functioning endometrial tissue outside the uterus. Extra-pelvic endometriosis, which accounts for approximately 12% of endometriosis, is more challenging to diagnose because of its distance from the pelvic organs. Halban's theory of benign metastasis indicates that endometrial cells can appear in extra-pelvic organs via lymphatic and blood vessels, but endometrial lymph node metastasis cases are still rare. We report a case of endometriosis in a para-aortic lymph node whose clinical behavior mimicked a malignancy.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 52-year-old perimenopausal woman underwent laparoscopic hysterectomy plus bilateral salpingectomy (the patient insisted on the preservation of her ovaries) at a local hospital 2 years earlier because of adenomyosis. The patient presented with a complaint of low back pain to the gastrointestinal outpatient department of our hospital. The carbohydrate antigen 125 (CA125) was abnormally elevated at 5280.20 U/ml, human epididymis 4 (HE4) was 86.0 pmol/L, while other tumor markers were normal. Serum female hormone results were in the postmenopausal range, and her gastroenteroscopy showed no abnormalities. Moreover, both enhanced magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography-computed tomography showed a high possibility of a retroperitoneal malignant lymph node (metastasis possible, primary site unknown). One week after admission, she underwent laparoscopic exploratory surgery, during which we observed normal shape and size of both ovaries while the left ovary was cystic-solid. After opening the retroperitoneal space, an enlarged lymph node-like tissue measuring 8 × 4 × 3 cm3 was found near the abdominal aorta. When the surrounding adhesions were separated, lymph node-like tissue was poorly demarcated from the abdominal aorta and renal artery. Some lymph node samples and left ovary were sent for intraoperative frozen section, which revealed benign lesions, similar to endometrial tissue. The lymph node tissue was then excised as much as possible, and the second set of intraoperative frozen sections showed high probability of endometrial tissue. The final histopathology and immunohistochemistry staining reached a diagnosis of para-aortic lymph node endometriosis. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone antigen treatment was recommended every 28 days because of the high preoperative CA125 and imaging-based suspicion of malignancy. The serum CA125 subsequently decreased to normal levels, and no para-aortic lesions were detected on abdominal enhancement CT. She is being followed up regularly.

CONCLUSION

It is known that the incidence of lymph node metastasis in pelvic endometriosis is relatively rare. Our report shows that endometriotic tissue can metastasize via the lymphatic route and suggests that endometriotic tissue has the characteristics of invasion and metastasis.

Thoracic Endometriosis: A Presentation of an Uncommon Disease in a Black African Woman

Introduction. Endometriosis is defined as a chronic gynecologic disease which is characterized by the presence of endometrial glands and stroma in anatomical sites and organs outside the uterine cavity. The exact prevalence of endometriosis is difficult to determine because many women remain asymptomatic. However, endometriosis affects about 10% to 15% of women. Thoracic endometriosis (TES) is the most common endometriosis outside the abdominopelvic cavity. It refers to endometriosis within the thoracic cavity including the lung parenchyma, diaphragm, and pleural surfaces. It can manifest as catamenial chest pain, pneumothorax, hemoptysis, hemothorax, catamenial haemoptysis, and pulmonary nodules. Case Summary. A 39-years-old married female presented with recurrent right-sided chest pain of 22 years duration, recurrent cough of more than 20 years and progressive breathlessness of a month duration. The chest pain is pleuritic, and it often starts few days to the onset of her menses and lasts throughout menstrual flow only to abate after the stoppage of menstrual bleeding. Cough was unproductive, paroxysmal often worse with worsening chest pain. It disappears after the end of menstrual bleed. Breathlessness was initially on mild to moderate exertion before progressing to occasional breathlessness at rest. No history of orthopnea, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, and pedal swelling was found. Over the years, she had presented to several clinics where she was said to have menstrual pain referred to the chest. Conclusion. Diagnosis of extrapelvic endometriosis can be challenging and delayed because it presents in a myriad of ways and in some cases, it may be difficult to link symptoms and the menstrual cycle.

Endometriosis stem cell sources and potential therapeutic targets: literature review and bioinformatics analysis

The stem cell origin theory of endometriosis (EMS) is a significant area of new research but the sources of this have yet to be adequately summarized. Existing treatments for EMS are commonly associated with a high recurrence rate; consequently, there is an urgent need to develop new therapeutic measures for the future treatment of this disease from the view of stem cells and gene therapy. Recently, we described the evidence for the potential sources of EMS stem cells and other key molecules participating in the establishment of lesions, and predict the miRNAs that target these key genes via bioinformatics analysis for further research. This review highlights the origin of EMS stem cells and potential therapy targets.

Inhibition of METTL3/m6A/miR126 promotes the migration and invasion of endometrial stromal cells in endometriosis

N6-methyladenosine (m6A), one of the most abundant RNA modifications, is involved in the progression of many diseases, but its role and related molecular mechanisms in endometriosis remain unknown. To address these issues, we detected m6A levels in normal, eutopic and ectopic endometrium and found the m6A levels decreased in eutopic and ectopic endometrium compared with normal endometrium. In addition, we proved that methyltransferase-like 3 (METTL3) downregulation accounted for m6A reduction in endometriosis. Furthermore, we observed that METTL3 knockdown facilitated the migration and invasion of human endometrial stromal cells (HESCs), while METTL3 overexpression exerted opposite effects, suggesting that METTL3 downregulation might contribute to endometriosis development by enhancing cellular migration and invasion. Mechanistically, METTL3-dependent m6A was involved in the DGCR8-mediated maturation of primary microRNA126 (miR126, pri-miR126). Moreover, miR126 inhibitor significantly enhanced the migration and invasion of METTL3-overexpressing HESCs, whereas miR126 mimics attenuated the migration and invasion of METTL3-silenced HESCs. Our study revealed the METTL3/m6A/miR126 pathway, whose inhibition might contribute to endometriosis development by enhancing cellular migration and invasion. It also showed that METTL3 might be a novel diagnostic biomarker and therapeutic target for endometriosis.

Identification of endometriosis-associated genes and pathways based on bioinformatic analysis

Endometriosis is associated with dysmenorrhea, chronic pelvic pain, and infertility. The specific mechanism of endometriosis remains unclear. The aim of this study was to apply a bioinformatics approach to reveal related pathways or genes involved in the development of endometriosis.The gene expression profiles of GSE25628, GSE5108, and GSE7305 were downloaded from the gene expression omnibus (GEO) database. Differentially expressed gene (DEG) analysis was performed using GEO2R. The database for annotation, visualization, and integrated discovery (DAVID) was utilized to analyze the functional enrichment, gene ontology (GO) and kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway of the differentially expressed genes. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed and module analysis was performed using search tool for the retrieval of interacting genes and cytoscape.A total of 119 common differentially expressed genes were extracted, consisting of 51 downregulated genes and 68 upregulated genes. The enriched functions and pathways of the DEGs and hub genes include DNA strand separation, cellular proliferation, degradation of the extracellular matrix, encoding of smooth muscle myosin as a major contractile protein, exiting the proliferative cycle and entering quiescence, growth regulation, and implication in a wide variety of biological processes.A bioinformatics approach combined with cell experiments in this study revealed that identifying DEGs and hub genes leads to better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the progression of endometriosis, and efficient biomarkers underlying this pathway need to be further investigated.

Endometriosis of para-aortic node masquerading a malignancy: a rare occurrence

Endometriosis is a benign estrogen-dependent disorder affecting women in their reproductive age group. Endometriosis means 'abnormal growth of endometrial glands' outside the uterus. Multiple theories on aetiopathogenesis of endometriosis have been postulated, Halban's theory on 'Benign Metastasis' which proposed the presence of endometriotic cells in lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes provides the basis of this case report. Here, we report a case of 26-year-old nulliparous woman who presented with grossly elevated CA 125 with endometriosis in her para-aortic nodes mimicking as ovarian cancer.

Pharmaceuticals targeting signaling pathways of endometriosis as potential new medical treatment: A review

Endometriosis (EM) is defined as endometrial tissues found outside the uterus. Growth and development of endometriotic cells in ectopic sites can be promoted via multiple pathways, including MAPK/MEK/ERK, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, NF-κB, Rho/ROCK, reactive oxidative stress, tumor necrosis factor, transforming growth factor-β, Wnt/β-catenin, vascular endothelial growth factor, estrogen, and cytokines. The underlying pathophysiological mechanisms include proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, migration, invasion, fibrosis, angiogenesis, oxidative stress, inflammation, and immune escape. Current medical treatments for EM are mainly hormonal and symptomatic, and thus the development of new, effective, and safe pharmaceuticals targeting specific molecular and signaling pathways is needed. Here, we systematically reviewed the literature focused on pharmaceuticals that specifically target the molecular and signaling pathways involved in the pathophysiology of EM. Potential drug targets, their upstream and downstream molecules with key aberrant signaling, and the regulatory mechanisms promoting the growth and development of endometriotic cells and tissues were discussed. Hormonal pharmaceuticals, including melatonin, exerts proapoptotic via regulating matrix metallopeptidase activity while nonhormonal pharmaceutical sorafenib exerts antiproliferative effect via MAPK/ERK pathway and antiangiogenesis activity via VEGF/VEGFR pathway. N-acetyl cysteine, curcumin, and ginsenoside exert antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects via radical scavenging activity. Natural products have high efficacy with minimal side effects; for example, resveratrol and epigallocatechin gallate have multiple targets and provide synergistic efficacy to resolve the complexity of the pathophysiology of EM, showing promising efficacy in treating EM. Although new medical treatments are currently being developed, more detailed pharmacological studies and large sample size clinical trials are needed to confirm the efficacy and safety of these treatments in the near future.

Endometriosis and Cancer: Exploring the Role of Macrophages

Endometriosis and cancer have much in common, notably their burgeoning of cells in hypoxic milieus, their invasiveness, and their capacity to trigger remodeling, vascularization, and innervation of other tissues. An important role in these processes is played by permissive microenvironments inhabited by a variety of stromal and immune cells, including macrophages. Remarkable phenotypical plasticity of macrophages makes them a promising therapeutic target; some key issues are the range of macrophage phenotypes characteristic of a particular pathology and the possible manners of its modulation. In both endometriosis and cancer, macrophages guard the lesions from immune surveillance while promoting pathological cell growth, invasion, and metastasis. This review article focuses on a comparative analysis of macrophage behaviors in endometriosis and cancer. We also highlight recent reports on the experimental modulation of macrophage phenotypes in preclinical models of endometriosis and cancer.

Organoids of the female reproductive tract

Healthy functioning of the female reproductive tract (FRT) depends on balanced and dynamic regulation by hormones during the menstrual cycle, pregnancy and childbirth. The mucosal epithelial lining of different regions of the FRT-ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix and vagina-facilitates the selective transport of gametes and successful transfer of the zygote to the uterus where it implants and pregnancy takes place. It also prevents pathogen entry. Recent developments in three-dimensional (3D) organoid systems from the FRT now provide crucial experimental models that recapitulate the cellular heterogeneity and physiological, anatomical and functional properties of the organ in vitro. In this review, we summarise the state of the art on organoids generated from different regions of the FRT. We discuss the potential applications of these powerful in vitro models to study normal physiology, fertility, infections, diseases, drug discovery and personalised medicine.

Small Bowel Obstruction Caused by Ileal Endometriosis with Appendiceal and Lymph Node Involvement Treated with Single-Incision Laparoscopic Surgery: A Case Report and Review of the Literature

Patient: Female, 40-year-old

Final Diagnosis: Intestinal endometriosis

Symptoms: Abdominal pain

Medication:—

Clinical Procedure: —

Specialty: Surgery

Nanomedicines for Endometriosis: Lessons Learned from Cancer Research

Endometriosis is an incurable gynecological disease characterized by the abnormal growth of endometrium-like tissue, characteristic of the uterine lining, outside of the uterine cavity. Millions of people with endometriosis suffer from pelvic pain and infertility. This review aims to discuss whether nanomedicines that are promising therapeutic approaches for various diseases have the potential to create a paradigm shift in endometriosis management. For the first time, the available reports and achievements in the field of endometriosis nanomedicine are critically evaluated, and a summary of how nanoparticle-based systems can improve endometriosis treatment and diagnosis is provided. Parallels between cancer and endometriosis are also drawn to understand whether some fundamental principles of the well-established cancer nanomedicine field can be adopted for the development of novel nanoparticle-based strategies for endometriosis. This review provides the state of the art of endometriosis nanomedicine and perspective for researchers aiming to realize and exploit the full potential of nanoparticles for treatment and imaging of the disorder.

Application of serum markers in diagnosis and staging of ovarian endometriosis

AIMS

Laparoscopic surgery is widely used for diagnosing ovarian endometriosis but it has medical risks. This study explored the application of blood indicators in diagnosis and staging of ovarian endometriosis, aiming to develop a noninvasive diagnostic method.

METHODS

A total of 190 ovarian endometriosis patients were included in observation group, among these participants, 77 patients among them were stages I-II, and the rest 113 patients were stages III-IV, and a total of 103 healthy women as control group. Serum biochemical indexes, tumor markers, and cytokines levels in two groups were used for the diagnosis and staging of the disease. Area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC) predicted the value of individual and joint tests for indicators.

RESULTS

Biochemical indexes, namely, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total protein (TP), and glucose (Glu) could distinguish patients from normal women; and that ALP and Glu could indicate disease staging. In tumor markers, alpha fetoprotein (AFP), carcinoembryonic antigen (CA) 125, CA199 and human epididymis protein 4 (HE4) helped to diagnose endometriosis; CA125, HE4, and cytokeratin 19 fragment (CYFRA21-1) could differentiate stages. In cytokines, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase receptor 1 (sflt-1), monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 therefore, have values to diagnose endometriosis; VEGF, TNF-α, IL-6, and sflt-1 helped to differentiate disease staging.

CONCLUSION

Serological indicators in ovarian endometriosis patients were different from healthy women, which were of certain differential values in diagnosis and disease staging. The current study provided a novel strategy for endometriosis diagnosis.

Immunological Basis of the Endometriosis: The Complement System as a Potential Therapeutic Target

Endometriosis (EM) is a chronic disease characterized by the presence and proliferation of functional endometrial glands and stroma outside the uterine cavity. Ovaries and pelvic peritoneum are the most common locations for endometrial ectopic tissue, followed by deep infiltrating EM sites. The cyclic and recurrent bleeding, the progressive fibrosis and the peritoneal adhesions of ectopic endometrial glands, may cause different symptoms depending on the origin involved. EM is a frequent clinical condition affecting around 10% of women of mainly reproductive age, as well as in post-menopausal women and adolescents, especially with uterine anomalies. The risk of developing EM depends on a complex interaction between genetic, immunological, hormonal, and environmental factors. It is largely considered to arise due to a dysfunction of immunological surveillance. In fact, women with EM exhibit altered functions of peritoneal macrophages, lymphocytes and natural killer cells, as well as levels of inflammatory mediators and growth factors in the peritoneal fluid. In EM patients, peritoneal macrophages are preponderant and highly active compared to healthy women. Peritoneal macrophages are able to regulate the events that determine the production of cytokines, prostaglandins, growth factors and complement components. Several studies have shown alteration in the regulation of the complement activation, leading to chronic inflammation characteristic of EM. Aberrant regulation/activation of the complement system has been observed in the peritoneal cavity of women affected by EM. Thus, complement inhibition may represent a new approach for the treatment of EM, given that a number of complement inhibitors are under pre-clinical and clinical development. Such an intervention may provide a broader therapeutic control of complement-mediated inflammatory damage in EM patients. This review will focus on our current understanding of the role of complement activation in EM and possible modalities available for complement-based therapy.

Splenic lesion mimicking breast metastasis: The first description of splenic parenchymal endometriosis

Introduction:

Splenic parenchymal endometriosis has never been described to date. We report here the case of real parenchymal endometriosis of the spleen.

Case description:

In this case, a 54-year-old female patient presented a histologically proven metastatic recurrence of breast cancer in the internal breast chain. The CT-scan also detected a large cystic structure developed from the spleen, but non-suspected to be metastasis. The patient was treated with chemotherapy (paclitaxel) and a combination of targeted therapies (everolimus and trastuzumab). While a complete radiological and biological response was noted at 2 months, the splenic cyst gradually decreased over the years. When targeted therapies were stopped, a reincrease of the splenic lesion and de novo significant hypermetabolism of the splenic parenchyma on 18F-FDG PET scan were observed. A splenectomy was finally performed and revealed splenic parenchymal endometriosis.

Conclusion:

This case once again highlights the complexity of endometriosis disease, from a pathophysiological point of view, but also the difficulties of radiological characterisation, and diagnostic management.

A case of infiltrative cecal endometriosis with appendiceal obliteration and lymph node involvement

Endometriosis is a clinical condition with a wide spectrum of severity, and a subset that includes intestinal involvement that may even mimic malignancy, making non-surgical diagnosis difficult. Cecal endometriosis is a rare finding among intestinal endometriosis. We report on 33-year-old woman with ileocecal endometriosis presenting as endoscopic prolapse of the ileocecal valve associated with a mass on cross-sectional imaging. The diagnosis was suggested intraoperatively by peritoneal endometrioma and obliteration of the appendix during laparoscopic right hemicolectomy. Pathological review demonstrated extensive submucosal, infiltrative endometriosis with mass effect and lymph node involvement. This case highlights the difficulty in preoperative diagnosis of intestinal endometriosis and the wide-ranging potential tissue effects in cases of infiltrative disease.

Extracellular vesicle-associated VEGF-C promotes lymphangiogenesis and immune cells infiltration in endometriosis

Endometriosis is a highly prevalent gynecological disease with severe negative impacts on life quality and financial burden. Unfortunately, there is no cure for this disease, which highlights the need for further investigation about the pathophysiology of this disease to provide clues for developing novel therapeutic regimens. Herein, we identified that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C, a potent lymphangiogenic factor, is up-regulated in endometriotic cells and contributes to increased lymphangiogenesis. Bioinformatic analysis and molecular biological characterization revealed that VEGF-C is negatively regulated by an orphan nuclear receptor, chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter-transcription factor II (COUP-TFII). Further studies demonstrated that proinflammatory cytokines, via suppression of COUP-TFII level, induce VEGF-C overexpression. More importantly, we show that functional VEGF-C is transported by extracellular vesicles (EVs) to enhance the lymphangiogenic ability of lymphatic endothelial cells. Autotransplanted mouse model of endometriosis showed lenvatinib treatment abrogated the increased lymphatic vessels development in the endometriotic lesion, enlarged retroperitoneal lymph nodes, and immune cells infiltration, indicating that blocking VEGF-C signaling can reduce local chronic inflammation and concomitantly endometriosis development. Evaluation of EV-transmitted VEGF-C from patients' sera demonstrates it is a reliable noninvasive way for clinical diagnosis. Taken together, we identify the vicious cycle of inflammation, COUP-TFII, VEGF-C, and lymphangiogenesis in the endometriotic microenvironment, which opens up new horizons in understanding the pathophysiology of endometriosis. VEGF-C not only can serve as a diagnostic biomarker but also a molecular target for developing therapeutic regimens.

Biological characteristics of endometriotic mesenchymal stem cells isolated from ectopic lesions of patients with endometriosis

BACKGROUND

Research into the pathogenesis of endometriosis (EMs) would substantially promote its effective treatment and early diagnosis. However, the aetiology of EMs is poorly understood and controversial despite the progress in EMs research in the last several decades. Currently, accumulating evidence has shed light on the importance of endometrial stem cells (EnSCs) residing in the basal layer of endometrium in the establishment and progression of endometriotic lesions. Therefore, we aimed to identify the differences between EnSCs isolated from the ectopic lesions of EMs patients (EnSC-EM-EC) and EnSCs isolated from eutopic endometrium of control group (EnSC-Control). We further performed preliminary exploration of the potential signalling pathways involved in the above abnormalities.

METHODS

EnSC-EM-EC (n = 12) and EnSC-Control (n = 13) were successfully isolated. Then, the proliferative capacity, migratory capacity and angiogenic potential of EnSCs were evaluated by conventional MTT assay, flow cytometry, wound healing assay, transwell assay, tube formation assay and chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane assay respectively. The expression of 11 angiogenesis-associated biological factors and 11 cytokines secreted by EnSCs and 17 adhesion molecules expressed on EnSCs were determined by protein array assays respectively. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between EnSC-EM-EC and EnSC-Control were analysed by RNA-sequence.

RESULTS

EnSC-EM-EC exhibited unique biological characteristics, including prolonged mitosis, enhanced migratory capacity and enhanced angiogenic potential. Greater amounts of angiogenic factors (especially VEGF and PDGF) were secreted by EnSC-EM-EC than by EnSC-Control; however, the distinct profiles of cytokines secreted by EnSC-EM-EC and adhesion molecules expressed by EnSC-EM-EC require further investigation. A total of 523 DEGs between EnSC-EM-EC and EnSC-Control were identified and analysed using the KEGG and Gene Ontology databases.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results not only improve the understanding of EMs but also contribute to the development of EnSC-EM-EC as a tool for EMs drug discovery. These cells could be of great help in exploiting promising therapeutic targets and new biomarkers for EMs treatment and prognosis.