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Guo D, He R, Su W, Liang Z, Zhang W, Fan J. Enantioselective analyses of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine in rat liver microsomes through chiral liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Chirality 2021; 34:126-133. [PMID: 34736290 DOI: 10.1002/chir.23384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
An efficient, sensitive and selective liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) chiral analysis method was established for determination of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine enantiomers in rat liver microsomes. Effects of polysaccharide chiral stationary phases and basic additives on chiral separations of two analytes were discussed in detail. Amylose tris(3, 5-dimethylphenylcarbamate)-coated chiral stationary phase showed the best separation performance for them with acetonitrile-diethylamine-ethanol-diethylamine mixture (90:0.1:10:0.1, v/v/v/v) among four chiral stationary phases. Then, multiple reaction monitoring mode was selected as the data acquisition for determination of two pairs of enantiomers. The proposed LC-MS/MS chiral analysis method was validated in terms of linearity, accuracy, precision, and specificity. Good linearity with correlation coefficient over 0.998 was obtained in the concentration range of 0.05-5 μM. Limits of quantification for chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine enantiomers were 5.0 and 1.0 nM, respectively. The recoveries ranged from 81.14% to 111.09%. The intra-day and inter-day relative standard deviation were less than 6.5%. Moreover, concentrations of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine enantiomers in rat liver microsomes were determined through the proposed LC-MS/MS analysis method. After incubated with rat liver microsomes for 10 min, the enantiomeric factor of hydroxychloroquine decreased from 0.50 to 0.45 (p < 0.001). In brief, our developed determination method for chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine enantiomers through LC-MS/MS spectrometry showed the characteristics of high-efficiency, fast speed, and very low detection limit, and would be greatly beneficial for screening and quantitation of them in biological matrices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Guo
- School of Chemistry, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biomedicine, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Research & Creativity Biotechnology Co. Ltd., Guangzhou, China
| | - Rujian He
- School of Chemistry, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biomedicine, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenxia Su
- School of Chemistry, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biomedicine, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ziqing Liang
- School of Chemistry, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biomedicine, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Weiguang Zhang
- School of Chemistry, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biomedicine, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jun Fan
- School of Chemistry, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biomedicine, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
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Bazotte RB, Hirabara SM, Serdan TAD, Gritte RB, Souza-Siqueira T, Gorjao R, Masi LN, Antunes MM, Cruzat V, Pithon-Curi TC, Curi R. 4-Aminoquinoline compounds from the Spanish flu to COVID-19. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 135:111138. [PMID: 33360781 PMCID: PMC7973050 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.111138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In 1918, quinine was used as one of the unscientifically based treatments against the H1N1 virus during the Spanish flu pandemic. Originally, quinine was extracted from the bark of Chinchona trees by South American natives of the Amazon forest, and it has been used to treat fever since the seventeenth century. The recent COVID-19 pandemic caused by Sars-Cov-2 infection has forced researchers to search for ways to prevent and treat this disease. Based on the antiviral potential of two 4-aminoquinoline compounds derived from quinine, known as chloroquine (CQ) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), clinical investigations for treating COVID-19 are being conducted worldwide. However, there are some discrepancies among the clinical trial outcomes.Thus, even after one hundred years of quinine use during the Spanish flu pandemic, the antiviral properties promoted by 4-aminoquinoline compounds remain unclear. The underlying molecular mechanisms by which CQ and HCQ inhibit viral replication open up the possibility of developing novel analogs of these drugs to combat COVID-19 and other viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sandro Massao Hirabara
- Interdisciplinary Post-Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Cruzeiro do Sul University, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | | | - Raquel Bragante Gritte
- Interdisciplinary Post-Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Cruzeiro do Sul University, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Talita Souza-Siqueira
- Interdisciplinary Post-Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Cruzeiro do Sul University, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Renata Gorjao
- Interdisciplinary Post-Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Cruzeiro do Sul University, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Laureane Nunes Masi
- Interdisciplinary Post-Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Cruzeiro do Sul University, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | | | - Vinicius Cruzat
- Faculty of Health, Torrens University Australia, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Tania Cristina Pithon-Curi
- Interdisciplinary Post-Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Cruzeiro do Sul University, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Rui Curi
- Interdisciplinary Post-Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Cruzeiro do Sul University, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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3
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Cui C, Zhang M, Yao X, Tu S, Hou Z, Jie En VS, Xiang X, Lin J, Cai T, Shen N, Song C, Qiao J, Zhang S, Li H, Liu D. Dose selection of chloroquine phosphate for treatment of COVID-19 based on a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model. Acta Pharm Sin B 2020; 10:1216-1227. [PMID: 32834950 PMCID: PMC7252145 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2020.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Chloroquine (CQ) phosphate has been suggested to be clinically effective in the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). To develop a physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model for predicting tissue distribution of CQ and apply it to optimize dosage regimens, a PBPK model, with parameterization of drug distribution extrapolated from animal data, was developed to predict human tissue distribution of CQ. The physiological characteristics of time-dependent accumulation was mimicked through an active transport mechanism. Several dosing regimens were proposed based on PBPK simulation combined with known clinical exposure–response relationships. The model was also validated by clinical data from Chinese patients with COVID-19. The novel PBPK model allows in-depth description of the pharmacokinetics of CQ in several key organs (lung, heart, liver, and kidney), and was applied to design dosing strategies in patients with acute COVID-19 (Day 1: 750 mg BID, Days 2–5: 500 mg BID, CQ phosphate), patients with moderate COVID-19 (Day 1: 750 mg and 500 mg, Days 2–3: 500 mg BID, Days 4–5: 250 mg BID, CQ phosphate), and other vulnerable populations (e.g., renal and hepatic impairment and elderly patients, Days 1–5: 250 mg BID, CQ phosphate). A PBPK model of CQ was successfully developed to optimize dosage regimens for patients with COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Cui
- Drug Clinical Trial Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Miao Zhang
- Drug Clinical Trial Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xueting Yao
- Drug Clinical Trial Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Siqi Tu
- Drug Clinical Trial Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Zhe Hou
- Drug Clinical Trial Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Valerie Sia Jie En
- Drug Clinical Trial Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xiaoqiang Xiang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Jing Lin
- Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment of Digestive System Tumors of Zhejiang Province, HwaMei Hospital, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Ningbo No.2 Hospital), Ningbo 315010, China
| | - Ting Cai
- Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment of Digestive System Tumors of Zhejiang Province, HwaMei Hospital, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Ningbo No.2 Hospital), Ningbo 315010, China
| | - Ning Shen
- Department of Respirator, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Chunli Song
- Department of Orthopedics, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Jie Qiao
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Shun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment of Digestive System Tumors of Zhejiang Province, HwaMei Hospital, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Ningbo No.2 Hospital), Ningbo 315010, China
- Corresponding authors.
| | - Haiyan Li
- Drug Clinical Trial Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China
- Department of Cardiology and Institute of Vascular Medicine, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China
- Corresponding authors.
| | - Dongyang Liu
- Drug Clinical Trial Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China
- Corresponding authors.
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4
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Alia JD, Karl S, Kelly TD. Quantum Chemical Lipophilicities of Antimalarial Drugs in Relation to Terminal Half-Life. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:6500-6515. [PMID: 32258886 PMCID: PMC7114756 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b04140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
According to the WHO, artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) have been integral to the recent reduction in deaths due to Plasmodium falciparum malaria. ACT-resistant strains are an emerging problem and have evolved altered developmental stages, reducing exposure of the most susceptible stages to artemisinin drugs in popular ACTs. Lipophilicity, log K ow, is a guide in understanding and predicting pharmacokinetic properties such as terminal half-life which alters drug exposure. Consistent log K ow values are not necessarily available for artemisinin derivatives designed to extend terminal half-life, increase bioavailability, and reduce neurotoxicity. For other drugs used in ACTs, an assortment of experimental and computational log K ow values are available in the literature and in some cases, do not account for subtle but important differences between closely related structures such as between diastereomers. Quantum chemical methods such as density functional theory (DFT) used with an implicit solvent model allow for consistent comparison of physical properties including log K ow and distinguish between closely related structures. To this end, DFT, B3LYP/6-31G(d), with an implicit solvent model (SMD) was used to compute ΔG ow o and ΔG vow o for 1-octanol-water and olive oil-water partitions, respectively, for 21 antimalarial drugs: 12 artemisinin-based, 4 4-aminoquinolines and structurally similar pyronaridine, and 4 amino alcohols. The computed ΔG ow o was close to ΔG ow o calculated from experimental log K ow values from the literature where available, with a mean signed error of 2.3 kJ/mol and mean unsigned error of 3.7 kJ/mol. The results allow assignment of log K ow for α-and β-diastereomers of arteether, and prediction of log K ow for β-DHA and five experimental drugs. Linear least square analysis of log K ow and log K vow versus terminal elimination half-life showed strong linear relationships, once the data points for the 4-aminoquinoline drugs, mefloquine and pyronaridine were found to follow their own linear relationship, which is consistent with their different plasma protein binding. The linear relationship between the computed log K vow and terminal elimination half-life was particularly strong, R 2 = 0.99 and F = 467, and can be interpreted in terms of a simple pharmacokinetic model. Terminal elimination half-life for β-DHA and four experimental artemisinin drugs were estimated based on this linear relationship between log K vow and terminal t 1/2. The computed log K ow and log K vow values for epimers α- and β-DHA and α and β-arteether provide physical data that may be helpful in understanding their different pharmacokinetics and activity based on their different molecular geometries. Relative solubility of quinine and quinidine are found to be sensitive to thermal corrections to enthalpy and to vibrational entropy and do not follow the general trend of longer terminal t 1/2 with greater predicted log K ow. Geometric relaxation of α- and β-DHA in solvent and inclusion of thermal correction for enthalpy and entropy results in correct prediction that α-DHA is favored in aqueous environments compared to β-DHA. Predictions made regarding experimental drugs have implications regarding their potential use in response to artemisinin drug-resistant strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph D. Alia
- Division of Science and Mathematics, University of Minnesota Morris, 600 E 4th Street, Morris, Minnesota 56267, United States
| | - Sheila Karl
- Division of Science and Mathematics, University of Minnesota Morris, 600 E 4th Street, Morris, Minnesota 56267, United States
| | - Tyler D. Kelly
- Division of Science and Mathematics, University of Minnesota Morris, 600 E 4th Street, Morris, Minnesota 56267, United States
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5
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Valko KL, Zhang T. Biomimetic properties and estimated in vivo distribution of chloroquine and hydroxy-chloroquine enantiomers. ADMET AND DMPK 2020; 9:151-165. [PMID: 35299770 PMCID: PMC8920107 DOI: 10.5599/admet.929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chloroquine and hydroxy-chloroquine already established as anti-malarial and lupus drugs have recently gained renewed attention in the fight against the Covid-19 pandemic. Bio-mimetic HPLC methods have been used to measure the protein and phospholipid binding of the racemic mixtures of the drugs. The tissue binding and volume of distribution of the enantiomers have been estimated. The enantiomers can be separated using Chiralpak AGP HPLC columns. From the α-1-acid-glycoprotein (AGP) binding, the lung tissue binding can be estimated for the enantiomers. The drugs have a large volume of distribution, showed strong and stereoselective glycoprotein binding, medium-strong phospholipid-binding indicating only moderate phospholipidotic potential, hERG inhibition and promiscuous binding. The drug efficiency of the compounds was estimated to be greater than 2 % which indicates a high level of free biophase concentration relative to dose. The biomimetic properties of the compounds support the well-known tolerability of the drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klara L Valko
- Bio-Mimetic Chromatography Ltd, Business & Technology Centre, Bessemer Drive, Stevenage, Herts SG1 2DX UK
| | - Tong Zhang
- Chiral Technologies Europe, Parc d'Innovation 160, Bd Gonthier d'Andernach CS 80140 67404 ILLKIRCH CEDEX France
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6
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Cardoso PA, Pereira DB, El-Behairy MF, Ghanem A, Pianetti GA, César IC. Chirobiotic V Versus Chiralpak ID for the Enantioselective Chromatographic Separation of Chloroquine: Stability and Validation Study. J Chromatogr Sci 2019; 57:443-450. [PMID: 30796784 DOI: 10.1093/chromsci/bmz014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Chloroquine is a chiral antimalarial drug and demonstrates enantioselective pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties. However, this drug is administered as racemate. The knowledge of stereoselective aspects of these agents may be useful to better understand their mechanisms of action and to optimize their safety and/or clinical efficacy. In this study, an enantioselective analytical method for the quantification of chloroquine enantiomers was developed using HPLC-UV. The chromatographic conditions were: Chirobiotic V column (100 × 2.1 mm, 5 μm) at 25°C, mobile phase containing methanol:acetic acid:triethylamine (100:0.12:0.12), flow rate 1 mL/min, injection volume 10 μL and detection at 258 nm. The validation parameters evaluated were selectivity, linearity, precision, accuracy, and robustness. In addition, a stability study after forced degradation of chloroquine enantiomers was performed. The enantioseparation of chloroquine using a polysaccharide-based chiral stationary phase (Chiralpak ID) at different mobile phase composition was evaluated and the chromatographic performance of both columns was compared. Thus, a stability-indicating chiral analytical method was developed and fully validated, allowing the separation of chloroquine enantiomers and its degradation products in tablets available in Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila Aburachid Cardoso
- Departamento de Produtos Farmacêuticos, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Diego Beltrão Pereira
- Departamento de Produtos Farmacêuticos, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Ashraf Ghanem
- Chirality Group, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Gerson Antônio Pianetti
- Departamento de Produtos Farmacêuticos, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Isabela Costa César
- Departamento de Produtos Farmacêuticos, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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7
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Sinha M, Dola VR, Soni A, Agarwal P, Srivastava K, Haq W, Puri SK, Katti SB. Synthesis of chiral chloroquine and its analogues as antimalarial agents. Bioorg Med Chem 2014; 22:5950-60. [PMID: 25284252 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2014.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this investigation, we describe a new approach to chiral synthesis of chloroquine and its analogues. All tested compounds displayed potent activity against chloroquine sensitive as well as chloroquine resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum in vitro and Plasmodium yoelii in vivo. Compounds S-13 b, S-13c, S-13 d and S-13 i displayed excellent in vitro antimalarial activity with an IC50 value of 56.82, 60.41, 21.82 and 7.94 nM, respectively, in the case of resistant strain. Furthermore, compounds S-13a, S-13c and S-13 d showed in vivo suppression of 100% parasitaemia on day 4 in the mouse model against Plasmodium yoelii when administered orally. These results underscore the application of synthetic methodology and need for further lead optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish Sinha
- Medicinal & Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, India
| | - Vasanth R Dola
- Medicinal & Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, India
| | - Awakash Soni
- Parasitology Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, India
| | - Pooja Agarwal
- Parasitology Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, India
| | - Kumkum Srivastava
- Parasitology Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, India
| | - Wahajul Haq
- Medicinal & Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, India
| | - Sunil K Puri
- Parasitology Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, India
| | - Seturam B Katti
- Medicinal & Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, India.
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8
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Wongwan S, Scriba GKE. Development and validation of a capillary electrophoresis assay for the determination of the stereoisomeric purity of chloroquine enantiomers. Electrophoresis 2011; 32:2669-72. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201000610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2010] [Revised: 01/11/2011] [Accepted: 01/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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9
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Benedetti MS, Whomsley R, Poggesi I, Cawello W, Mathy FX, Delporte ML, Papeleu P, Watelet JB. Drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics. Drug Metab Rev 2009; 41:344-90. [PMID: 19601718 DOI: 10.1080/10837450902891295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
In this article, aspects of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion have been described bearing in mind the pathogenesis of allergic diseases and their possible therapeutic opportunities. The importance of the routes of administration of the different therapeutic groups has been emphasized. The classical aspects of drug metabolism and disposition related to oral administration have been reviewed, but special emphasis has been given to intranasal, cutaneous, transdermal, and ocular administration as well as to the absorption and the subsequent bioavailability of drugs. Drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters present in extrahepatic tissues, such as nasal mucosa and the respiratory tract, have been particularly discussed. As marketed antiallergic drugs include both racemates and enantiomers, aspects of stereoselective absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion have been discussed. Finally, a new and promising methodology, microdosing, has been presented, although it has not yet been applied to drugs used in the treatment of allergic diseases.
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Beresford AP, Caswell K, Chambers R, Kirk IP. Advantages of achiral h.p.l.c. as a preparative step for chiral analysis in biological samples and its use in toxicokinetic studies. Xenobiotica 2008; 22:789-98. [PMID: 1360732 DOI: 10.3109/00498259209053141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
1. Achiral reverse-phase h.p.l.c. with semi-automated post-column fraction collection and solid-phase sample reconcentration, has been applied as the purification procedure during the enantiomeric quantification of two widely differing experimental drugs; an HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor (I) and an alpha 2-adrenoceptor antagonist (II). 2. The robust and specific achiral methodologies were available prior to the need for chiral analyses and recovery of drug from the fractions provided clean samples from a variety of biological matrices, without the need to develop compatible achiral/chiral mobile phases. 3. Compared with direct chiral chromatography of plasma extracts, this approach decreased the potential for metabolites and endogenous components to interfere or impair the performance of the chiral stationary phase. 4. The availability of quantitative data from achiral analysis of samples negated the need for internal standardization of the chiral analyses, helped confirm assay specificity and provided potential to determine enantiomeric ratios where only one isomer could be accurately measured. 5. Routine enantiomeric analyses were successfully carried out on samples taken from animals dosed orally with the racemic drugs, providing important data on the possible levels of exposure to individual enantiomers during toxicity testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Beresford
- Drug Metabolism Department, Glaxo Group Research Limited, Greenford, Middlesex, UK
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11
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dos Santos Magalhães IR, Sueli Bonato P. Enantioselective determination of chloroquine and itsn-dealkylated metabolites in plasma using liquid-phase microextraction and LC-MS. J Sep Sci 2008; 31:3106-16. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200800320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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12
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Abstract
Drug stereochemistry has, until relatively recently, been an area of neglected dimensionality with the development of the majority of synthetic chiral drugs as racemates. This situation has changed in recent years as a result of advances in the chemical technologies associated with the synthesis, analysis and preparative scale resolution of the enantiomers of chiral molecules. As a result of the application of these technologies the potential significance of the differential pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties of the enantiomers present in a racemate have become appreciated. Many of the processes involved in drug disposition, i.e. absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion, involve a direct interaction with chiral biological macromolecules, e.g. transporters, membrane lipids and enzymes, and following administration of a racemate the individual enantiomers frequently exhibit different pharmacokinetic profiles and rarely exist in a 1:1 ratio in biological fluids. The magnitude of the differences between a pair of enantiomers observed in their pharmacokinetic parameters tends to be relatively modest in comparison to their pharmacodynamic properties. However, the observed stereoselectivity may be either amplified or attenuated depending on the organisational level, e.g. whole body, organ or macromolecular, the particular parameter represents. Differences in parameters involving a direct interaction between a drug enantiomer and a biological macromolecule, e.g. intrinsic metabolite formation clearance and fraction unbound, tend to be largest, and comparison of parameters reflecting the whole body level of organisation, e.g. half-life, clearance, volume of distribution, may well mask significant stereoselectivity at the macromolecular level. In spite of the recent interest in drug chirality relatively limited pharmacokinetic data are available for the enantiomers of a number of commonly used racemic drugs. Factors influencing the stereo-selectivity of drug disposition include: formulation and route of administration; in vivo stereochemical stability, both chemical and enzymatic; drug interactions, both enantiomeric and with a second drug; disease state; age; gender; race; and pharmacogenetics. As a result of such factors estimation of pharmacokinetic parameters, development of complex pharmacokinetic models and plasma-concentration-effect relationships based on 'total' drug concentrations following administration of a racemate are of limited value and potentially useless.
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13
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Felix G, Berthod A. Commercial Chiral Stationary Phases for the Separations of Clinical Racemic Drugs. SEPARATION AND PURIFICATION REVIEWS 2007. [DOI: 10.1080/15422110701826997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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14
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Brocks DR, Mehvar R. Stereoselectivity in the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of the chiral antimalarial drugs. Clin Pharmacokinet 2004; 42:1359-82. [PMID: 14674788 DOI: 10.2165/00003088-200342150-00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Several of the antimalarial drugs are chiral and administered as the racemate. These drugs include chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, quinacrine, primaquine, mefloquine, halofantrine, lumefantrine and tafenoquine. Quinine and quinidine are also stereoisomers, although they are given separately rather than in combination. From the perspective of antimalarial activity, most of these agents demonstrate little stereoselectivity in their effects in vitro. Mefloquine, on the other hand, displays in vitro stereoselectivity against some strains of P. falciparum, with a eudismic ratio of almost 2 : 1 in favour of the (+)-enantiomer. Additionally, for some of these agents (e.g. halofantrine, primaquine, chloroquine), stereoselectivity has been noted in the ability of the enantiomers to cause certain adverse effects. In recent years, stereospecific analytical methods capable of measuring the individual enantiomers after the administration of racemic drugs have been reported for a number of chiral antimalarial drugs. These assays have revealed that almost all the studied antimalarial drugs display stereoselectivity in their pharmacokinetics, leading to enantioselectivity in their plasma concentrations. Whereas the oral absorption of these agents appears to be non-stereoselective, stereoselectivity is often seen in their volume of distribution and/or clearance. With regard to distribution, plasma protein binding of some chiral antimalarial drugs exhibits a significant degree of stereoselectivity, leading to stereoselective distribution to blood cells and other tissues. Because of their low hepatic extraction ratios, stereoselective plasma protein binding also contributes to the stereoselectivity in the metabolism of these drugs. Chiral metabolites are formed from some parent antimalarial drugs, although stereoselective aspects of the pharmacokinetics of the metabolites are not well understood. It is concluded that knowledge of the stereoselective aspects of these agents may be helpful in better understanding their mechanisms of action and possibly optimising their clinical safety and/or effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dion R Brocks
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
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15
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Ducharme J, Farinotti R. Clinical pharmacokinetics and metabolism of chloroquine. Focus on recent advancements. Clin Pharmacokinet 1996; 31:257-74. [PMID: 8896943 DOI: 10.2165/00003088-199631040-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents the current state of knowledge on chloroquine disposition, with special emphasis on stereoselectivity and microsomal metabolism. In addition, the impact of the patient's physiopathological status and ethnic origin on chloroquine pharmacokinetics is discussed. In humans, chloroquine concentrations decline multiexponentially. The drug is extensively distributed, with a volume of distribution of 200 to 800 L/kg when calculated from plasma concentrations and 200 L/kg when estimated from whole blood data (concentrations being 5 to 10 times higher). Chloroquine is 60% bound to plasma proteins and equally cleared by the kidney and liver. Following administration chloroquine is rapidly dealkylated via cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP) into the pharmacologically active desethylchloroquine and bisdesethylchloroquine. Desethylchloroquine and bisdesethylchloroquine concentrations reach 40 and 10% of chloroquine concentrations, respectively; both chloroquine and desethylchloroquine concentrations decline slowly, with elimination half-lives of 20 to 60 days. Both parent drug and metabolite can be detected in urine months after a single dose. In vitro and in vivo, chloroquine and desethylchloroquine competitively inhibit CYP2D1/6-mediated reactions. Limited in vitro studies and preliminary data from clinical experiments and observations point to CYP3A and CYP2D6 as the 2 major isoforms affected by or involved in chloroquine metabolism. In vitro efficacy studies did not detect any difference in potency between chloroquine enantiomers but, in vivo in rats, S(+)-chloroquine had a lower dose that elicited 50% of the maximal effect (ED950) than that of R(-)-chloroquine. Stereoselectivity in chloroquine body disposition could be responsible for this discrepancy. Chloroquine binding to plasma proteins is stereoselective, favouring S(+)-chloroquine (67% vs 35% for the R-enantiomer). Hence, unbound plasma concentrations are higher for R(-)-chloroquine. Following separate administration of the individual enantiomers, R(-)-chloroquine reached higher and more sustained blood concentrations. The shorter half-life of S(+)-chloroquine appears secondary to its faster clearance. Blood concentrations of the S(+)-forms of desethylchloroquine always exceeded those of the R(-)-forms, pointing to a preferential metabolism of S(+)-chloroquine.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Ducharme
- Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Paris XI, Chatenay-Malabry, France
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16
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Eichelbaum M, Gross AS. Stereochemical aspects of drug action and disposition. ADVANCES IN DRUG RESEARCH 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2490(96)80003-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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17
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Tagoe CN, Ofori-Adjei D. Effects of chloroquine and its enantiomers on the development of rat embryos in vitro. TERATOLOGY 1995; 52:137-42. [PMID: 8638253 DOI: 10.1002/tera.1420520305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The effects of the antimalarial drug chloroquine (CQ) and its enantiomers [(+)-CQ and (-)-CQ] on 9 1/2-day post-implantation rat conceptuses were studied by the whole-embryo culture technique over a 48 hr period. At a concentration of 500 ng/ml of culture medium (0.97 microM), which falls within serum levels attained during long-term CQ therapy, the drugs produced varying degrees of growth retardation and dysmorphogenesis in the conceptuses. These effects were most severe with exposure to racemic CQ (100%) and also to equimolar concentrations of the two enantiomers (90%). Dysmorphogenesis was least with (+)-CQ (30%) and intermediate in severity in those exposed to (-)-CQ (32%). In the CQ and combined enantiomer groups, there was significant reduction in yolk sac diameter to 81% and 73%, the crown-rump length to 77% and 71%, the number of somites to 76% and 74%, and the embryonic protein content to 64% and 49%, respectively, of control values. In the (-)-enantiomer group the only parameter significantly affected was the somite number which was reduced to 83% of control. The growth parameters of (+)-CQ-treated embryos did not differ significantly from controls. The commonest morphological abnormalities observed in all treatment groups were those of axial rotation. Unfused and underdeveloped cranial neural tube, microophthalmia and abnormal otic primordium also occurred frequently, especially in the CQ and enantiomeric combination groups. The results suggest that the commercially available form of chloroquine, CQ, is embryotoxic in doses comparable to serum levels reached during long-term therapy with the drug. It also appears that although the individual enantiomers show minimal embryotoxicity at the dosage used, they potentiate each other's effects in the racemic mixture.
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Affiliation(s)
- C N Tagoe
- Department of Anatomy, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra, Ghana
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18
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Brocks DR, Dennis MJ, Schaefer WH. A liquid chromatographic assay for the stereospecific quantitative analysis of halofantrine in human plasma. J Pharm Biomed Anal 1995; 13:911-8. [PMID: 8562616 DOI: 10.1016/0731-7085(95)01343-j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
A stereospecific liquid chromatographic (LC) assay was developed for the quantification of the antimalarial drug, halofantrine, in human plasma. Following protein precipitation with acetonitrile, the enantiomers of halofantrine were extracted from human plasma using ammonium hydroxide and tert-butyl methyl ether-hexane. A precolumn derivatization step was employed using (+)-di-O-acetyl-L-tartaric acid anhydride to form diastereomeric derivatives of the halofantrine enantiomers. Chromatographic resolution of the diastereomers was performed using reversed-phase LC with UV detection at 254 nm. The recovery of (+/-)-halofantrine from human plasma at 25 and 2000 ng ml-1 was 68.2 and 61.4%, respectively. The derivatization yield following extraction and derivatization of 2000 ng ml-1 of (+/-)-halofantrine was 95.6%. Using 0.5 ml of plasma, the limit of quantification for each halofantrine enantiomer was 12.5 ng ml-1. Linear responses in analyte/internal standard peak height ratios were observed for analyte concentrations ranging from 12.5 to 1000 ng ml-1. Chromatograms of drug-free plasma showed no interfering peaks with retention times similar to those for (+)- and (-)-halofantrine or internal standard. Based on the validation data, the assay performed well over the enantiomer concentration range of 12.5-500 ng ml-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- D R Brocks
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, SmithKline Beecham Pharmaceuticals Research and Development, King of Prussia, PA 19406, USA
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19
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Ansari AM, Craig JC. Metabolites of chloroquine: some observations on desethylchloroquine and N-acetyldesethylchloroquine. J Pharm Sci 1994; 83:1040-2. [PMID: 7965661 DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600830722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The major metabolite of chloroquine, (+)-desethylchloroquine, produced by stereoselective N-dealkylation of the drug, was obtained in 81.5% enantiomeric purity by resolution of racemic desethylchloroquine using an atropisomeric resolving agent and was shown by circular dichroism to have the absolute (S)-configuration. The minor metabolite N-acetyldesethylchloroquine was prepared in both the racemic and the (S)-(+)-form.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Ansari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of California, San Francisco 94143-0446
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20
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Gimenez F, Pennie RA, Koren G, Crevoisier C, Wainer IW, Farinotti R. Stereoselective pharmacokinetics of mefloquine in healthy Caucasians after multiple doses. J Pharm Sci 1994; 83:824-7. [PMID: 9120814 DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600830613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Mefloquine (MQ) is a chiral antimalarial agent effective against chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum. It is commercially available as a racemic mixture of the (+) and (-) enantiomers for oral administration. The pharmacokinetics of the (+) and (-) enantiomers of MQ were studied in eight healthy volunteers after administration of a first oral dose of 250 mg of racemic MQ and at steady state after 13 repeated doses of 250 mg given at 1-week intervals. Plasma samples were collected, and concentrations of each enantiomer were determined using a previously described achiral-chiral double column-switching liquid chromatographic method. At each time point, higher plasma concentrations values were found for the (-) enantiomer (p < 0.001). At steady state, Cmax values of (-)-MQ were higher than those of (+)-MQ (1.42 +/- 0.19 versus 0.26 +/- 0.05 mg/L; p < 0.001). Similarly, the plasma concentrations 7 days after the final dose were higher for (-)-MQ (1.01 +/- 0.26 versus 0.11 +/- 0.04 mg/L; p < 0.001). AUC values at steady state were also higher for (-)-MQ (197.3 +/- 36.7 versus 30.1 +/- 8.9 mg/L x h; p < 0.001). The terminal half-life values (T1/2beta) were longer for (-)-MQ (430.4 +/- 225.2 versus 172.8 +/- 56.5 h; p < 0.001). This study shows that the pharmacokinetics of MQ is highly stereoselective.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Gimenez
- Hôpital Pitié Salpêtrière, Pharmacie, Pharmacocinétique, Paris, France
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21
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Wallén L, Ericsson O, Wikström I, Hellgren U. High-performance liquid chromatographic method for the enantioselective analysis of mefloquine in plasma and urine. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY. B, BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 1994; 655:153-7. [PMID: 8061825 DOI: 10.1016/0378-4347(94)00027-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
An HPLC method for analysis of the enantiomers of the antimalarial drug mefloquine is presented. A complete resolution of (-)-(11S,2'R) and (+)-(11R,2'S) erythro-mefloquine from plasma and urine was obtained on a commercial AGP column. Mefloquine enantiomers were detected by UV at 222 nm. The separation factor (alpha) at +20 degrees C was 1.50. The limit of determination (coefficient of variation 4.0%) for the enantiomeric ratio (11S,2'R)/(11R,2'S) is 15:1 at a total mefloquine concentration of 1.6 mM.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Wallén
- Hospital Pharmacy, Southern Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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22
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Sly LA, Reynolds DL, Walker TA. Isomeric separation of Beraprost sodium using an α1-acid glycoprotein column. J Chromatogr A 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/0021-9673(93)80141-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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23
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McLachlan AJ, Tett SE, Cutler DJ, Day RO. Disposition of the enantiomers of hydroxychloroquine in patients with rheumatoid arthritis following multiple doses of the racemate. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1993; 36:78-81. [PMID: 8373715 PMCID: PMC1364560 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.1993.tb05897.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
In eight patients with rheumatoid arthritis receiving racemic hydroxychloroquine, blood and urine concentrations of the enantiomers of hydroxychloroquine and its major metabolites were measured each month over the first 6 months of therapy. Plasma concentrations of hydroxychloroquine enantiomers were measured in five of these patients. In all patients, the blood concentration of (R)-hydroxychloroquine exceeded that of the (S)-enantiomer, the mean (R)/(S) ratio being 2.2 (range 1.6-2.9). A similar excess of (R)-hydroxychloroquine was found in the plasma, the mean (R)/(S) ratio being 1.6 (range 1.2-1.9). The mean enantiomer blood concentration ratio (R)/(S) for the metabolite desethylhydroxychloroquine was 0.45 (range 0.34-0.58) and for desethylchloroquine it was 0.56 (range 0.35-0.86) suggesting stereoselective metabolism of hydroxychloroquine. (S)-hydroxychloroquine had a mean (+/- s.d.) renal clearance from blood of 41 +/- 11 ml min-1, approximately twice that of (R)-hydroxychloroquine. The predicted unbound renal clearance was also higher for (S)-hydroxychloroquine. The clinical implications of enantioselective disposition of hydroxychloroquine are currently not known.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J McLachlan
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
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24
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Nakano M, Higaki K, Kawahara S. Enantiomer-enantiomer interaction of a uricosuric antihypertensive diuretic (DBCA) in renal tubular secretion and stereoselective inhibition by probenecid in the cynomolgus monkey. Xenobiotica 1993; 23:525-36. [PMID: 8342300 DOI: 10.3109/00498259309059393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
1. Enantiomer-enantiomer interaction of 5-dimethylsulphamoyl-6,7-dichloro-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-2-carboxyl ic acid (DBCA), a uricosuric, diuretic and antihypertensive agent, was studied from the pharmacokinetics of the enantiomers following intravenous injection of individual enantiomers and racemate into male cynomolgus monkeys. Also studied was the involvement of the anion transport system in the renal excretion of DBCA by comparison of the pharmacokinetics in probenecid-treated and non-treated animals. 2. Separate administration of individual enantiomers showed higher plasma concentrations of (S)(-)-DBCA than those of the antipode, at an early period after dosing. Both enantiomers disappeared rapidly from plasma with an elimination half-life (t1/2 beta) of 0.35-0.38 h. Unbound fractions were 18.9% for the (R)(+)-enantiomer and 10.2% for the (S)(-)-enantiomer. The major portion of both enantiomers was excreted by 6 h after dosing and 77-78% of the dose was recovered within 48 h, principally as the unchanged drug. Tubular secretion contributed significantly to the renal excretion of DBCA, because tubular secretion clearance values of unbound drug (CLrf,s) were 14- to 29-fold greater than creatinine clearance. 3. The presence of the antipode decreased the tubular secretion clearance (CLrf,s) value of unbound (S)(-)-enantiomer by 30%, and tended to decrease that for the unbound (R)(+)-enantiomer, although not significantly. This indicates the occurrence of enantiomer-enantiomer interaction in the process of renal tubular secretion, and the inhibition of (S)(-)-DBCA renal excretion in the presence of the antipode. 4. Probenecid treatment significantly decreased the CLrf,s of both enantiomers, and the extent of inhibition for the (S)(-)-enantiomer (53%) was significantly higher than that for the antipode (14%). These results show that renal tubular secretion of DBCA involves an anion transport system which prefers the (S)(-)-enantiomer, and that probenecid can preferentially inhibit (S)(-)-enantiomer secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Nakano
- Kanzakigawa Laboratory, Shionogi Research Laboratories, Shionogi and Co., Ltd, Osaka, Japan
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25
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McLachlan A, Tett S, Day R, Cutler D. Interpretation of chloroquine pharmacokinetic data. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1993; 44:407-10. [PMID: 8513857 DOI: 10.1007/bf00316484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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26
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Peytavin G, Gimenez F, Genissel B, Gillotin C, Baillet A, Wainer IW, Farinotti R. Chiral resolution of some antimalarial agents by sub- and supercritical fluid chromatography on an (S)-naphthylurea stationary phase. Chirality 1993. [DOI: 10.1002/chir.530050313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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27
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Craiga JC, Ansari AM. Resolution of 7-chloro-4(4?-diethylamino-1?methylbutyl)aminoquinoline (chloroquine) into its enantiomers. Chirality 1993. [DOI: 10.1002/chir.530050315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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28
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Batra S, Seth M, Bhaduri AP. Chirality and future drug design. PROGRESS IN DRUG RESEARCH. FORTSCHRITTE DER ARZNEIMITTELFORSCHUNG. PROGRES DES RECHERCHES PHARMACEUTIQUES 1993; 41:191-248. [PMID: 8108559 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-0348-7150-1_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S Batra
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
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29
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Gimenez F, Aubry AF, Farinotti R, Kirkland K, Wainer IW. The determination of the enantiomers of halofantrine and monodesbutylhalofantrine in plasma and whole blood using sequential achiral/chiral high-performance liquid chromatography. J Pharm Biomed Anal 1992; 10:245-50. [PMID: 1391105 DOI: 10.1016/0731-7085(92)80036-m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- F Gimenez
- Pharmaceutical Division, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
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30
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Iredale J, Wainer IW. Determination of hydroxychloroquine and its major metabolites in plasma using sequential achiral-chiral high-performance liquid chromatography. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 1992; 573:253-8. [PMID: 1601957 DOI: 10.1016/0378-4347(92)80126-b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
A sequential achiral-chiral high-performance liquid chromatographic system has been developed for the determination of the enantiomers of hydroxychloroquine, (+)-HCQ and (-)-HCQ, and the enantiomers of its three major metabolites, bisdesethylchloroquine, desethylhydroxychloroquine and desethylchloroquine, in plasma. The HCQ was separated from the metabolites and interfering components in the plasma and quantified on a cyano-bonded phase, and the enantiomeric composition determined using a Chiral-AGP chiral stationary phase. The assay was validated and applied to the analysis of a pilot study of the pharmacokinetics of (+)- and (-)-HCQ in rabbits.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Iredale
- Department of Oncology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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31
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Aubry AF, Gimenez F, Farinotti R, Wainer IW. Enantioselective chromatography of the antimalarial agents chloroquine, mefloquine, and enpiroline on a ?1 -acid glycoprotein chiral stationary phase: Evidence for a multiple-site chiral recognition mechanism. Chirality 1992. [DOI: 10.1002/chir.530040108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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32
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Webster RV, Craig JC, Shyamala V, Kirby GC, Warhurst DC. Antimalarial activity of optical isomers of quinacrine dihydrochloride against chloroquine-sensitive and -resistant Plasmodium falciparum in vitro. Biochem Pharmacol 1991; 42 Suppl:S225-7. [PMID: 1768282 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(91)90417-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Both enantiomers of quinacrine and the racemic form of the drug showed equal activity in vitro against chloroquine-sensitive and -resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum, without detectable stereoselectivity. This contrasts with observations on chloroquine, where a similar lack of stereoselectivity in vitro is accompanied by a 10-fold loss of activity against the resistant strain. The observed in vivo differences reported for the enantiomers of chloroquine and the observations on the optically active metabolites of chloroquine and quinacrine may therefore be ascribed to a difference in the pharmacokinetics of their enantiomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- R V Webster
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco 94143-0446
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33
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McLachlan AJ, Tett SE, Cutler DJ. High-performance liquid chromatographic separation of the enantiomers of hydroxychloroquine and its major metabolites in biological fluids using an alpha 1-acid glycoprotein stationary phase. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 1991; 570:119-27. [PMID: 1797817 DOI: 10.1016/0378-4347(91)80206-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
An enantioselective two-stage off-line assay has been developed for the analysis of hydroxychloroquine and its three major metabolites in biological fluids. The first non-stereoselective stage of the assay (PRP-1 column) separates and quantitates parent drug and metabolites. Fractions containing hydroxychloroquine and each of the metabolites are collected manually, evaporated, reconstituted in mobile phase and re-injected onto an alpha 1-acid glycoprotein column to separate and determine proportions of individual enantiomers. Preliminary results from patients samples indicate that the disposition of hydroxychloroquine and its major metabolites is enantioselective. p6
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Affiliation(s)
- A J McLachlan
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
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34
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Abstract
The antimalarials hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine remain established and effective agents for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Although the mechanisms of action remain uncertain, evidence is accumulating that the antirheumatic and immunological effects of the antimalarials are related to their massive distribution into the cellular acid-vesicle system. These drugs are attracting new interest because their relative safety recommends their use in early rheumatoid arthritis and as a component of second-line antirheumatic drug combinations. The absence of data examining the effect of antimalarials upon radiological progression of rheumatoid arthritis needs to be rectified. Recent understanding of the pharmacokinetics of these drugs reveals that steady-state concentrations are not achieved for at least 3-4 months. Preliminary information also suggests a relationship between blood concentrations and effect. Taken together, these data suggest that more effective dosage regimens will be possible when therapeutic concentration ranges are properly established.
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35
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Rainsford KD. Disease-modifying antirheumatic and immunoregulatory agents. BAILLIERE'S CLINICAL RHEUMATOLOGY 1990; 4:405-32. [PMID: 2093435 DOI: 10.1016/s0950-3579(05)80002-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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36
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Enquist M, Hermansson J. Influence of uncharged mobile phase additives on retention and enantioselectivity of chiral drugs using an α1-acid glycoprotein column. J Chromatogr A 1990. [DOI: 10.1016/0021-9673(90)85158-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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37
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Peng GW, Chiou WL. Analysis of drugs and other toxic substances in biological samples for pharmacokinetic studies. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 1990; 531:3-50. [PMID: 2258421 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(00)82279-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The importance of the role of analysis of drugs and other toxic substances in biological samples (bioanalysis) in medicine, toxicology, pharmacology, forensic science, environmental research and other biomedical disciplines is self-evident. Among these disciplines, bioanalysis plays a special pivotal role in pharmacokinetics. The pharmacokinetic parameters, such as half-life, volume of distribution, clearance and bioavailability, of drugs and other compounds are derived from the concentrations of these analytes assayed in the biological samples collected at specified time points. The capability of analysts to develop sensitive and specific analytical methods for the assay of low concentrations of drugs and other toxic compounds in small amounts of biological samples has contributed significantly to the theoretical advances in pharmacokinetics and its applications in clinical pharmacology and the management of drug therapy in patients. The increased demands for pharmacokinetic applications in turn have stimulated the innovation and improvement in bioanalytical technologies. The reliability of the pharmacokinetic conclusions depends on the accuracy and precision of the analytical methods employed to assay the biological samples. Factors that affect the integrity of the bioanalytical data should therefore be controlled in analysis of biological samples for pharmacokinetics studies. The biological samples for drug concentration determination should be collected as specified in the study protocol with respect to the time and site of sampling. These samples should be processed to avoid extraneous interactions between the analytes and sampling devices or additives resulting in the redistribution of the analytes between components of the biological samples, such as displacement of drug binding and changes in the distribution of the analytes between plasma and red blood cells. The stability of the drugs and other analytes in the samples should also be evaluated to establish the conditions suitable for the transportation and storage of the samples to avoid chemical, photochemical and enzymatic degradation of the analytes. Various technologies have been utilized to assay biological samples for pharmacokinetic studies. The most frequently used are chromatography (high-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography and thin-layer chromatography), immunoassays and mass spectrometry.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- G W Peng
- Drug Metabolism Research, Upjohn Company, Kalamazoo, MI 49001
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38
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Matuszewski BK, Constanzer ML, Hessey GA, Bayne WF. Development of direct stereoselective and non-stereoselective assays in biological fluids for the enantiomers of a thieno[2,3-b]thiopyran-2-sulfonamide, a topically effective carbonic anhydrase inhibitor. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 1990; 526:461-73. [PMID: 2361985 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(00)82528-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A stereoselective assay for the optical isomers [(S) and (R)] of 5,6-dihydro-4-[(2-methylpropyl)amino]-4H-thieno[2,3-b]thiopyran-2- sulfonamide-7,7-dioxide in human whole blood has been developed. The assay is based on direct enantiomer separation on a chiral stationary phase column of bovine serum albumin attached to silica. The effect of pH, ionic strength, column length and organic modifier on chiral separation has been studied. The assay methodology, based on high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet (UV) detection (252 nm), has been fully validated in the concentration range 25-250 ng/ml of each enantiomer. Since no interconversion of the isomers was observed in vivo for the clinical studies involving the single (S)-enantiomer, a more sensitive (2.5 ng/ml), non-stereoselective assay has been developed. This method, also based on HPLC with UV detection, was fully validated in whole blood, plasma and urine in the concentration range 2.5-100 ng/ml. The details of these assays, together with some representative data from a pilot human study, are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- B K Matuszewski
- Merck Sharp and Dohme Research Laboratories, West Point, PA 19486
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39
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Campbell DB. Stereoselectivity in clinical pharmacokinetics and drug development. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 1990; 15:109-25. [PMID: 2200681 DOI: 10.1007/bf03190194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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40
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Ibrahim KE, Fell AF. Separation of chloroquine enantiomers by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Pharm Biomed Anal 1990; 8:449-52. [PMID: 2081207 DOI: 10.1016/0731-7085(90)80074-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K E Ibrahim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Khartoum, Sudan
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41
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Abstract
Drugs which have a center of asymmetry are often administered as an equal mixture of the two possible enantiomeric forms i.e. a racemate. However, there are frequently large pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic differences between enantiomers. Consequently, it is possible that while one enantiomer mediates the antiinflammatory or antirheumatic action, the other enantiomer, although adding little to the efficacy of the drug, may contribute to its adverse effects. Asymmetric drugs may also serve as sensitive pharmacological probes of the mechanisms underlying the action of drugs and the inflammatory processes which they modulate. These concepts are the focus for this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Williams
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, St Vincent's Hospital, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia
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42
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Affiliation(s)
- G T Tucker
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Sheffield, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, U.K
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43
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Jamali F, Mehvar R, Pasutto FM. Enantioselective aspects of drug action and disposition: therapeutic pitfalls. J Pharm Sci 1989; 78:695-715. [PMID: 2685226 DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600780902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 329] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- F Jamali
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
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44
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Enantiomeric separation of drugs and related compounds based on their interaction with α1-acid glycoprotein. Trends Analyt Chem 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/0165-9936(89)80038-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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45
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Abstract
1. Biological macromolecules are able to distinguish between enantiomeric substrates. A three-point interaction between the drug enantiomers and the macromolecule (Easson-Stedman hypothesis) can frequently account for this selectivity. 2. Significant pharmacodynamic differences between enantiomers are more the rule than the exception. 3. Pharmacokinetic differences between enantiomers are, in general, not as great as the pharmacodynamic differences. However, stereoselective protein binding, metabolism and renal clearance are still very important aspects of understanding drug disposition and the time course of drug action. 4. There may be pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic enantiomer-enantiomer interactions. Consequently, the activity and disposition of a racemic drug may not be the simple sum of the activities and disposition of the individual enantiomers. 5. Enantiomers have been used as sensitive 3-dimensional probes to establish structure-activity relationships, to provide insights into genetic polymorphism of drug metabolism, and to provide insights into other aspects of drug disposition. 6. A need for a 3-dimensional understanding of pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics is implicit in the asymmetric nature of biological environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Williams
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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46
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Enquist M, Hermansson J. Separation and quantitation of (R)- and (S)-atenolol in human plasma and urine using an alpha 1-AGP column. Chirality 1989; 1:209-15. [PMID: 2642050 DOI: 10.1002/chir.530010306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
A method for the determination of (R)- and (S)-atenolol in human plasma and urine is described. The enantiomers of atenolol are extracted into dichloromethane containing 3% heptafluorobutanol followed by acetylation with acetic anhydride at 60 degrees C for 2 h. The acetylated enantiomers were separated on a chiral alpha 1-AGP column. Quantitation was performed using fluorescence detection. A phosphate buffer pH 7.1 (0.01 M phosphate) containing 0.25% (v/v) acetonitrile was used as mobile phase. The described procedure allows the detection of less than 6 ng of each enantiomer in 1 ml plasma. The relative standard deviation is 4.4% at 30 ng/ml of each enantiomer in plasma. The plasma concentration of (R)- and (S)-atenolol did not differ significantly in two subjects who received a single tablet of racemic atenolol. The R/S ratio of atenolol in urine was approximately 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Enquist
- Apoteksbolaget AB, Department of Biomedicine, Stockholm, Sweden
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47
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Bergqvist Y, Churchill FC. Detection and determination of antimalarial drugs and their metabolites in body fluids. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 1988; 434:1-20. [PMID: 3072344 DOI: 10.1016/0378-4347(88)80057-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
This review of methods for determining antimalarial drugs in biological fluids has focused on the various analytical techniques for the assay of chloroquine, quinine, amodiaquine, mefloquine, proguanil, pyrimethamine, sulphadoxine, primaquine and some of their metabolites. The methods for determining antimalarials and their metabolites in biological samples have changed rapidly during the last eight to ten years with the increased use of chromatographic techniques. Chloroquine is still the most used antimalarial drug, and various methods of different complexity exist for the determination of chloroquine and its metabolites in biological fluids. The pharmacokinetics of chloroquine and other antimalarials have been updated using these new methods. The various analytical techniques have been discussed, from simple colorimetric methods of intermediate selectivity and sensitivity to highly sophisticated, selective and sensitive chromatographic methods applied in a modern analytical laboratory. Knowledge concerning the method for a particular study is determined by the type of application and the facilities, equipment and personnel available. Often is it useful to apply various methods when conducting a clinical study in malaria-endemic areas. Field-adapted methods for the analysis of urine samples can be applied at the study site for screening, and corresponding blood samples can be preserved for subsequent analysis in the laboratory. Selecting samples for laboratory analysis is based on clinical, parasitological and field-assay data. The wide array of methods available for chloroquine permit carefully tailored approaches to acquire the necessary analytical information in clinical field studies concerning the use of this drug. The development of additional field-adapted and field-interfaced methods for other commonly used antimalarials will provide similar flexibility in field studies of these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Bergqvist
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Falun Central Hospital, Sweden
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48
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Mehta AC. Direct separation of drug enantiomers by high-performance liquid chromatography with chiral stationary phases. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 1988; 426:1-13. [PMID: 3290232 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(00)81921-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The development of chiral stationary phases for HPLC has resulted in renewed interest in methods for the separation of drug enantiomers. This paper provides a brief overview of some of the more recent approaches to the direct resolution of drug enantiomers by HPLC with particular emphasis on their quantification in biological fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Mehta
- Department of Pharmacy, General Infirmary, Leeds, Yorkshire, U.K
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49
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Edholm LE, Lindberg C, Paulson J, Walhagen A. Determination of drug enantiomers in biological samples by coupled column liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 1988; 424:61-72. [PMID: 3366839 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(00)81076-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and coupled column chromatography can be used to overcome problems likely to occur in direct separation and determination of drug enantiomers in biological samples. This is exemplified here with the direct separation and determination of terbutaline in human plasma at the nmol/l level. A beta-cyclodextrin column with an aqueous mobile phase was used for chiral separation. For coupled column chromatography, the concentration of each enantiomer was calculated from the enantiomeric area ratio and the racemate concentration. A deuterium-labelled internal standard was used in the LC-MS experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- L E Edholm
- Bioanalysis, AB Draco, (Subsidiary of AB Astra), Lund, Sweden
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50
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Hermansson J, Ström K, Sandberg R. Relationship between enantioselectivity and solute structure on a chiral α1-acid glycoprotein column. Chromatographia 1987. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02688538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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