Underreporting of Pregnancy-Related Mortality in the United States and Europe

European Board and College of Obstetrics and Gynaecology position statement on maternal mortality surveillance in Europe

Maternal mortality data and review are important indicators of the effectiveness of maternity healthcare systems and an impetus for action. Recently, a rising incidence of maternal mortality in high income countries has been reported. Various publications have raised concern about data collection methods at country level, as this usually relies mainly on national vital statistics. It is therefore essential that the collected data are complete and accurate and conform to international definitions and disease classification. Accurate data and review can only be truly available when an Enhanced Obstetric Surveillance System is in place. EBCOG calls for action by national societies to work closely with their respective ministries of health to ensure that high quality surveillance systems are in place.

[National confidential enquiry into maternal deaths in France, a 25-year enhanced surveillance system, essential for the reliable characterization of maternal deaths]

Although maternal mortality is rare in wealthy countries, it remains a fundamental indicator of maternal health. It is considered to be a "sentinel event", the occurrence of which indicates dysfunctions, often cumulative, in the healthcare system. In addition to the classic epidemiological surveillance findings - number of deaths, maternal mortality ratio, distribution of medical causes, sub-groups of women at risk - its study, through a precise analysis of the history of each woman who died, enables to highlight areas for improvement in the content or organisation of care, the correction of which will make it possible to prevent not only deaths but also upstream morbid events involving the same mechanisms. To achieve this dual epidemiological and clinical audit objective, an ad hoc "enhanced" system is needed. France has had such a system since 1996, the Enquête Nationale Confidentielle sur la Mortalité Maternelle (ENCMM), under the joint supervision of Santé Publique France and Inserm. The ENCMM method aims to identify maternal deaths exhaustively and reliably up to 1 year after the end of pregnancy, and to document each death as fully as possible. The 1st step is the multi-source identification (direct declaration, death certificates, linkage with birth certificates, hospital stay database) of women who died during pregnancy or in the year following its end. The 2nd step is the collection of detailed information for each death by a pair of clinical assessors. The 3rd step is the review of these anonymised documents by the National Expert Committee on Maternal Mortality, which establishes the maternal nature of the death (causal link with pregnancy) and, with a stated aim of improvement rather than judgement, assesses the adequacy of care and the preventability of the death. The summary of the information gathered for maternal deaths in the 2016-2018 period is presented in the other articles of this special issue.

Incompleteness and misclassification of maternal death recording: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To quantify the extent of incompleteness and misclassification of maternal and pregnancy related deaths, and to identify general and context-specific factors associated with incompleteness and/or misclassification of maternal death data.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review of incompleteness and/or misclassification of maternal and pregnancy-related deaths. We conducted a narrative synthesis to identify methods used to capture and classify maternal deaths, as well as general and context specific factors affecting the completeness and misclassification of maternal death recording. We conducted a meta-analysis of proportions to obtain estimates of incompleteness and misclassification of maternal death recording, overall and disaggregated by income and surveillance system types.

FINDINGS

Of 2872 title-abstracts identified, 29 were eligible for inclusions in the qualitative synthesis, and 20 in the meta-analysis. Included studies relied principally on record linkage and review for identifying deaths, and on review of medical records and verbal autopsies to correctly classify cause of death. Deaths to women towards the extremes of the reproductive age range, those not classified by a medical examiner or a coroner, and those from minority ethnic groups in their setting were more likely misclassified or unrecorded. In the meta-analysis, we found maternal death recording to be incomplete by 34% (95% CI: 28-48), with 60% sensitivity (95% CI: 31-81.). Overall, we found maternal mortality was under-estimated by 39% (95% CI: 30-48) due to incompleteness and/or misclassification. Reporting of deaths away from the intrapartum, due to indirect causes or occurring at home were less complete than their counterparts. There was substantial between and within group variability across most results.

CONCLUSION

Maternal deaths were under-estimated in almost all contexts, but the extent varied across settings. Countries should aim towards establishing Civil Registration and Vital Statistics systems where they are not instituted. Efforts to improve the completeness and accuracy of maternal cause of death recording, such as Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths, are needed even where CRVS is considered to be well-functioning.

Maternal mortality in eight European countries with enhanced surveillance systems: descriptive population based study

OBJECTIVE

To compare maternal mortality in eight countries with enhanced surveillance systems.

DESIGN

Descriptive multicountry population based study.

SETTING

Eight countries with permanent surveillance systems using enhanced methods to identify, document, and review maternal deaths. The most recent available aggregated maternal mortality data were collected for three year periods for France, Italy, and the UK and for five year periods for Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway, and Slovakia.

POPULATION

297 835 live births in Denmark (2013-17), 301 169 in Finland (2008-12), 2 435 583 in France (2013-15), 1 281 986 in Italy (2013-15), 856 572 in the Netherlands (2014-18), 292 315 in Norway (2014-18), 283 930 in Slovakia (2014-18), and 2 261 090 in the UK (2016-18).

OUTCOME MEASURES

Maternal mortality ratios from enhanced systems were calculated and compared with those obtained from each country's office of vital statistics. Age specific maternal mortality ratios; maternal mortality ratios according to women's origin, citizenship, or ethnicity; and cause specific maternal mortality ratios were also calculated.

RESULTS

Methods for identifying and classifying maternal deaths up to 42 days were very similar across countries (except for the Netherlands). Maternal mortality ratios up to 42 days after end of pregnancy varied by a multiplicative factor of four from 2.7 and 3.4 per 100 000 live births in Norway and Denmark to 9.6 in the UK and 10.9 in Slovakia. Vital statistics offices underestimated maternal mortality by 36% or more everywhere but Denmark. Age specific maternal mortality ratios were higher for the youngest and oldest mothers (pooled relative risk 2.17 (95% confidence interval 1.38 to 3.34) for women aged <20 years, 2.10 (1.54 to 2.86) for those aged 35-39, and 3.95 (3.01 to 5.19) for those aged ≥40, compared with women aged 20-29 years). Except in Norway, maternal mortality ratios were ≥50% higher in women born abroad or of minoritised ethnicity, defined variously in different countries. Cardiovascular diseases and suicides were leading causes of maternal deaths in each country. Some other conditions were also major contributors to maternal mortality in only one or two countries: venous thromboembolism in the UK and the Netherlands, hypertensive disorders in the Netherlands, amniotic fluid embolism in France, haemorrhage in Italy, and stroke in Slovakia. Only two countries, France and the UK, had enhanced methods for studying late maternal deaths, those occurring between 43 and 365 days after the end of pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

Variations in maternal mortality ratios exist between high income European countries with enhanced surveillance systems. In-depth analyses of differences in the quality of care and health system performance at national levels are needed to reduce maternal mortality further by learning from best practices and each other. Cardiovascular diseases and mental health in women during and after pregnancy must be prioritised in all countries.

Implementation of maternal and neonatal death surveillance and response in Cameroon

OBJECTIVE

To analyze implementation of maternal and neonatal death surveillance and response (MNDSR) in Cameroon to determine to what extent monitoring objectives are being met and highlight the main obstacles and facilitating factors.

METHODS

Secondary analysis of a cross-sectional study using a qualitative method and routine data on maternal health. Semistructured interviews were conducted with participants involved in MNDSR at the central, regional, and district levels.

RESULTS

Notification of maternal deaths has been incorporated into the Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR) system since January 2014. However, maternal deaths are underreported in most hospitals and neonatal and community deaths are not recorded. Comprehensive review of maternal deaths does not occur in all hospitals despite training of providers in 2013 on how to conduct reviews.

CONCLUSION

Implementation of MNDSR in Cameroon is insufficient. More commitment from the Ministry of Health is needed to develop an action plan and secure funding.

Extracorporeal life support for cardiogenic shock during pregnancy and postpartum: a single center experience

BACKGROUND

The use of veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA ECMO) for cardiogenic shock in pregnant and postpartum patients remains limited by concerns of bleeding, hemolysis, and fetal risks. This case series examines the underlying characteristics and management strategies for this high-risk population.

METHODS

All pregnant and post-partum patients who underwent VA ECMO in the cardiovascular intensive care unit between January 1, 2016 and November 1, 2019, were included in this retrospective study. Management of maternal and fetal O₂ delivery, left ventricular (LV) unloading, anticoagulation, and ECMO circuit characteristics were evaluated.

RESULTS

Five patients required veno-arterial ECMO for restoration of systemic perfusion. Three patients developed peripartum cardiomyopathy, one septic cardiomyopathy, and one acute right ventricular (RV) failure. The median age was 30.6 years, with median gestational age in pregnant patients of 31 weeks. Maternal and fetal survival to discharge was 80%. Bleeding was the primary complication, with two patients requiring blood transfusions; one requiring interventional radiology (IR) embolization and the other requiring surgical intervention to control bleeding. One patient was successfully delivered on VA ECMO. No fetal complications were directly attributed to VA ECMO.

CONCLUSIONS

VA ECMO can be employed successfully in obstetric patients with cardiogenic shock with appropriate patient selection. Further research is needed to determine if VA ECMO provides a survival advantage over traditional management strategies in this vulnerable population.

[Enhanced system for maternal mortality surveillance in France, context and Methods]

Maternal mortality, despite its rarity in rich countries, remains a fundamental indicator of maternal health. It is considered as a "sentinel event", consequence of dysfunctions of the health care system, often cumulative. In addition to the classical epidemiological surveillance outcomes-number of deaths, maternal mortality ratio and identification of the subgroups of women at higher risk-its study allows an accurate analysis of each deceased woman's trajectory to identify opportunities for improvements in the content or organization of care; the correction of which will make it possible to prevent deaths but also upstream morbid events affected by the same dysfunctions. To achieve this dual epidemiological and clinical audit objective, an ad hoc enhanced system is needed. France has had such a system since 1996, the National Confidential enquiry into maternal deaths (ENCMM), coordinated by the Inserm Epopé team. The methodology has been adapted over time to improve completeness and better document cases. The first step is the multi-source identification (direct declaration, death certificate, birth certificates, hospital discharge data) of women who died during pregnancy or within one year of its end, in metropolitan France and overseas departments. The second step is the collection of detailed information for each death by a pair of clinical assessors. Recent evolutions aim to better document the social context of women as well as the background of women who have died of suicide. Psychiatrists have been included among the assessors. The third stage is the review of these anonymized documents by the National Committee of Experts on Maternal Mortality, which judges whether the death is maternal (causal link) and makes a judgment on the adequacy of care and avoidability of death. A psychiatrist is now associated to the CNEMM for the assessment of maternal suicides. The synthesis of the information thus collected for maternal deaths in the period 2013-2015 is presented in these articles of this special issue.

Induced Abortion and the Increased Risk of Maternal Mortality

After years of failure to obtain accurate statistics on maternal mortality, the United States noted a sharp increase in its maternal mortality rate with widening racial and ethnic disparities. The 2016 report shocked the nation by documenting a 26 percent increase in maternal mortality from 18.8/100,000 live births in 2000 to 23.8 in 2014. Suggested etiologies of this increase included artifact as a result of improved maternal death surveillance, incorrect use of ICD-10 codes, healthcare disparities, lack of family support and other social barriers, substance abuse and violence, depression and suicide, inadequate preconception care, patient noncompliance, lack of standardized protocols for handling obstetric emergencies, failure to meet expected standards of care, aging of the pregnant patient cohort with associated increase in chronic diseases and cardiovascular complications, and lack of a comprehensive national plan. While some of the increase in maternal mortality may be a result of improved data collection, pregnancy-related deaths are occurring at a higher rate in the United States than in other developed countries. Some have suggested that the increased maternal mortality is due to limiting women's access to legal abortion. In order to discover effective strategies to improve pregnancy outcomes, maternal mortality must be investigated in an unbiased manner. This review explores the relationship between legal-induced abortion and maternal mortality.

Summary

In Finland, where epidemiologic record linkage has been validated, the risk of death from legal induced abortion is reported to be almost four times greater than the risk of death from childbirth. It is difficult to do this comparison in the United States not only because prior induced abortion history is often not recorded for a pregnancy-related death but also because less than one-quarter of the states require health care providers to report abortion deaths for investigation. These omissions are important because mortality risk in pregnancies subsequent to abortion is increased due to abortion-induced morbidities such as preterm birth and abnormal placentation. Legal induced abortion is a root cause of the racial and ethnic disparity noted in maternal mortality. In the United States, the death rate from legal induced abortion performed at 18 weeks gestation is more than double that observed for women experiencing vaginal delivery.

Variations in use of childbirth interventions in 13 high-income countries: A multinational cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Variations in intervention rates, without subsequent reductions in adverse outcomes, can indicate overuse. We studied variations in and associations between commonly used childbirth interventions and adverse outcomes, adjusted for population characteristics.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

In this multinational cross-sectional study, existing data on 4,729,307 singleton births at ≥37 weeks in 2013 from Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Ireland, England, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany (Hesse), Malta, the United States, and Chile were used to describe variations in childbirth interventions and outcomes. Numbers of births ranged from 3,987 for Iceland to 3,500,397 for the USA. Crude data were analysed in the Netherlands, or analysed data were shared with the principal investigator. Strict variable definitions were used and information on data quality was collected. Intervention rates were described for each country and stratified by parity. Uni- and multivariable analyses were performed, adjusted for population characteristics, and associations between rates of interventions, population characteristics, and outcomes were assessed using Spearman's rank correlation coefficients. Considerable intercountry variations were found for all interventions, despite adjustments for population characteristics. Adjustments for ethnicity and body mass index changed odds ratios for augmentation of labour and episiotomy. Largest variations were found for augmentation of labour, pain relief, episiotomy, instrumental birth, and cesarean section (CS). Percentages of births at ≥42 weeks varied from 0.1% to 6.7%. Rates among nulliparous versus multiparous women varied from 56% to 80% versus 51% to 82% for spontaneous onset of labour; 14% to 36% versus 8% to 28% for induction of labour; 3% to 13% versus 7% to 26% for prelabour CS; 16% to 48% versus 12% to 50% for overall CS; 22% to 71% versus 7% to 38% for augmentation of labour; 50% to 93% versus 25% to 86% for any intrapartum pain relief, 19% to 83% versus 10% to 64% for epidural anaesthesia; 6% to 68% versus 2% to 30% for episiotomy in vaginal births; 3% to 30% versus 1% to 7% for instrumental vaginal births; and 42% to 70% versus 50% to 84% for spontaneous vaginal births. Countries with higher rates of births at ≥42 weeks had higher rates of births with a spontaneous onset (rho = 0.82 for nulliparous/rho = 0.83 for multiparous women) and instrumental (rho = 0.67) and spontaneous (rho = 0.66) vaginal births among multiparous women and lower rates of induction of labour (rho = -0.71/-0.66), prelabour CS (rho = -0.61/-0.65), overall CS (rho = -0.61/-0.67), and episiotomy (multiparous: rho = -0.67). Variation in CS rates was mainly due to prelabour CS (rho = 0.96). Countries with higher rates of births with a spontaneous onset had lower rates of emergency CS (nulliparous: rho = -0.62) and higher rates of spontaneous vaginal births (multiparous: rho = 0.70). Prelabour and emergency CS were positively correlated (nulliparous: rho = 0.74). Higher rates of obstetric anal sphincter injury following vaginal birth were found in countries with higher rates of spontaneous birth (nulliparous: rho = 0.65). In countries with higher rates of epidural anaesthesia (nulliparous) and spontaneous births (multiparous), higher rates of Apgar score < 7 were found (rhos = 0.64). No statistically significant variation was found for perinatal mortality. Main limitations were varying quality of data and missing information.

CONCLUSIONS

Considerable intercountry variations were found for all interventions, even after adjusting for population characteristics, indicating overuse of interventions in some countries. Multivariable analyses are essential when comparing intercountry rates. Implementation of evidence-based guidelines is crucial in optimising intervention use and improving quality of maternity care worldwide.

Pregnant? Validity of the pregnancy checkbox on death certificates in four states, and characteristics associated with pregnancy checkbox errors

BACKGROUND

Maternal mortality rates in the United States appear to be increasing. One potential reason may be increased identification of maternal deaths after the addition of a pregnancy checkbox to the death certificate. In 2016, 4 state health departments (Georgia, Louisiana, Michigan, and Ohio) implemented a pregnancy checkbox quality assurance pilot, with technical assistance provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The pilot aimed to improve accuracy of the pregnancy checkbox on death certificates and resultant state maternal mortality estimates.

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the validity of the pregnancy checkbox on the death certificate, and to describe characteristics associated with errors using 2016 data from a 4-state quality assurance pilot.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Potential pregnancy-associated deaths were identified by linking death certificates with birth or fetal death certificates from within 1 year preceding death or by pregnancy checkbox status. Death certificates that indicated that the decedent was pregnant within 1 year of death via the pregnancy checkbox, but that did not link to a birth or fetal death certificate, were referred for active follow-up to confirm pregnancy status by either death certifier confirmation or medical record review. Descriptive statistics and 95% confidence intervals were used to examine the distributions of demographic characteristics by pregnancy confirmation category (confirmed pregnant, confirmed not pregnant, and unable to confirm). We compared the proportion confirmed pregnant and confirmed not pregnant within age, race/ethnicity, pregnancy checkbox category, and certifier type categories using a Wald test of proportions. Binomial and Poisson regression models were used to estimate prevalence ratios for having an incorrect pregnancy checkbox (false positive, false negative) by age group, race/ethnicity, pregnancy checkbox category, and certifier type.

RESULTS

Among 467 potential pregnancy-associated deaths, 335 (72%) were confirmed pregnant via linkage to a birth or fetal death certificate, certifier confirmation, or review of medical records. A total of 97 women (21%) were confirmed not pregnant (false positives) and 35 (7%) were unable to be confirmed. Women confirmed pregnant were significantly younger than women confirmed not pregnant (P < .001). Deaths certified by coroners and medical examiners were more likely to be confirmed pregnant than confirmed not pregnant (P = .04). The association between decedent age category and false-positive status followed a dose-response relationship (P < .001), with increasing prevalence ratios for each increase in age category. Death certificates of non-Hispanic black women were more likely to be false positive, compared with non-Hispanic white women (prevalence ratio, 1.41; 95% confidence interval, 1.01, 1.96). The sensitivity of the pregnancy checkbox among these 4 states in 2016 was 62% and the positive predictive value was 68%.

CONCLUSION

We provide a multi-state analysis of the validity of the pregnancy checkbox and highlight a need for more accurate reporting of pregnancy status on death certificates. States and other jurisdictions may increase the accuracy of their data used to calculate maternal mortality rates by implementing quality assurance processes.

Checking the pregnancy checkbox: Evaluation of a four-state quality assurance pilot

BACKGROUND

The 2003 revision of the standard United States death certificate included a set of "pregnancy checkboxes" to ascertain whether a woman was pregnant at the time of her death or within the preceding year. Studies validating the pregnancy checkbox have indicated a potentially high number of errors, resulting in inflated maternal mortality rates. In response to concerns about pregnancy checkbox data quality, four state health departments implemented a quality assurance pilot project examining the accuracy of the pregnancy checkbox for 2016 deaths.

METHODS

State staff conducted searches for birth or fetal death reports that matched a death certificate, within a year of death. If a pregnancy checkbox was marked, but no match was found between certificates, confirmation of the pregnancy was attempted through active follow-up with the death certifier. From December 2017 to January 2018, the quality assurance pilot was evaluated through three focus groups with key stakeholders. The evaluation aimed to describe opportunities and challenges to implementation, sustainability, and lessons learned.

RESULTS

Opportunities for implementing the pilot included written documentation of the quality assurance process, improved certifier response, improved data quality, and increased data timeliness for Maternal Mortality Review Committees. Challenges included initial delays in certifier response, staff turnover, high caseloads in relation to resources, and lack of pilot prioritization in the health department. All four pilot states plan to sustain the pregnancy checkbox quality assurance process in some capacity.

CONCLUSIONS

Implementing quality assurance processes for the pregnancy checkbox may ultimately improve state and national maternal death data quality.

Recurrence of post-partum hemorrhage in women with a history of uterine artery embolization

AIM

To evaluate pregnancy outcome and complications in subsequent pregnancies after severe post-partum hemorrhage (PPH) between women with and without a history of uterine artery embolization (UAE).

METHODS

Women who had a history of severe PPH, and delivered newborns at ≥22 gestational weeks in subsequent pregnancies were enrolled. Severe PPH was defined as blood loss volume of more than 2000 mL.

RESULTS

The blood loss volume (median 1581 mL) in women with UAE (n = 14) was significantly more than that in women without UAE (median 1021 mL, n = 32, P < 0.01), and the recurrence rate of severe PPH in women with UAE (n = 5, 35.7%) was significantly higher than that in women without UAE (n = 3, 9.4%, P < 0.05). There were no significant differences in frequencies of premature delivery, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, fetal growth restriction, or placenta previa/low lying placenta. Of 14 women with UAE, 7 (50.0%) had abnormally invasive placenta, whereas of 32 women without UAE, none had abnormally invasive placenta.

CONCLUSION

Subsequent pregnancies after UAE for severe PPH had high risks for recurrence of severe PPH.

ACOG Committee Opinion No. 748: The Importance of Vital Records and Statistics for the Obstetrician-Gynecologist

Information from vital records is critical to identify and quantify health-related issues and to measure progress toward quality improvement and public health goals. In particular, maternal and infant mortality serve as important indicators of the nation's health, thereby influencing policy development, funding of programs and research, and measures of health care quality. Accurate and timely documentation of births and deaths is essential to high-quality vital statistics. This Committee Opinion describes the process by which births, maternal deaths, and fetal deaths are registered; the challenges faced with a decentralized reporting system; and the important role for obstetrician-gynecologists in improving the accuracy, reliability, and timeliness of vital records.

Maternal childbirth-related mortality in the last 40 years in Turin, Italy: the impact of universal health coverage on inequalities in a developed country

The aim of this study was to investigate social disparities in childbirth-related mortality in women (CRM) in Italy during 1972-2013, a period characterised by important changes in the organisation of healthcare services. The relationship between education and CRM was assessed using a Poisson regression model adjusted for age, area of birth and year of delivery.The risk of dying from childbirth related causes was more than double for less educated women when compared to women with better education (RR 2.3; 95% CI 1.1-3.9). CMR was almost 2.5 times higher in 1971-1979 than in the universalistic coverage period (1980-2013): RR 2.6, 95% CI 1.4-4.6. CMR in Turin has decreased in the last 40 years and this success is probably the result of the development of our public health system and of specific health facilities for pregnant women but free access to maternal care alone is not sufficient to erase inequalities.IMPACT STATEMENTWhat do we already know? Mother mortality due to childbirth-related causes has significantly decreased in the last 40 years and the development of the public health system is likely to have contributed to this success.What do the results of this study add? This study shows that, although there has been good progress in pregnancy and partum assistance, inequalities in the incidence of mortality from childbirth-related causes still exists even in a high-income country such as Italy.What are the implications of these findings for clinical practice and/or further research? The results are useful both for clinicians and for policy-makers as it suggests that the assessment of socioeconomic factors should be taken into account by clinicians along with other risk factors. Furthermore, community interventions targeted at more vulnerable women should be implemented to improve the use of healthcare and pre-partum facilities.

Ontology to identify pregnant women in electronic health records: primary care sentinel network database study

Objective

To develop an ontology to identify pregnant women from computerised medical record systems with dissimilar coding systems in a primary care sentinel network.

Materials and methods

We used a three-step approach to develop our pregnancy ontology in two different coding schemata, one hierarchical and the other polyhierarchical. We developed a coding system–independent pregnancy case identification algorithm using the Royal College of General Practitioners Research and Surveillance Centre sentinel network database which held 1.8 million patients’ data drawn from 150 primary care providers. We tested the algorithm by examining individual patient records in a 10% random sample of all women aged 29 in each year from 2004 to 2016. We did an external comparison with national pregnancy data. We used χ² test to compare results obtained for the two different coding schemata.

Results

243 005 women (median age 29 years at start of pregnancy) had 405 591 pregnancies from 2004 to 2016 of which 333 689 went to term. We found no significant difference between results obtained for two populations using different coding schemata. Pregnancy mean ages did not differ significantly from national data.

Discussion

This ontologically driven algorithm enables consistent analysis across data drawn from populations using different coding schemata. It could be applied to other hierarchical coding systems (eg, International Classification of Disease) or polyhierarchical systems (eg, SNOMED CT to which our health system is currently migrating).

Conclusion

This ontological approach will improve our surveillance in particular of influenza vaccine exposure in pregnancy.

Population-level factors associated with maternal mortality in the United States, 1997-2012

Background

In contrast to peer nations, the United States is experiencing rapid increases in maternal mortality. Trends in individual and population-level demographic factors and health trends may play a role in this change.

Methods

We analyzed state-level maternal mortality for the years 1997–2012 using multilevel mixed-effects regression grouped by state, using publicly available data including whether a state had adopted the 2003 U.S. Standard Certificate of Death, designed to simplify identification of pregnant and recently pregnant decedents. We calculated the proportion of the increase in maternal mortality attributable to specific factors during the study period.

Results

Maternal mortality was associated with higher population prevalence of obesity and high school non-completion among women of childbearing age; these factors explained 31.0% and 5.3% of the attributable increase in maternal mortality during the study period, respectively. Among delivering mothers, prevalence of diabetes (17.0%), attending fewer than 10 prenatal visits (4.9%), and African American race (2.0%) were also associated with higher maternal mortality, as was time-varying state adoption of the 2003 death certificate (31.1%).

Conclusions

Our findings indicate that, in addition to better case ascertainment of maternal deaths, adverse changes in chronic diseases, insufficient healthcare access, and social determinants of health represent identifiable risks for maternal mortality that merit prompt attention in population-directed interventions and health policies.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-018-5935-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A prospective cause of death classification system for maternal deaths in low and middle-income countries: results from the Global Network Maternal Newborn Health Registry

OBJECTIVE

To describe the causes of maternal death in a population-based cohort in six low- and middle-income countries using a standardised, hierarchical, algorithmic cause of death (COD) methodology.

DESIGN

A population-based, prospective observational study.

SETTING

Seven sites in six low- to middle-income countries including the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Guatemala, India (two sites), Kenya, Pakistan and Zambia.

POPULATION

All deaths among pregnant women resident in the study sites from 2014 to December 2016.

METHODS

For women who died, we used a standardised questionnaire to collect clinical data regarding maternal conditions present during pregnancy and delivery. These data were analysed using a computer-based algorithm to assign cause of maternal death based on the International Classification of Disease-Maternal Mortality system (trauma, termination of pregnancy-related, eclampsia, haemorrhage, pregnancy-related infection and medical conditions). We also compared the COD results to healthcare-provider-assigned maternal COD.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Assigned causes of maternal mortality.

RESULTS

Among 158 205 women, there were 221 maternal deaths. The most common algorithm-assigned maternal COD were obstetric haemorrhage (38.6%), pregnancy-related infection (26.4%) and pre-eclampsia/eclampsia (18.2%). Agreement between algorithm-assigned COD and COD assigned by healthcare providers ranged from 75% for haemorrhage to 25% for medical causes coincident to pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

The major maternal COD in the Global Network sites were haemorrhage, pregnancy-related infection and pre-eclampsia/eclampsia. This system could allow public health programmes in low- and middle-income countries to generate transparent and comparable data for maternal COD across time or regions.

TWEETABLE ABSTRACT

An algorithmic system for determining maternal cause of death in low-resource settings is described.

Health Care Disparity and Pregnancy-Related Mortality in the United States, 2005-2014

OBJECTIVE

To quantitate the contribution of various demographic factors to the U.S. maternal mortality ratio.

METHODS

This was a retrospective observational study. We analyzed data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) National Center for Health Statistics database and the Detailed Mortality Underlying Cause of Death database (CDC WONDER) from 2005 to 2014 that contains mortality and population counts for all U.S. counties. Bivariate correlations between the maternal mortality ratio and all maternal demographic, lifestyle, health, and medical service utilization characteristics were calculated. We performed a maximum likelihood factor analysis with varimax rotation retaining variables that were significant (P<.05) in the univariate analysis to deal with multicollinearity among the existing variables.

RESULTS

The United States has experienced an increase in maternal mortality ratio since 2005 with rates increasing from 15 per 100,00 live births in 2005 to 21-22 per 100,000 live births in 2013 and 2014. (P<.001) This increase in mortality was most pronounced in non-Hispanic black women, with ratios rising from 39 to 49 per 100,000 live births. A significant correlation between state mortality ranking and the percentage of non-Hispanic black women in the delivery population was demonstrated. Cesarean deliveries, unintended births, unmarried status, percentage of deliveries to non-Hispanic black women, and four or fewer prenatal visits were significantly (P<.05) associated with the increased maternal mortality ratio.

CONCLUSION

The current U.S. maternal mortality ratio is heavily influenced by a higher rate of death among non-Hispanic black or unmarried patients with unplanned pregnancies. Racial disparities in health care availability and access or utilization by underserved populations are important issues faced by states seeking to decrease maternal mortality.

Medical provision and urban-rural differences in maternal mortality in late nineteenth century Scotland

This paper examines the effect of variable reporting and coding practices on the measurement of maternal mortality in urban and rural Scotland, 1861-1901, using recorded causes of death and women who died within six weeks of childbirth. This setting provides data (n = 604 maternal deaths) to compare maternal mortality identified by cause of death with maternal mortality identified by record linkage and to contrast urban and rural settings with different certification practices. We find that underreporting was most significant for indirect causes, and that indirect causes accounted for a high proportion of maternal mortality where the infectious disease load was high. However, distinguishing between indirect and direct maternal mortality can be problematic even where cause of death reporting appears accurate. Paradoxically, underreporting of maternal deaths was higher in urban areas where deaths were routinely certified by doctors, and we argue that where there are significant differences in medical provision and reported deaths, differences in maternal mortality may reflect certification practices as much as true differences. Better health services might therefore give the impression that maternal mortality was lower than it actually was. We end with reflections on the interpretation of maternal mortality statistics and implications for the concept of the obstetric transition.

Underreporting of deaths in the maternal deaths surveillance system in one region of Morocco

OBJECTIVE

To assess the reliability of maternal deaths surveillance system (MDSS) and to determine the factors that influence its completeness in one region of Morocco.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective survey in "Gharb Chrarda Bni Hssen" region (GCBH) between January the 1st, 2013 and September the 30th, 2014 using multiple sources approach. All deaths of women of reproductive age (WRA) were investigated using certificates with medical cause, medical records and interviews with household members and relatives to ascertain a pregnancy-related or maternal death. An External Expert Committee reviewed the information collected to assign a cause for each death. Our results were compared to those reported in the same period by the MDSS.

FINDINGS

Our study identified 690 deaths of WRA and 69 maternal deaths of which 34.8% occurred outside health facilities. The MDSS recorded during the study period 538 deaths of WRA and 29 maternal deaths (including only one outside health facility) representing respectively an underreporting of 22.0% and 58.0%. Late maternal deaths represented 11.4% of all deaths of women with a registered pregnancy within 12 months prior to the death, while the MDSS identified none. The maternal mortality ratio (MMR) was estimated at 103, approximately 2.5 times higher than that reported in the MDSS.

CONCLUSION

Our study has shown weaknesses in the current notification system for maternal deaths in the region of GCBH. Therefore, more attention must be given to the regional committees in charge of auditing the cases and defining actions to be implemented to prevent further maternal deaths.

Pregnancy associated death in record linkage studies relative to delivery, termination of pregnancy, and natural losses: A systematic review with a narrative synthesis and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

Measures of pregnancy associated deaths provide important guidance for public health initiatives. Record linkage studies have significantly improved identification of deaths associated with childbirth but relatively few have also examined deaths associated with pregnancy loss even though higher rates of maternal death have been associated with the latter. Following PRISMA guidelines we undertook a systematic review of record linkage studies examining the relative mortality risks associated with pregnancy loss to develop a narrative synthesis, a meta-analysis, and to identify research opportunities.

METHODS

MEDLINE and SCOPUS were searched in July 2015 using combinations of: mortality, maternal death, record linkage, linked records, pregnancy associated mortality, and pregnancy associated death to identify papers using linkage of death certificates to independent records identifying pregnancy outcomes. Additional studies were identified by examining all citations for relevant studies.

RESULTS

Of 989 studies, 11 studies from three countries reported mortality rates associated with termination of pregnancy, miscarriage or failed pregnancy. Within a year of their pregnancy outcomes, women experiencing a pregnancy loss are over twice as likely to die compared to women giving birth. The heightened risk is apparent within 180 days and remains elevated for many years. There is a dose effect, with exposure to each pregnancy loss associated with increasing risk of death. Higher rates of death from suicide, accidents, homicide and some natural causes, such as circulatory diseases, may be from elevated stress and risk taking behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS

Both miscarriage and termination of pregnancy are markers for reduced life expectancy. This association should inform research and new public health initiatives including screening and interventions for patients exhibiting known risk factors.

[Enhanced system for maternal mortality surveillance in France, context and methods]

Maternal mortality, despite its rarity in rich countries, remains a fundamental indicator of maternal health. It is considered as a "sentinel event", consequence of dysfunctions of the health care system, often cumulative. In addition to the classical epidemiological surveillance outcomes-number of deaths, maternal mortality ratio and identification of the subgroups of women at risk-its study allows an accurate analysis of each deceased woman's trajectory to identify opportunities for improvements in the content or organization of care; the correction of which will make it possible to prevent deaths but also upstream morbid events affected by the same dysfunctions. To achieve this dual epidemiological and clinical audit objective, an ad hoc enhanced system is needed. France has had such a system since 1996, the National Confidential enquiry into maternal deaths (ENCMM), coordinated by the Inserm Epopé team. The first step is the multi-source identification (direct declaration, death certificate, birth certificates, hospital discharge data) of women who died during pregnancy or within one year of its end. The second step is the collection of detailed information for each death by a pair of clinical assessors. The third stage is the review of these anonymized documents by the National Committee of Experts on Maternal Mortality, which judges whether the death is maternal (causal link) and makes a judgment on the adequacy of care and avoidability of death. The synthesis of the information thus collected for maternal deaths in the period 2010-2012 is the subject of the last report.

Perinatal suicide in Ontario, Canada: a 15-year population-based study

BACKGROUND

Death by suicide during the perinatal period has been understudied in Canada. We examined the epidemiology of and health service use related to suicides during pregnancy and the first postpartum year.

METHODS

In this retrospective, population-based cohort study, we linked health administrative databases with coroner death records (1994-2008) for Ontario, Canada. We compared sociodemographic characteristics, clinical features and health service use in the 30 days and 1 year before death between women who died by suicide perinatally, women who died by suicide outside of the perinatal period and living perinatal women.

RESULTS

The perinatal suicide rate was 2.58 per 100 000 live births, with suicide accounting for 51 (5.3%) of 966 perinatal deaths. Most suicides occurred during the final quarter of the first postpartum year, with highest rates in rural and remote regions. Perinatal women were more likely to die from hanging (33.3% [17/51]) or jumping or falling (19.6% [10/51]) than women who died by suicide non-perinatally (p = 0.04). Only 39.2% (20/51) had mental health contact within the 30 days before death, similar to the rate among those who died by suicide non-perinatally (47.7% [762/1597]; odds ratio [OR] 0.71, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.40-1.25). Compared with living perinatal women matched by pregnancy or postpartum status at date of suicide, perinatal women who died by suicide had similar likelihood of non-mental health primary care and obstetric care before the index date but had a lower likelihood of pediatric contact (64.5% [20/31] v. 88.4% [137/155] at 30 days; OR 0.24, 95% CI 0.10-0.58).

INTERPRETATION

The perinatal suicide rate for Ontario during the period 1994-2008 was comparable to international estimates and represents a substantial component of Canadian perinatal mortality. Given that deaths by suicide occur throughout the perinatal period, all health care providers must be collectively vigilant in assessing risk.

Health Care Disparity and State-Specific Pregnancy-Related Mortality in the United States, 2005-2014

OBJECTIVE

To investigate factors associated with differential state maternal mortality ratios and to quantitate the contribution of various demographic factors to such variation.

METHODS

In a population-level analysis study, we analyzed data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Health Statistics database and the Detailed Mortality Underlying Cause of Death database (CDC WONDER) that contains mortality and population counts for all U.S. counties. Bivariate correlations between maternal mortality ratio and all maternal demographic, lifestyle, health, and medical service utilization characteristics were calculated. We performed a maximum likelihood factor analysis with varimax rotation retaining variables that were significant (P<.05) in the univariate analysis to deal with multicollinearity among the existing variables.

RESULTS

The United States has experienced a continued increase in maternal mortality ratio since 2007 with rates of 21-22 per 100,000 live births in 2013 and 2014. This increase in mortality was most dramatic in non-Hispanic black women. There was a significant correlation between state mortality ranking and the percentage of non-Hispanic black women in the delivery population. Cesarean deliveries, unintended births, unmarried status, percentage of non-Hispanic black deliveries, and four or less prenatal visits were significantly (P<.05) associated with increased maternal mortality ratio.

CONCLUSION

Interstate differences in maternal mortality ratios largely reflect a different proportion of non-Hispanic black or unmarried patients with unplanned pregnancies. Racial disparities in health care availability, access, or utilization by underserved populations are an important issue faced by states in seeking to decrease maternal mortality.

Use of Rapid Ascertainment Process for Institutional Deaths (RAPID) to identify pregnancy-related deaths in tertiary-care obstetric hospitals in three departments in Haiti

Background

Accurate assessment of maternal deaths is difficult in countries lacking standardized data sources for their review. As a first step to investigate suspected maternal deaths, WHO suggests surveillance of “pregnancy-related deaths”, defined as deaths of women while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of cause. Rapid Ascertainment Process for Institutional Deaths (RAPID), a surveillance tool, retrospectively identifies pregnancy-related deaths occurring in health facilities that may be missed by routine surveillance to assess gaps in reporting these deaths.

Methods

We used RAPID to review pregnancy-related deaths in six tertiary obstetric care facilities in three departments in Haiti. We reviewed registers and medical dossiers of deaths among women of reproductive age occurring in 2014 and 2015 from all wards, along with any additional available dossiers of deaths not appearing in registers, to capture pregnancy status, suspected cause of death, and timing of death in relation to the pregnancy. We used capture-recapture analyses to estimate the true number of in-hospital pregnancy-related deaths in these facilities.

Results

Among 373 deaths of women of reproductive age, we found 111 pregnancy-related deaths, 25.2% more than were reported through routine surveillance, and 22.5% of which were misclassified as non-pregnancy-related. Hemorrhage (27.0%) and hypertensive disorders (18.0%) were the most common categories of suspected causes of death, and deaths after termination of pregnancy were statistically significantly more common than deaths during pregnancy or delivery. Data were missing at multiple levels: 210 deaths had an undetermined pregnancy status, 48.7% of pregnancy-related deaths lacked specific information about timing of death in relation to the pregnancy, and capture-recapture analyses in three hospitals suggested that approximately one-quarter of pregnancy-related deaths were not captured by RAPID or routine surveillance.

Conclusions

Across six tertiary obstetric care facilities in Haiti, RAPID identified unreported pregnancy-related deaths, and showed that missing data was a widespread problem. RAPID is a useful tool to more completely identify facility-based pregnancy-related deaths, but its repeated use would require a concomitant effort to systematically improve documentation of clinical findings in medical records. Limitations of RAPID demonstrate the need to use it alongside other tools to more accurately measure and address maternal mortality.

Invasive therapies for primary post-partum haemorrhage as missed opportunities for medical prevention

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Examine the available results from population-based studies to test the hypothesis that differences between countries in medical practices for the management of labour, delivery and early bleeding may lead to a differential risk of post-partum haemorrhage (PPH)-related maternal morbidity and in the need for PPH-related invasive therapies.

RECENT FINDINGS

International comparison of ratios of maternal mortality due to PPH shows significant differences between developed countries. Direct international comparisons of PPH rates to investigate these differences are difficult because PPH definition is not homogeneous. One widely used proxy for severe PPH is the use of secondary invasive procedures for PPH treatment. Comparative analysis of results from population-based studies shows wide variations in the rates of invasive therapies for PPH across countries and suggests that high rates of such therapies may be explained partly by variations in practices for the management of first and third stages of labour and in the noninvasive steps of PPH treatment.

SUMMARY

Invasive therapies for PPH may be considered markers of missed opportunities for primary or secondary prevention of PPH. Management of first and third stages of labour as well as the early steps of PPH treatment are important keys to prevent severe maternal complications of PPH and the need for invasive therapies.

Peripartum Cardiomyopathy: Do Exosomes Play a Role?

Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) refers to irreversible cardiomyocyte damage that occurs during the last month of pregnancy, or within 5 months after giving birth. It is characterized by systolic heart failure. This life-threatening condition is relatively uncommon, but the incidence has been climbing up. Because of its high mortality, it is crucial for physicians to have high suspicious for the disease. Studies have been done to search into specific lab test and treatment for PPCM. Therapies like anti-viral, anti-inflammatory and immunosuppression regimen have been explored. New regimen like exosomes has also been explored and revealed promising effects.

Measuring maternal mortality: a systematic review of methods used to obtain estimates of the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) in low- and middle-income countries

Background

The new global target for maternal mortality ratio (MMR) is a ratio below 70 maternal deaths per 100 000 live births by 2030. We undertook a systematic review of methods used to measure MMR in low- and middle-income countries.

Sources of data

Systematic review of the literature; 59 studies included.

Areas of agreement

Civil registration (5 studies), census (5) and surveys (16), Reproductive Age Mortality Studies (RAMOS) (4) and the sisterhood methods (11) have been used to measure MMR in a variety of settings.

Areas of controversy

Middle-income countries have used civil registration data for estimating MMR but it has been a challenge to obtain reliable data from low-income countries with many only using health facility data (18 studies).

Growing points and areas for further research

Based on the strengths and feasibility of application, RAMOS may provide reliable and contemporaneous estimates of MMR while civil registration systems are being introduced. It will be important to build capacity for this and ensure implementation research to understand what works where and how.

Measuring maternal mortality using a Reproductive Age Mortality Study (RAMOS)

BACKGROUND

Assessing the feasibility of conducting a prospective Reproductive Age Mortality Survey (RAMOS) study in the low-income setting of Mangochi District, Malawi to obtain cotemporaneous estimates of the number, cause of and conditions associated with maternal deaths (MD) in all women of reproductive age (WRA) (n = 207 688).

METHODS

MD among all deaths of WRA were identified using the ICD-10 definition. Cause of death and contributing conditions identified by a panel of experts using the classification system for deaths during pregnancy, childbirth and puerperium (ICD-MM).

RESULTS

Out of 424 deaths of WRA, 151 were MD giving a Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) of 363 per 100,000 live births (95 % CI: 307-425). Only 86 MD had been reported via existing reporting mechanisms representing an underreporting of 43 %. The majority of MD (62.3 %) occurred in a health facility and were the result of direct obstetric causes (74.8 %) with obstetric haemorrhage as the leading cause (35.8 %), followed by pregnancy-related infections (19.4 %), hypertensive disorders (16.8 %) and pregnancy with abortive outcome (13.2 %). Malaria was the most frequently identified indirect cause (9.9 %). Contributing conditions were more frequently identified when both verbal autopsy and facility-based death review had taken place and included obstructed labour (28.5 %), anaemia (12.6 %) and positive HIV status (4.0 %).

CONCLUSION

The high number of MD that occur at health facility level, cause of death and contributing conditions reflect deficiencies in the quality of care at health facility level. A RAMOS is feasible in low- and middle-income settings and provides contemporaneous estimates of MMR.

Underreporting of maternal mortality in Taiwan: A data linkage study

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the extent to which maternal mortality in Taiwan is underreported in officially published mortality statistics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We used National Health Insurance claims data collected from two million samples, which were linked with the officially published mortality data, to identify women aged 15-49 years, who were admitted to a hospital with pregnancy-related diagnoses during 2000-2009 and died during the pregnancy or within 42 days after the termination of pregnancy.

RESULTS

Based on these linked data, we identified 26 maternal deaths, only nine of which were reported in the original officially published mortality data; thus, the rate of underreporting was 65% [(26 - 9)/26]. The revised maternal mortality ratio was 14.1 deaths per 100,000 live births (95% confidence interval: 8.7-19.5), which was approximately three times higher than the official reported ratio of 4.9 (95% confidence interval: 1.7-8.1). The most common cause of maternal deaths was amniotic fluid embolism (n = 10), followed by eclampsia and preeclampsia (n = 4).

CONCLUSION

Approximately two-thirds of the maternal deaths in Taiwan were unreported in the officially published mortality data. Hence, routine nationwide data linkage is essential to monitor maternal mortality in Taiwan accurately.

Trends in maternal mortality in the United States

Maternal mortality is a major global concern. Although a notable decline in maternal mortality in the United States occurred during the mid-20th century, this progress stalled during the late 20th century. Furthermore, maternal mortality rates have increased during the early 21st century. Around the year 2000 the maternal mortality rate began to rise and has since nearly doubled. Given that at least half of maternal deaths in the U.S. are preventable, the rise in maternal deaths in the U.S. is historic and worrisome. This overview will try to provide a context for understanding the problem of this rise in maternal mortality in the U.S. by briefly discussing how maternal mortality rates are reported from National Vital Statistics data and from a National Surveillance system. Trends and causes of maternal deaths and the difficulty with interpreting these trends will be discussed.

Variations in Postpartum Hemorrhage Management among Midwives: A National Vignette-Based Study

OBJECTIVE

To assess variations in adherence to guidelines for management of postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) among midwives.

METHODS

A multicentre vignette-based study was e-mailed to a random sample of midwives from 145 maternity units in France. They were asked to describe how they would manage the PPH described in 2 case-vignettes. These previously validated case-vignettes described 2 different scenarios for severe PPH. Vignette 1 described a typical immediate, severe PPH and vignette 2 a less typical case of severe but gradual PPH. They were constructed in 3 successive steps and included multiple-choice questions proposing several types of clinical practice options at each step. An expert consensus defined 14 criteria for assessing adherence to guidelines issued by the French College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists in 2004 in the midwives' responses. We analyzed the number of errors among the 14 criteria to quantify the level of adherence.

RESULTS

We obtained 450 complete responses from midwives from 87 maternity units. The rate of complete adherence (no error for any of the 14 criteria) was low: 25.1% in vignette 1 and 4.2% in vignette 2. The error rate was higher for pharmacological management, especially oxytocin use, than for non-pharmacological management and communication-monitoring-investigation. Adherence to guidelines varied substantially between and within maternity units, as well as between the vignettes for the same midwives.

CONCLUSION

Reponses to case-vignettes demonstrated substantial variations in PPH management and especially individual variations in adherence to guidelines. Midwives should participate in continuous and individualized training.

Staff and Institutional Factors Associated with Substandard Care in the Management of Postpartum Hemorrhage

OBJECTIVE

to identify staff and institutional factors associated with substandard care by midwives managing postpartum hemorrhage (PPH).

METHODS

A multicenter vignette-based study was e-mailed to a random sample of midwives at 145 French maternity units that belonged to 15 randomly selected perinatal networks. Midwives were asked to describe how they would manage two case-vignettes about PPH and to complete a short questionnaire about their individual (e.g., age, experience, and full- vs. part-time practice) and institutional (private or public status and level of care) characteristics. These previously validated case-vignettes described two different scenarios: vignette 1, a typical immediate, severe PPH, and vignette 2, a severe but gradual hemorrhage. Experts consensually defined 14 criteria to judge adherence to guidelines. The number of errors (possible range: 0 to 14) for the 14 criteria quantified PPH guideline adherence, separately for each vignette.

RESULTS

450 midwives from 87 maternity units provided complete responses. Perfect adherence (no error for any of the 14 criteria) was low: 25.1% for vignette 1 and 4.2% for vignette 2. After multivariate analysis, midwives' age remained significantly associated with a greater risk of error in guideline adherence in both vignettes (IRR 1.19 [1.09; 1.29] for vignette 1, and IRR 1.11 [1.05; 1.18] for vignette 2), and the practice of mortality and morbidity reviews in the unit with a lower risk (IRR 0.80 [0.64; 0.99], IRR 0.78 [0.66; 0.93] respectively). Risk-taking scores (IRR 1.41 [1.19; 1.67]) and full-time practice (IRR 0.83 [0.71; 0.97]) were significantly associated with adherence only in vignette 1.

CONCLUSIONS

Both staff and institutional factors may be associated with substandard care in midwives' PPH management.

Persistent and extreme outliers in causes of death by state, 1999-2013

In the United States, state-specific mortality rates that are high relative to national rates can result from legitimate reasons or from variability in coding practices. This paper identifies instances of state-specific mortality rates that were at least twice the national rate in each of three consecutive five-year periods (termed persistent outliers), along with rates that were at least five times the national rate in at least one five-year period (termed extreme outliers). The resulting set of 71 outliers, 12 of which appear on both lists, illuminates mortality variations within the country, including some that are amenable to improvement either because they represent preventable causes of death or highlight weaknesses in coding techniques. Because the approach used here is based on relative rather than absolute mortality, it is not dominated by the most common causes of death such as heart disease and cancer.

Measuring abortion-related mortality: challenges and opportunities

Two recent efforts to quantify the causes of maternal deaths on a global scale generated divergent estimates of abortion-related mortality. Such discrepancies in estimates of abortion-related mortality present an important opportunity to explore unique challenges and opportunities associated with the generation and interpretation of abortion-related mortality estimates. While innovations in primary data collection and estimation methodologies are much needed, at the very least, studies that seek to measure maternal deaths due to abortion should endeavor to improve transparency, acknowledge limitations of data, and contextualize results. As we move towards sustainable development goals beyond 2015, the need for valid and reliable estimates of abortion-related mortality has never been more pressing. The post-MDG development agenda that aims to improve global health, reduce health inequities, and increase accountability, requires new and novel approaches be tested to improve measurement and estimation of abortion-related mortality, as well as incidence, safety and morbidity.

Incidence and determinants of severe maternal morbidity: a transversal study in a referral hospital in Teresina, Piaui, Brazil

BACKGROUND

Maternal near miss (MNM) investigation is a useful tool for monitoring standards for obstetric care. This study evaluated the prevalence and the determinants of severe maternal morbidity (SMM) and MNM in a tertiary referral hospital in Teresina, Piauí, Brazil.

METHODS

A transversal and prospective study was conducted between September 2012 and February 2013. The cases were included according to criteria established by the WHO. Odds ratio, their respective confidence intervals, and multivariate analyses were examined.

RESULTS

Five thousand eight hundred forty one live births, 343 women with SMM, 56 cases of MNM, and 10 maternal deaths were investigated. The rate for severe maternal outcomes was 11.2 cases per 1000 live births, the rate of MNM was 9.6 cases/1000 live births, and the rate for mortality was 171.2 cases/100,000 live births. Management criteria were most frequently observed among MNM/death cases. Hypertensive diseases (86.1%) and hemorrhagic complications (10.0%) were the main determinants of MNM, but infectious abortion was the most common isolated cause of maternal death. There was a correlation between MNM/death and hospitalized more than 5 days (p = 0.023) and between termination of pregnancy by cesarean (p = 0.002) and APGAR < 7 in the 1(st) minute (p = 0.015).

CONCLUSIONS

SMM and MNM were quite prevalent in the population studied. Women whose condition progressed to MNM/death had a higher association with terminating pregnancy by cesarean, longer hospitalization times, and worse perinatal results. The results from the study can be useful to improve the quality of obstetric care and consequently diminish maternal mortality in the region.

Maternal Mortality in Taiwan: A Nationwide Data Linkage Study

BACKGROUND

To examine the changes in the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) and causes of maternal death in Taiwan based on nationwide linked data sets.

METHODS

We linked four population-based data sets (birth registration, birth notification, National Health Insurance inpatient claims, and cause of death mortality data) to identify maternal deaths for 2004-2011. Subsequently, we calculated the MMR (deaths per 100,000 live births) and the proportion of direct and indirect causes of maternal death by maternal age and year.

FINDINGS

Based on the linked data sets, we identified 236 maternal death cases, of which only 102 were reported in officially published mortality data, with an underreporting rate of 57% [(236-102) × 100 / 236]. The age-adjusted MMR was 18.4 in 2004-2005 and decreased to 12.5 in 2008-2009; however, the MMR leveled off at 12.6 in 2010-2011. The MMR increased from 5.2 in 2008-2009 to 7.1 in 2010-2011 for patients aged 15-29 years. Women aged 15-29 years had relatively lower proportion in dying from direct causes (amniotic fluid embolism and obstetric hemorrhage) compared with their counterpart older women.

CONCLUSIONS

Approximately two-thirds of maternal deaths were not reported in officially published mortality data. Routine surveillance of maternal mortality by using enhanced methods is necessary to monitor the health status of reproductive-age women. Furthermore, a comprehensive maternal death review is necessary to explore the preventability of these maternal deaths.

Molecular mechanisms of peripartum cardiomyopathy: A vascular/hormonal hypothesis

Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is characterized by the development of systolic heart failure in the last month of pregnancy or within the first 5 months postpartum. The disease affects between 1:300 and 1:3000 births worldwide. Heart failure can resolve spontaneously but often does not. Mortality rates, like incidence, vary widely based on location, ranging from 0% to 25%. The consequences of PPCM are thus often devastating for an otherwise healthy young woman and her newborn. The cause of PPCM remains elusive. Numerous hypotheses have been proposed, with mixed supporting evidence. Recent work has suggested that PPCM is a vascular disease, triggered by the profound hormonal changes of late gestation. We focus here on these new mechanistic findings, and their potential implication for understanding and treating PPCM.

Predictive factors related to the efficacy of pelvic arterial embolization for postpartum hemorrhage: a retrospective analysis of 21 cases

OBJECTIVE

This retrospective study aimed to determine the predictive factors for the efficacy of pelvic arterial embolization for postpartum hemorrhage.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-one patients who underwent pelvic arterial embolization for postpartum hemorrhage of >1000 mL between September 2006 and September 2011 were enrolled in this study. The patients were divided into two subgroups according to the blood loss and time from the end of pelvic arterial embolization to complete hemostasis: good-response (16 patients) and poor-response groups (5 patients). The following predictive factors were compared between the groups: (1) patient characteristics; (2) blood loss; (3) time between delivery (or onset of bleeding) and pelvic arterial embolization; (4) obstetrical disseminated intravascular coagulation score comprising clinical background, clinical signs, and laboratory data; (5) individual disseminated intravascular coagulation score; (6) shock index; and (7) laboratory data including platelet count, prothrombin time-international normalized ratio, fibrinogen, fibrin degradation products, and antithrombin-III at the time of pelvic arterial embolization.

RESULTS

In the poor-response group, the obstetrical and individual disseminated intravascular coagulation scores and prothrombin time-international normalized ratio were higher than those in the good-response group (p < 0.05). Platelet count, fibrinogen, and fibrin degradation products were lower than those in the good-response group (p < 0.05). All obstetrical disseminated intravascular coagulation scores in the poor-response group were >9 points.

CONCLUSION

The efficacy of pelvic arterial embolization is related to the presence or absence of coagulation disorders. When the obstetrical disseminated intravascular coagulation score is high (>9 points), the efficacy may be poor.

Estimation of changes in maternal mortality in a rural district of northern Tanzania during the last 50 years

OBJECTIVE

Maternal mortality remains a major challenge worldwide. Reliable information concerning ratios and trends is essential for resource mobilization and assessment of progress towards the Millennium Development Goals.

DESIGN

Assessment of levels and trends in maternal mortality during the last 50 years.

SETTING

Sengerema district, rural North Tanzania.

POPULATION

Number of deliveries, births, admissions, maternal deaths and causes of maternal mortality in the only hospital in the area.

METHODS

We compiled a database from the annual hospital reports for the period of 1962-2011 to obtain estimated maternal mortality ratio for each decade.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Maternal mortality ratio for each decade and classification of maternal deaths.

RESULTS

Of 629 maternal deaths, 490 (77.9%) could be classified as either direct or indirect and causes of mortality ascertained. Of the 361 direct causes (73.7%), hemorrhage (29.8%) and sepsis (20.4%) were the leading causes. Of the 129 indirect causes (26.3%), anemia during pregnancy (6.5%), meningitis (4.1%), HIV-AIDS (3.5%), malaria (2.9%), heart diseases (2.4%) and relapsing fever (2.0%) were most often diagnosed. Since 1962, a 63% decrease in maternal mortality ratio has been achieved. The hospital-based maternal mortality ratio decreased from 770/100,000 to 282/100,000 in the last decade (95% confidence interval 244/100,000, 320/100,000). The yearly decline since 1962 was 1.3%.

CONCLUSIONS

During the last 50 years we have witnessed a reduction of maternal mortality and improvements in maternal health. Progress has been made towards improving Millennium Development Goal 5, although only a prospective population-based survey will provide the ultimate answer.

Pitfalls of national routine death statistics for maternal mortality study

BACKGROUND

The lessons learned from the study of maternal deaths depend on the accuracy of data. Our objective was to assess time trends in the underestimation of maternal mortality (MM) in the national routine death statistics in France and to evaluate their current accuracy for the selection and causes of maternal deaths.

METHODS

National data obtained by enhanced methods in 1989, 1999, and 2007-09 were used as the gold standard to assess time trends in the underestimation of MM ratios (MMRs) in death statistics. Enhanced data and death statistics for 2007-09 were further compared by characterising false negatives (FNs) and false positives (FPs). The distribution of cause-specific MMRs, as assessed by each system, was described.

RESULTS

Underestimation of MM in death statistics decreased from 55.6% in 1989 to 11.4% in 2007-09 (P < 0.001). In 2007-09, of 787 pregnancy-associated deaths, 254 were classified as maternal by the enhanced system and 211 by the death statistics; 34% of maternal deaths in the enhanced system were FNs in the death statistics, and 20% of maternal deaths in the death statistics were FPs. The hierarchy of causes of MM differed between the two systems. The discordances were mainly explained by the lack of precision in the drafting of death certificates by clinicians.

CONCLUSION

Although the underestimation of MM in routine death statistics has decreased substantially over time, one third of maternal deaths remain unidentified, and the main causes of death are incorrectly identified in these data. Defining relevant priorities in maternal health requires the use of enhanced methods for MM study.