Prevalence estimates of HIV, syphilis, hepatitis B and C among female sex workers (FSW) in Brazil, 2016

Prevalence of HIV, syphilis, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C in patients attending STI/RTI clinic of a tertiary care teaching hospital

BACKGROUND

Patients attending Sexually transmitted infection/ Reproductive tract infection (STI/RTI) clinics are investigated for HIV and syphilis under the National AIDS Control Program (NACP). Although sexual contact is one of the modes of transmission of hepatitis B and C, they are not investigated under NACP. This study was planned to find the prevalence of HIV, syphilis, hepatitis B, and C in patients attending STI/RTI clinics and to identify the predictive risk factors.

METHODS

A prospective cross-sectional study was carried out over 5 years on 500 consenting adults. 10 ml blood was collected and tests were performed as per standard protocol for HIV, syphilis, hepatitis B, and C. Risk factors for the sexually transmitted diseases were queried.

RESULTS

500 samples were tested, 117(23.4%) men and 383 (76.6%) women. 26(22.2%), 20(17.1%), 11(9.4%) and 01(0.9%) men and 8(2.1%), 36(9.4%), 01(0.3%) and 0(0%) women were positive for HIV, RPR, hepatitis B and C respectively. Dual infection for HIV and syphilis was detected in four (0.8%) men and HIV and hepatitis B in three (0.6%) men.

CONCLUSION

To investigate all patients attending STI/RTI clinics for Hepatitis B and to integrate Hepatitis B testing into the National AIDS Control Program.

Income determines the impact of cash transfers on HIV/AIDS: cohort study of 22.7 million Brazilians

Living with extremely low-income is an important risk factor for HIV/AIDS and can be mitigated by conditional cash transfers. Using a cohort of 22.7 million low-income individuals during 9 years, we evaluated the effects of the world's largest conditional cash transfer, the Programa Bolsa Família, on HIV/AIDS-related outcomes. Exposure to Programa Bolsa Família was associated with reduced AIDS incidence by 41% (RR:0.59; 95%CI:0.57-0.61), mortality by 39% (RR:0.61; 95%CI:0.57-0.64), and case fatality rates by 25% (RR:0.75; 95%CI:0.66-0.85) in the cohort, and Programa Bolsa Família effects were considerably stronger among individuals of extremely low-income [reduction of 55% for incidence (RR:0.45, 95% CI:0.42-0.47), 54% mortality (RR:0.46, 95% CI:0.42-0.49), and 37% case-fatality (RR:0.63, 95% CI:0.51 -0.76)], decreasing gradually until having no effect in individuals with higher incomes. Similar effects were observed on HIV notification. Programa Bolsa Família impact was also stronger among women and adolescents. Several sensitivity and triangulation analyses demonstrated the robustness of the results. Conditional cash transfers can significantly reduce AIDS morbidity and mortality in extremely vulnerable populations and should be considered an essential intervention to achieve AIDS-related sustainable development goals by 2030.

Determinants of sexually transmitted infections among female sex workers in Ethiopia: a count regression model approach

Background

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) remain a major public health problem worldwide, with the burden of these infections being high among female sex workers (FSWs), who are often not aware of their infection status. This study aimed to determine the factors that are associated with the number of STIs among FSWs in Ethiopia.

Methods

A cross-sectional bio-behavioral study involving respondent-driven sampling (RDS) was conducted among 6,085 FSWs in 16 towns in Ethiopia. The hurdle Poisson regression model was fitted using STATA Version 16.2. The incident rate ratio and adjusted odds ratio with a 95% confidence interval were employed to show the strength and direction of the association. A p-value of ≤0.05 was used as a threshold for statistical significance.

Results

At least one STI was identified in 1,444 (23.64%) of the FSWs. Age group 35-49 years [IRR = 2.32; 95% CI (1.43, 3.74)], forced first sex [IRR = 1.32; 95% CI (1.01, 1.74)], condom breakage [IRR = 1.32; 95% CI (1.01, 1.74)], and a history of depression [IRR = 1.55; 95% CI (1.12, 2.18)] increase the number of STIs. FSWs aged 25-34 years [AOR = 2.99; % CI (2.54, 3.52)] and 35 = 59 years [AOR = 8.05; % CI (6.54, 9.91)], who were selling sex for 5-10 years [AOR = 1.30; 95% CI (1.1, 1.55)], and above 11 years [AOR = 1.21; 95% CI (1.03, 1.43)] were more likely to get STIs.

Conclusion

STIs are common in Ethiopia. The covariates age, educational status, monthly income, condom failure, age at the first sexual encounter, and long duration of sexual practice are significant predictors of STIs. Health interventions among FSWs need to include awareness generation about the prevention and control of STIs and address the determinants identified in this analysis.

Magnitude and Determinants of Syphilis and HIV Co-Infection Among Female Sex Workers in Ethiopia: Evidence from Respondent Driven Samples, 2019-2020

Background

Female sex workers (FSWs) play an important role in transmitting Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and syphilis from high-risk groups to the general population. Syphilis and HIV infections are generally more prevalent among FSWs. However, in Ethiopia, up-to-date evidence about Syphilis-HIV co-infections among FSWs was lacking.

Objective

To determine the magnitude and determinants of Syphilis-HIV co-infection among FSWs in Ethiopia, 2019-2020.

Methods

A cross-sectional HIV and other sexually transmitted infections Bio-Behavioral Survey (HSBS) was conducted using respondent-driven sampling (RDS) among 6,085 FSWs in Ethiopia from August 2019 to January 2020. Data was collected, merged with laboratory data, and analyzed in R software using the RDS package. The odds ratio was calculated at 95% CI to measure associations between the dependent and independent variables. Variables that yield p<0.25 in univariate analysis were included in multivariate analysis. In multivariate analysis, variables with p<0.05 were declared as statistically significant. Results were presented in frequency tables and charts.

Results

The prevalence of Syphilis-HIV co-infection among FSWs was 2.9% [95% CI=2.6-3.2]. Age of the FSWs (15-19 years old (AOR=0.03; 95% CI=0.01-0.12)), non-formal educational level (AOR=3.18; 95% CI=1.78-5.68), monthly income <2,500 ETB (AOR=3.05; 95% CI=1.45-6.42), major depression (AOR=1.85; 95% CI=1.18-2.89), forced first sex experience (AOR=1.71; 95% CI=1.2-2.44), condom breakage (AOR=1.62; 95% CI=1.14-2.30), Hepatitis B seropositivity (AOR=2.32; 95% CI=1.10-4.90), and Hepatitis C seropositivity (AOR=5.37; 95% CI=1.70-16.93) were strongly associated with Syphilis-HIV co-infection among FSWs in Ethiopia.

Conclusion

The prevalence of Syphilis-HIV co-infection among FSWs in Ethiopia was high. To ward off Syphilis-HIV co-infection among FSWs, a special FSWs-targeted HIV and Syphilis/STIs prevention program and treatment approach needs to be devised. An outreach approach to address the sexual and reproductive health needs of FSWs has to be part of the strategy.

Seroprevalence of Hepatitis B Virus, Hepatitis C Virus, Syphilis and Associated Factors Among Female Sex Workers in Gondar Town, Northwest Ethiopia

Background

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a public health problem worldwide. Hepatitis B virus infection (HBV), hepatitis C virus infection (HCV), and syphilis are among the STIs. Female sex workers (FSWs) continue to be a high-risk group for STIs due to a variety of factors, including exposure to unsafe sexual practices. Therefore, this study determines the seroprevalence of HBV, HCV, Treponema palladium, and associated factors among FSWs in Gondar town, Northwest Ethiopia.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted on 194 FSWs from March to June 2021 in Gondar town. Socio-demographic and behavioral data were collected using a questionnaire. Five milliliters (5mL) of venous blood was collected and tested for hepatitis B surface antigens, anti-hepatitis C antibodies, and anti-syphilis antibodies using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Logistic regression, univariate, and multivariate analyses were carried out. A p-value of < 0.05 at a 95% confidence interval was considered statistically significant.

Results

A total of 194 FSWs were included in the study. The seroprevalence rates of HBV infection, HCV infection, and syphilis were 23 (11.9%), 13 (6.7%), and 22 (11.3%), respectively. All three infections were statistically associated with inconsistent condom use (AOR = 1.72, 95% CI: 1.95-5.07, p = 0.03); (AOR = 10.51, 95% CI: 1.62-68.26, p = 0.014); and (AOR = 17.3, 95% CI: 4.55-65.6, p = 0.001). Whereas sex stimulant drug use (AOR = 9.4, 95% CI: 1.002-88.14), intravenous drug use (AOR = 15.53, 95% CI: 1.9-127.99, p=0.011), and sex while having a vaginal ulcer (AOR = 5.72, 95% CI: 1.13-28.9, p=0.035) were all statistically associated with HCV infection.

Conclusion

The prevalence of HBV infection, HCV infection, and syphilis was comparatively higher. Regular screening, health education, and other preventative strategies are advised to lower the STI burden among FSWs.

Effect of a conditional cash transfer programme on AIDS incidence, hospitalisations, and mortality in Brazil: a longitudinal ecological study

BACKGROUND

One of the biggest challenges of the response to the AIDS epidemic is to reach the poorest people. In 2004, Brazil implemented one of the world's largest conditional cash transfer programmes, the Bolsa Família Programme (BFP). We aimed to evaluate the effect of BFP coverage on AIDS incidence, hospitalisations, and mortality in Brazil.

METHODS

In this longitudinal ecological study, we developed a conceptual framework linking key mechanisms of BFP effects on AIDS indicators and used ecological panel data from 5507 Brazilian municipalities over the period of 2004-18. We used government sources to calculate municipal-level AIDS incidence, hospitalisation, and mortality rates, and used multivariable regressions analyses of panel data with fixed-effects negative binomial models to estimate the effect of BFP coverage, which was classified as low (0-29%), intermediate (30-69%), and high (≥70%), on AIDS indicators, while adjusting for all relevant demographic, socioeconomic, and health-care covariates at the municipal level.

FINDINGS

Between 2004 and 2018, in the municipalities under study, 601 977 new cases of AIDS were notified, of which 376 772 (62·6%) were in males older than 14 years, 212 465 (35·3%) were in females older than 14 years, and 12 740 (2·1%) were in children aged 14 years or younger. 533 624 HIV/AIDS-related hospitalisations, and 176 868 AIDS-related deaths had been notified. High BFP coverage was associated with reductions in incidence rate ratios of 5·1% (95% CI 0·9-9·1) for AIDS incidence, 14·3% (7·7-20·5) for HIV/AIDS hospitalisations, and 12·0% (5·2-18·4) for AIDS mortality. The effect of the BFP on AIDS indicators was more pronounced in municipalities with higher AIDS endemicity levels, with reductions in incidence rate ratios of 12·7% (95% CI 5·4-19·4) for AIDS incidence, 21·1% (10·7-30·2) for HIV/AIDS hospitalisations, and 14·7% (3·2-24·9) for AIDS-related mortality, and reductions in AIDS incidence of 14·6% (5·9-22·5) in females older than 14 years, 9·7% (1·4-17·3) in males older than 14 years, and 24·5% (0·5-42·7) in children aged 14 years or younger.

INTERPRETATION

The effect of BFP coverage on AIDS indicators in Brazil could be explained by the reduction of households' poverty and by BFP health-related conditionalities. The protection of the most vulnerable populations through conditional cash transfers could contribute to the reduction of AIDS burden in low-income and middle-income countries.

FUNDING

US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health.

TRANSLATION

For the Portugese translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Factors associated with HIV/syphilis co-infection initiating of antiretroviral therapy

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the prevalence and factors associated with HIV/syphilis co-infection in people initiating antiretroviral therapy in Belo Horizonte, capital of the state of Minas Gerais.

METHODS

A sectional section of a prospective cohort study was carried out with people living with HIV, treatment-naive, initiating antiretroviral therapy, older than 16 years, and in follow-up treatment at specialized HIV/Aids care services in Belo Horizonte. Sociodemographic, behavioral, clinical, laboratory and pharmacological treatment-related data were obtained through interviews, medical records, and information systems for logistical control of antiretroviral medications and laboratory tests. The dependent variable was the first episode of active syphilis, recorded by the physician in clinical records, within 12 months after beginning of the antiretroviral therapy. Factors associated with HIV/syphilis co-infection were assessed using binary multiple logistic regression.

RESULTS

Among the 459 individuals included, a prevalence of 19.5% (n = 90) of sexually transmitted infections (STI) was observed, with syphilis (n = 49) being the most frequent STI in these individuals. The prevalence of HIV/syphilis co-infection was 10.6% (n = 49), and the associated independent factors were alcohol use (OR = 2.30; 95%CI: 1.01–5.26), and having a diagnosis of other sexually transmitted infections (OR = 3.33; 95%CI: 1.24–8.95).

CONCLUSIONS

There was a high prevalence of HIV/syphilis co-infection in people living with HIV initiating antiretroviral therapy in Belo Horizonte. HIV/syphilis co-infection was associated with behavioral and clinical factors, such as alcohol use and diagnosis of other sexually transmitted infections. Prior knowledge about the factors associated with this co-infection may support the decisions of health professionals engaged in the care to people living with HIV, with regard to timely diagnosis, guidance, follow-up and adequate treatment, both for syphilis and HIV.

HIV, syphilis, hepatitis B and C in key populations: results of a 10-year cross-sectional study, Southern Brazil

Objective:

Although the development of prevention and treatment strategies for sexually transmitted infections in key groups has improved over the years, they still remain a challenge for health systems worldwide. In this context, the objective of this study is to assess the seroprevalence in the tested population, with an emphasis on key populations, aiming at identifying the participants’ profile and consequently the development of testing strategies.

Methods:

The present study analyzed the seroprevalence of HIV, syphilis, and hepatitis B and C, and the epidemiological profiles of key and general populations tested at a reference public health facility for sexually transmitted infections testing and counseling in the city of Curitiba, Southern Brazil. A cross-sectional study was conducted to report data from 2010 to 2019.

Results:

A total of 9,086 samples were positive across all samples tested, and yielded 3,633 (5%) for HIV, 4,978 (10%) for syphilis, 340 (1%) for hepatitis C virus (HCV), and 135 (<1%) for hepatitis B virus (HBV). Overall, most of the participants were men (79 to 87%), and predominantly white. For HIV and syphilis, the predominant age groups were 21-30 years old (48 and 50%), HBV 21-40 years old (31%), and HCV 41-60 years old (25%). A high seroprevalence of HIV and syphilis was observed in the investigated key populations with a higher frequency in sex workers, men who have sex with men, and transgender.

Conclusion:

The progressive increase in syphilis cases emphasizes the need for effective interventions to enhance adherence to the use of condoms, and to expand diagnosis and treatment for these key populations.

Seroprevalence and Spatial Distribution of Hepatitis C Virus in Bahia, Brazil

In Salvador, which is the capital of the Brazilian state of Bahia, it has been estimated that 1.5% of the general population is infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV); however, the circulation of HCV throughout the state remains unknown. The present retrospective study aimed to determine anti-HCV seroprevalence and describe the geographic distribution of hepatitis C in Bahia. Data from HCV serological tests submitted to the Bahia Central Laboratory of Public Health between 2004 and 2013 were analyzed. Serology for HCV was performed using the AxSYM anti-HCV enzymatic microparticle immunoassay and chemiluminescence immunoassay. A subgroup of samples with detectable HCV-RNA was genotyped using the linear array hepatitis C virus genotyping assay. A total of 247,837 samples were analyzed. The median age of the studied population was 31 years (interquartile range, 25–44 years), and the female:male ratio was 3.9:1. The global seroprevalence of HCV in Bahia was estimated to be 1.3% (3,230/247,837), corresponding to an infection rate of 21.2/100,000 inhabitants. The seroprevalence of HCV was higher among males and increased with age. The presence of anti-HCV antibodies was detected throughout all mesoregions of Bahia, and the municipality with the highest infection rate was Ipiaú (112.04 cases/100,000 inhabitants). Genotypes 1 and 3 were found to be the most prevalent, followed by genotypes 2, 4, and 5. Our results provide evidence of the widespread distribution of previous HCV infection throughout the state of Bahia.

Treponema pallidum among Female Sex Workers: A Cross-Sectional Study Conducted in Three Major Cities in Northern Brazil

Female sex workers (FSWs) are an important group of people vulnerable to sexually transmitted infections. Northern Brazil is a rural and socioeconomically underdeveloped region, with lack of epidemiological information on syphilis in key populations. This study investigated the prevalence and factors associated with exposure to Treponema pallidum among FSWs in three major cities in northern Brazil. This cross-sectional study was conducted with a convenience sample of 415 FSWs from the cities of Belém, Macapá, and Rio Branco. Blood samples and personal data were collected from January 2009 to August 2010. Rapid plasma reagin and immunoenzymatic assays were used to detect antibodies against T. pallidum. Logistic regression models were used to determine factors associated with exposure to T. pallidum. In total, 36.1% were exposed to T. pallidum, and 15.7% had active syphilis. Sexual risk behaviors, use of illicit drugs, low education, and reduced monthly income were associated with exposure to T. pallidum. The high rate of exposure to T. pallidum indicates the urgent need for measures to identify, treat, and prevent syphilis and an education program for the valuation, care, and social inclusion of FSWs in northern Brazil.

Seroprevalence and Associated Factors of Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Treponema pallidum, Hepatitis B Virus, and Hepatitis C Virus among Female Sex Workers in Dessie City, Northeast Ethiopia

Introduction

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are prevalent in Ethiopia and elsewhere among different population groups particularly among female sex workers (FSWs). Because of their work and their behavior, FSWs are at high risk to acquire STIs. The aim of the study was to assess the seroprevalence and associated factors of HIV, HBV, HCV, and T. pallidum among FSWs in Dessie City, Northeast Ethiopia.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted in Dessie City, Amhara Region, Northeastern Ethiopia, from November 2017 to April 2018. A total of 360 FSWs whose age is greater than or equal to 18 years and who are willing to participate were recruited by simple random sampling technique. Interview-based questionnaire was administered, and 5 ml of venous blood from each participant was drawn under aseptic conditions. The rapid test was performed to obtain the result of the four STIs (HIV, T. pallidum, HBV, and HCV). The collected data were entered and analyzed by SPSS version 20.0. From the bivariable analysis, variables having P value < 0.2 were retained into multivariable analysis. From the multivariable analysis, variables with P value < 0.05 were affirmed as statistically associated factors. Adjusted odds ratios and their 95% confidence intervals were used as indicators of the strength of association.

Results

Majority of study participants were urban dwellers, 10 (2.8%) respondents were married, 61 (16.9%) have more than two children, and more than half of them were at the age range between 18 and 27 years. Any infection with STIs was 84 (23.3%), whereas 27 (7.5%), 47 (13.1%), 2 (0.6%), and 45 (12.5%) study participants were positive for laboratory test of HIV, HBV, HCV, and T. pallidum, respectively. Marital status, sharing of sharp materials, breakage of condom, number of customers per week, genital discharge, and pain had significant association with any STI.

Conclusions

In comparison with different research works in Ethiopia and abroad, the prevalence of any STI, HIV, HBV, and T. pallidum was found to be relatively high. Preventive approach and appropriate treatment of STIs should be developed. Concerned body should work together to alleviate the problem by counseling and recruiting them on other productive job sectors in the country.

Brazilian Protocol for Sexually Transmitted Infections 2020: epidemiological surveillance

This article summarizes the chapter on epidemiological surveillance of sexually transmitted infections (STI) that comprises the 2020 Clinical Protocol and Therapeutic Guidelines (PCDT) for Comprehensive Care for People with STI, published by the Health Surveillance Department of the Brazilian Ministry of Health. It presents some reflections on the new case definitions for surveillance of acquired syphilis, syphilis in pregnant women, and congenital syphilis. The 2020 PCDT-IST was elaborated grounded on scientific evidence and validated in discussions with specialists. Epidemiological and clinical aspects are addressed, and health service managers' guidelines regarding programmatic and operational management of these diseases are presented. Guidelines for health professionals on screening, diagnosing, and treating people with STI and their sex partners, in addition to strategies for surveillance, prevention, and control actions, are also published. sexually transmitted infections are among the most common diseases in the world. They affect people's health and life, impact reproductive and child health, contribute to infertility and complications during pregnancy and birth.

Brazilian Protocol for Sexually Transmitted Infections 2020: acquired syphilis

The Clinical Protocol and Therapeutic Guidelines for Comprehensive Care of People with Sexually Transmitted Infections, published by the Brazilian Ministry of Health in 2020, includes updates concerning acquired syphilis. The document comprises rapid test use, safety and efficacy of benzathine benzylpenicillin, case follow-up, neurosyphilis clinical and laboratory management, approaching sex partners, assistance and monitoring of diagnosed pregnant women, and syphilis and HIV co-infection specificities, as well as a case notification summary. Health managers and professionals must be continuously trained so as to integrate care and surveillance, to strengthen actions for efficient control of syphilis, to broaden the search for sex partners, and to expand access of most vulnerable populations to health services. Most people with syphilis are asymptomatic; this contributes to the maintenance of the transmission chain. Without adequate treatment of pregnant women with syphilis, severe consequences can occur, such as miscarriage, prematurity, low birth weight, natimortality, and congenital syphilis.

Brazilian Protocol for Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2020: HIV infection in adolescents and adults

HIV infection is presented in the chapters of the Clinical Protocol and Therapeutic Guidelines for Comprehensive Care for People with Sexually Transmitted Infections, published by the Brazilian Ministry of Health in 2020. Health professionals and managers must learn the signs and symptoms of HIV infection and know how to diagnose it to provide appropriate treatment and reduce complications. HIV infection has become a chronic disease. Its treatment includes addressing common comorbidities such as arterial hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia, in addition to cardiac risk assessment, cancer prevention, and guidance on immunization. Initiation of treatment for HIV patients is recommended regardless of clinical or immunological criteria as adopted by the Ministry of Health since 2013. Lately, it has been simplified with more tolerable first-line medications and fewer drug interactions, making its management easy to implement, including by primary health care.

HIV cases are concentrated in specific population groups, such as sex workers, men who have sex with men, transexuals, people who use alcohol or other drugs, and vulnerable people, such as black, incarcerated, or people living on the streets.

[Brazilian Protocol for Sexually Transmitted Infections 2020: HIV infection in adolescents and adults]

HIV infection is the subject of one of the chapters of the "Clinical Protocol and Therapeutic Guidelines for Comprehensive Care for People with Sexually Transmitted Infections", published by the Brazilian Ministry of Health in 2020. It is important that health professionals and managers learn the signs and symptoms of HIV infection and know how to diagnose it, in order to provide appropriate treatment and reduce complications. HIV infection has become a chronic disease and its treatment includes addressing common comorbidities in clinical practice such as arterial hypertension, diabetes and dyslipidemia, in addition to cardiac risk assessment, cancer prevention and guidance on immunization. Initiation of treatment for all HIV patients, regardless of clinical or immunological criteria, adopted by the Ministry of Health since 2013, has now been simplified with more tolerable first-line medications and with fewer drug interactions, which makes its management easy to implement, including by Primary Health Care.

[Brazilian Protocol for Sexually Transmitted Infections 2020: acquired syphilis]

The Clinical Protocol and Therapeutic Guidelines for Comprehensive Care for People with Sexually Transmitted Infections, published by the Ministry of Health of Brazil in 2020, includes the update on acquired syphilis. The document comprises rapid tests use, safety and efficacy of the administration of benzathine benzylpenicillin, follow-up of cases, clinical and laboratory management of neurosyphilis, approach to sexual partnerships, assistance and monitoring of diagnosed pregnant women, and specificities of syphilis and HIV co-infection, as well as a summary of the notification of cases. It is necessary to train health managers and professionals on a continuous basis, with a view to integrating care and surveillance, strengthening effective syphilis control actions, increasing the search for sexual partnerships, and expanding the access of the most vulnerable populations to health services.

[Brazilian Protocol for Sexually Transmitted Infections 2020: epidemiological surveillance]

This article summarizes the chapter on epidemiological surveillance of sexually transmitted infections (STI) that forms part of the Clinical Protocol and Treatment Guidelines (PDCT) for Comprehensive Care for People with STI 2020), published by the Health Surveillance Secretariat of the Ministry of Health of Brazil. It presents some reflections on the new case definitions for surveillance of acquired syphilis, syphilis in pregnant women and congenital syphilis. The PCDT-IST 2020 was developed based on scientific evidence and validated in discussions with specialists. Epidemiological and clinical aspects are addressed, as well as guidelines for health service managers regarding programmatic and operational management of these diseases, guidelines for health professionals on screening, diagnosing and treating people with STIs and their sex partners, in addition to strategies for surveillance, prevention and control actions.

Molecular Epidemiology of HIV-1 and HTLV-1/2 Among Female Sex Workers in Four Cities in the State of Para, Northern Brazil

Female sex workers (FSWs) represent a key population for the acquisition of sexually transmitted infections (STI) due to their social vulnerability and the risks associated with their occupation. This study was conducted to describe the sociodemographic characteristics and sexual behavior among FSWs in cities in northern Brazil, to determine the prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) and human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1/2) infections and to identify the circulating subtypes of these agents in this key population. A cross-sectional study using the Time Location Sampling (TLS) method was conducted among 339 FSWs in cities in the state of Pará from 2005 to 2006. Serological and molecular tests were performed to identify infections and viral subtypes, and bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to identify risk factors. Most FSWs were young, single, less educated and had at least one child. The prevalence of antibodies against HIV-1 and HTLV-1 was 2.3 and 1.7%, respectively. HIV-1 subtypes B (87.5%) and F1 (12.5%) were identified among FSWs, as were Cosmopolitan subtype (1a) and Transcontinental subgroup (A). Unprotected sex and illicit drug use were associated with HIV-1 and HTLV-1 infections using bivariate and multivariate analyses, and age ≥27 years was associated only with HIV. The important information highlighted here clearly indicates that the lack of actions to control and prevent pathogens in FSWs and the lack of strategies for health promotion in key populations can further aggravate the epidemiological scenario of viral infections in remote areas with low human development indices. Neglecting these facts may be causing the spread of these two viruses and their respective subtypes in the general population of northern Brazil.

Point-of-Care Tests for Hepatitis B: An Overview

Despite the heavy disease burden posed by hepatitis B, around 90% of people living with hepatitis B are not diagnosed globally. Many of the affected populations still have limited or no access to essential blood tests for hepatitis B. Compared to conventional blood tests which heavily rely on centralised laboratory facilities, point-of-care testing for hepatitis B has the potential to broaden testing access in low-resource settings and to engage hard-to-reach populations. Few hepatitis B point-of-care tests have been ratified for clinical use by international and regional regulatory bodies, and countries have been slow to adopt point-of-care testing into hepatitis B programs. This review presents currently available point-of-care tests for hepatitis B and their roles in the care cascade, reviewing evidence for testing performance, utility, acceptability, costs and cost-effectiveness when integrated into hepatitis B diagnosis and monitoring programs. We further discuss challenges and future directions in aspects of technology, implementation, and regulation when adopting point-of-care testing in hepatitis B programs.

Factors associated with clearance of hepatitis B virus surface antigen in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus

Owing to similar routes of transmission, hepatitis B virus (HBV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coinfection commonly occurs. Compared with patients infected with only HBV, coinfected patients develop persistent HBV infection followed by advanced liver diseases. However, the characteristics of HIV-infected patients who can achieve the clearance of HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) have not been clarified. In this study, we retrospectively examined patients coinfected with HBV and HIV and determined the host factors associated with HBsAg clearance.Among HIV-infected patients who visited our hospital between 1994 and 2017, we examined medical records of those who were seropositive for HBsAg at least once. Among them, patients who cleared HBsAg afterward were regarded as "cured," while those who remained HBsAg-seropositive until 2017 were "chronic."HBsAg seropositivity was found in 57 patients, and among them, 27 male patients were cured whereas 18 were chronic. The cured patients were significantly younger and had higher CD4 cell and platelet counts than the chronic patients. In addition, the cured patients had higher levels of transaminases after the detection of HBsAg. Multivariate analysis revealed age as an independent factor. Analyses of the patients infected with genotype A also showed that the cured patients had significantly higher CD4 cell counts.Considering that the CD4 cell and platelet counts were higher in the cured patients, immunological and liver functions were closely associated with HBsAg clearance. Higher levels of transaminases in the cured patients may also reflect the immunological function leading to HBsAg clearance.

The HIV epidemic in Latin America: accomplishments and challenges on treatment and prevention

Purpose of review

To describe how countries in Latin America and the Caribbean are (or are not) meeting 2016 WHO guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection, that is, their progress on the adoption of ‘Treat All’ and of preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) as an additional prevention tool for people at substantial risk of HIV infection.

Recent findings

The HIV epidemic in the region continues largely concentrated in vulnerable populations with MSM and transgender women (TGW) suffering the highest burden. On treatment, the challenges of late initiation as well as suboptimal adherence persist. On prevention, recent studies on PrEP willingness in key populations show promising results, meanwhile PrEP implementation projects as well as actual PrEP adoption by national health systems is expanding. A glimpse of real-world PrEP uptake is shown through Brazil's first-year experience of offering PrEP in multiple cities in all regions of the country.

Summary

In conclusion, accomplishments have been made though challenges for fully addressing the HIV epidemic persist. The impact of both treatment and PrEP will be limited by the availability and prompt use of all services, including HIV testing.

Characterizing the role of intersecting stigmas and sustained inequities in driving HIV syndemics across low-to-middle-income settings

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In 2020, key populations around the world still have disproportionate risks for HIV acquisition and experiencing HIV-related syndemics. This review presents current data around HIV-related syndemics among key populations globally, and on the role of intersecting stigmas in producing these syndemics in low-to-middle-income settings.

RECENT FINDINGS

Sex workers, sexual and gender minorities, prisoners, and people who use drugs experience high burdens of tuberculosis, sexually transmitted infections, viral hepatitis, and violence linked to heightened HIV-related risks or acquisition. Adverse sexual, reproductive, and mental health outcomes are also common and similarly amplify HIV acquisition and transmission risks, highlighting the need for psychosocial and reproductive health services for key populations.

SUMMARY

Achieving the promise of biomedical interventions to support HIV care and prevention requires action towards addressing syndemics of HIV, and the stigmas that reproduce them, among those most marginalized globally.

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Global Prevalence of HBsAg and HIV and HCV Antibodies among People Who Inject Drugs and Female Sex Workers

The main objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), hepatitis C virus (HCV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) and their co-infections among people who inject drugs (PWID) and female sex workers (FSWs). Data sources were searched from January 2008 to October 2018 in different databases. Data were analyzed in Stata 16 software using the Metaprop command. The results showed that the prevalence of HIV, HCV and HBV among PWID was 15%, 60% and 6%, respectively. The prevalence of HIV, HCV and HBV among FSWs was 5%, 1% and 3%, respectively. The prevalence of HIV/HCV, HIV/HBV, HCV/HBV and HIV/HCV/HBV co-infections among PWID was 13%, 2%, 3% and 2%, respectively. The prevalence of HIV/HCV and HIV/HBV co-infections among FSWs was 3% and 1%, respectively. The results show that the prevalence of HCV and HIV infections in PWID and the prevalence of HIV in FSWs is higher than their prevalence in the general population. Interventions for the prevention of HIV and HCV in PWID appear to be poor, and may not be sufficient to effectively prevent HIV and HCV transmission.

Prevalence of syphilis in female sex workers in three countryside cities of the state of Pará, Brazilian Amazon

Background

Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) transmitted from person to person mainly by sexual intercourse or through vertical transmission during pregnancy. Female sex workers (FSWs) are exposed especially to syphilis infection, and besides all the efforts to control the spread of STIs, syphilis prevalence is still rising, mainly occurring in low-income countries. This study aimed to investigate the syphilis prevalence, demographic characteristics and sexual habits among FSWs in the Amazon region of Brazil.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was carried out including 184 FSWs from 3 countryside cities of the state of Pará, Amazon region of Brazil. A venereal disease research laboratory test and an indirect immunoenzyme assay to test antibodies against Treponema pallidum were used for screening syphilis infection, while sexual habits and demographic data information were collected through a semi-structured questionnaire. Data was analyzed comparing groups with/without syphilis. Poisson regression models were used to estimate the reasons of prevalence (RP).

Results

The overall prevalence of syphilis was 14.1% (95% CI = 9.8–17.8). FSWs had between 15 and 56 years of age, most were unmarried (65.7%), had attended less than 8 years of formal education (64.1%), had between 10 and 20 partners per week (64.1%), and reported no previous history of STIs (76.1%) and regular use of condom (52.7%). Low level of education attending up to the primary school (RP adjusted = 3.8; 95% CI = 1.4–9.2) and high frequency of anal sex during the past year (RP adjusted = 9.3; 95% CI = 3.5–28.7) were associated with a higher prevalence of syphilis.

Conclusions

A high prevalence of syphilis among FSWs in the Brazilian Amazon region was identified, showing that syphilis is more likely to be transmitted in FSW working in low-income areas, which is attributed to the low level of education. Anal intercourse was found as a risk factor associated with syphilis. Health programs focused on risk populations appear as a rational way to control syphilis spread, which is a rising problem in Brazil and in other several countries.

Prevalence of serologic markers of transfusion and sexually transmitted infections and their correlation with clinical features in a large cohort of Brazilian patients with sickle cell disease

BACKGROUND

Patients with sickle cell disease (SCD) often require red blood cell (RBC) transfusion for clinical complications, so may be exposed to transfusion-transmitted infections (TTIs). The prevalence of markers for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis C virus (HCV) and B (HBV), human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1/2), Chagas disease, and syphilis in an SCD cohort in Brazil were studied.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Clinical history, interview data, blood samples, and medical chart review data were collected during cohort enrollment from November 2013 to May 2015. Serologic markers of infection were assessed. Standard measures of statistical association were calculated, and multivariable models were developed for the most prevalent infections to identify associated factors.

RESULTS

Infection markers were evident in 5.2% (144/2779) of the enrolled cohort. Anti-HCV was detected in 69 (2.5%), syphilis antibodies in 34 (1.2%), anti-HTLV-1/2 in 17 (0.6%), HBV surface antigen in 13 (0.5%), Chagas disease antibodies in 13 (0.5%), and anti-HIV in 8 (0.3%) of participants. Factors associated with increased odds of being anti-HCV reactive were older age, illegal drug use, increasing number of RBCs, more than three pain crises in the previous year, and geographic location. Syphilis was associated with older age, females, and smoking history.

CONCLUSION

HCV infection was more common in older patients who may have received RBCs before testing was performed on donations, suggesting possible historic transfusion transmission. The cohort showed decreasing rates of infections and a reduction in transfusion transmission markers in younger patients compared to historical literature except for syphilis, indicating contemporary reduced risk of TTI.

Characteristics of the vaginal microbiome in cross-border female sex workers in China: a case-control study

Background

Female sex workers (FSWs) are key groups in the transmission of sexual transmitted infections (STI), and vaginal microbiome variations play an important role in transmission. We aimed to explore the characteristics of vaginal microbiome among FSWs.

Materials and Methods

A total of 24 cross-border FSWs were randomly selected from a cross-sectional survey for female sex workers in southwest China. Thirty-seven female non-sex workers (FNSWs) were randomly selected from the gynecology clinic and health examination center. Vaginal swabs were collected, bacterial DNA extracted and 16S rRNA genes were sequenced. Differences in the vaginal microbiome between both groups were compared using bioinformatics analysis.

Results

One DNA sample was excluded due to unqualified concentration, therefore 60 samples were sequenced. FSWs had significantly different vaginal microbiota β diversity, but undifferentiated α diversity when compared with non-sex workers. The average relative abundance of Sneathia, Shigella, Neisseria, Chlamydia, Prevotella, Enterococcus and Ureaplasma among FSWs was higher than FNSWs, and relative abundance of Atopobium in FSWs was lower than FNSWs. The Lactobacillus genus was the major genus in both groups. At the species level, Lactobacllus crispatus, Lactobacllus gasseri and Lactobacllus jensenii, in female sex workers, were lower when compared to FNSWs.

Conclusion

There were distinct differences in vaginal bacteria variety between FSWs and FNSWs. Some disease-related genus were also more abundant in FSWs. Based on these observations, further research is required to identify microbiome communities related to high STI risks and other diseases in these cohorts.

Hepatitis C Virus among Female Sex Workers: A Cross-Sectional Study Conducted along Rivers and Highways in the Amazon Region

Background: Previous studies found a high prevalence of pathogens among female sex workers (FSWs) in the Amazon region, and established their parenteral and sexual transmission. This study estimated the prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and associated risk factors, and the frequency of HCV genotypes and resistance-associated substitutions (RASs) in this vulnerable group. Methods: Distinct sampling methods were used to access 412 FSWs in cities and riverside communities in the Amazon region from 2015 to 2018. Three methods for HCV diagnosis were used to determine infection status. HCV genotypes and RASs were identified by sequencing and nucleotide fragment analysis. An association between HCV infection and exposure factors was determined by bivariate and multivariate analysis. Results: In total, 44 (10.7%) FSWs were exposed to HCV, and 32 (7.8%) of them had active infection. Nine socioeconomic characteristics and risky sexual behaviors were associated with HCV exposure, particularly unprotected sex and condom exemption for the clients who paid extra money. Genotype 1 (81.3%) and 3 (18.7%) were detected. The frequency of FSWs with RASs was 23.1% (6/26) for grazoprevir related to the occurrence of substitutions Y56F and S122G. Conclusions: HCV infection among FSWs is highly prevalent and dominated by genotype I. Urgent preventive and treatment measures are required to reduce HCV infection in FSWs and the general population.

Application of the Respondent-Driven Sampling methodology in a biological and behavioral surveillance survey among female sex workers, Brazil, 2016

INTRODUCTION

Respondent-Driven Sampling (RDS) has been used in surveys with key populations at risk of HIV infection, such as female sex workers (FSW). This article describes the application of the RDS method among FSW in 12 Brazilian cities, during a survey carried out in 2016.

METHODOLOGY

A biological and behavioral surveillance study carried out in 12 Brazilian cities, with a minimum sample of 350 FSW in each city. Tests were performed for HIV, syphilis, and hepatitis B and C infections. A social-behavioral questionnaire was also applied.

RESULTS

The sample was comprised of 4,328 FSW. For data analysis, the sample was weighted according to each participant's network size (due consideration to the implications of RDS complex design and to the effects of homophilia are recommended).

DISCUSSION

Although RDS methods for obtaining a statistical sample are based on strong statistical assumptions, allowing for an estimation of statistical parameters, with each new application the method has been rethought. In the analysis of whole-sample data, estimators were robust and compatible with those found in 2009. However, there were significant variations according to each city.

CONCLUSION

The achieved sample size was of great relevance for assessing progress and identifying problems regarding the prevention and treatment of Sexually Transmitted Infections. New RDS studies with more time and operational resources should be envisaged. This could further network development.

HIV testing coverage among female sex workers, Brazil, 2016

INTRODUCTION

Knowing the factors associated with periodic HIV testing among female sex workers (FSW) is essential to expand testing coverage and to broaden programs of treatment as prevention.

METHODS

We used data from 4,328 FSWs recruited by the respondent-driven sampling (RDS) method in 12 Brazilian cities in 2016. Data analysis considered the complex sampling design. The prevalence of HIV testing in the last year and periodic HIV test were estimated. Factors associated with regular HIV testing were identified through logistic regression models.

RESULTS

The testing coverage in the last year was 39.3%. Only 13.5% of FSW reported having performed a periodic HIV test in the last year. Among the factors associated with the higher probability of HIV testing in the last year were a better level of education, living with a partner, working indoors, consistent use of condoms, and regular use of public and private health services stood out.

DISCUSSION

Periodic HIV testing allows early diagnosis and immediate treatment of cases, reducing the chances of spreading the infection to the population. However, factors such as stigma and discrimination hinder the use of regular health services.

CONCLUSION

It is necessary to expand awareness campaigns, especially among FSWs with low educational level and greater vulnerability, in order to broaden the perception of risk and the importance of periodic testing, in addition to encouraging regular health care.

MRI features and differential diagnoses of congenital vaginal atresia

Objective: To investigate the MRI manifestations of congenital vaginal atresia, analyze its imaging features, and improve the understanding of the disease. Methods: MRI findings and clinical data of 12 patients with congenital vaginal atresia confirmed by hysteroscopy and laparoscopic surgery were retrospectively analyzed. Vaginal atresia was classified according to vaginal dysplasia in AFS female genital malformation classification system. Results: In this study, 12 cases of congenital vaginal atresia were diagnosed by combined preoperative MRI with operative diagnosis. Among them, 10 patients all had type-I congenital vaginal atresia, and their uterus and cervix were normal (1 patient had ectopic renal malformation combined with left ovarian endometriosis cyst and 1 patient with uterine empyema). The other two cases were diagnosed congenital vaginal atresia type II (1 case merged with residual uterus, 1 case with cervical dysplasia). MRI mainly manifested as dilatation and hemorrhage in the uterine cavity, cervical canal and vaginal upper segment. T1WI showed high signal, T2WI showed slightly lower and slightly higher signal. The dilated vagina was above the perineal level. Conclusion: MRI features of congenital vaginal atresia have certain characteristics. MRI cannot only accurately assess the type of vaginal dysplasia and its associated complications, but also make objective evaluation and diagnosis, so it can be used as the best effective preoperative image evaluation.

Antiretroviral treatment, government policy and economy of HIV/AIDS in Brazil: is it time for HIV cure in the country?

Brazil is a low-and-middle income country (LMIC) that, despite having a large population and continental dimensions, has been able to successfully fight HIV/AIDS through a number of governmental and societal measures. These included an early response to the epidemic, the development of a universal and free public health system, incisive discussions with pharmaceutical companies to reduce antiretroviral (ARV) drug prices, investments towards the development of generic drugs and compulsory licensing of ARVs. Through such measures, Brazil is among the leading LMIC towards achieving the 90-90-90 UNAIDS goals in the years to come. In this review, we analyze Brazil’s progress throughout the HIV/AIDS epidemic to achieve state-of-the-art ARV treatment and to reduce AIDS mortality in the country. The top-quality HIV/AIDS research in Brazil towards HIV prophylactic and functional cure, the next step towards the economic sustainability of the battle against HIV, is also discussed.

Targeted next-generation sequencing identified a novel ANK1 mutation associated with hereditary spherocytosis in a Chinese family

Objectives: Hereditary spherocytosis (HS) represents a group of congenital diseases characterized by sphere-shaped erythrocytes on peripheral blood smears. The typical clinical manifestations of HS include haemolysis, jaundice, splenomegaly, and gallstones. Ankyrin1, encoded by the ANK1 gene, is the predominant protein in red blood cells. Defects in ankyrin1 lead to a decrease in erythrocyte surface area, a spherical shape of erythrocytes and, in particular, loss of membrane elasticity and mechanical stability. The purpose of this study was to investigate a Chinese family with HS to determine the causative gene mutation and explore the genotype-phenotype correlation. Methods: A 4-year-old boy was diagnosed with HS based on typical clinical features. In addition, his father had a high possibility of HS. Targeted next-generation sequencing (NGS) followed by Sanger sequencing was performed in the proband and his parents. Results: One mutation in the ANK1 gene was recognized. c1801-1G > C in exon 17, which leads to splicing defects, was detected. To confirm the c1801-1G > C variant, samples from the proband and his parents were analysed by Sanger sequencing, and Sanger verification showed that this mutation was inherited from the father. Conclusion: The present study confirmed that a novel mutation in ANK1 may be causative of HS, which plays an important role in expanding the mutational spectrum of ANK1 mutations. This may contribute to accurate genetic counselling. And it is helpful for understanding the correlation of the genotype and phenotype.

Decline in reported AIDS cases in Brazil after implementation of the test and treat initiative

BACKGROUND

To evaluate the trends in AIDS detection and the AIDS-attributed death rate in Brazil between 2007 and 2015 and to determine the population characteristics associated with AIDS detection.

METHODS

Surveillance data including demographics, mode of HIV transmission, AIDS cases, and AIDS-attributed deaths were analysed. A logistic regression model was fitted to assess the trends in AIDS cases by mode of HIV transmission throughout the study period. A segmented Poisson regression model was used to assess changes in the trends of AIDS detection and mortality rates before (2007-2014) and after (2015) the introduction of the Test and Treat Initiative.

RESULTS

In the segmented Poisson regression, the decline in the AIDS detection rate from 2007 to 2014 was 2.0% annually (i.e., the odds ratio (OR) for annual decline was 0.98 (95% [CI: 0.98-1.00, p-value < 0.001). The observed AIDS detection rate in 2015 was 7.7 cases per 100,000, which was 60% lower than the regression estimate of 19.8 for the hypothetical absence of the Test and Treat Initiative. The reduction in AIDS-attributed deaths from 2007 to 2014 was 8.0% annually (i.e., the OR for annual decline was 0.92 (95% [CI: 0.91-0.95, p-value < 0.001). The observed AIDS mortality rate in 2015 was 0.49 cases per 100,000, which was 73% lower than the regression estimate of 2.1 for the hypothetical absence of the Test and Treat Initiative in 2015.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results reveal a fairly stable AIDS detection rate from 2007 to 2014, with a sudden significant drop in 2015. This drop may be related to the increasing trends in rapid testing, the number of new HIV diagnoses, the number of patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART), and a median CD4 count at ART enrolment. Further evaluation of the effects of the Test and Treat Initiative on AIDS diagnosis and mortality is needed and must be strengthened with additional data from subsequent years.

Prevalence and genotyping of hepatitis B virus: a cross-sectional study conducted with female sex workers in the Marajó Archipelago, Brazil

In South America, the Amazon basin is considered an endemic area of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. However, epidemiological studies with vulnerable groups are scarce. Female sex workers (FSWs) are highly vulnerable to sexually transmitted infections due to a combination of their sexual behavior and socio-economic conditions. Thus, this study investigated the prevalence of HBV infections and HBV–hepatitis C virus, HBV–hepatitis D virus, HBV–HIV, and HBV–human T-lymphotropic virus co-infections among FSWs in the Marajó Archipelago, northern Brazil, as well as identifying the HBV genotypes circulating in this population. A total of 153 FSWs in 5 towns and 18 riverside communities were included in the study. The HBV infection and co-infections were diagnosed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and real-time polymerase chain reaction. The HBV genotypes were detected by sequencing and were then analyzed phylogenetically. Most of the FSWs surveyed were single, young, heterosexual, and born locally, with low levels of education. Overall, 21 (13.7%) had been exposed to HBV, and HBV-DNA was detected in 13 (8.5%). Genotypes A (69.2%), D (23.1%), and F (7.7%) were detected. Seven cases of co-infections with other viruses were detected. These findings indicate a clear need for urgent measures to control the spread of HBV and other pathogens, and to promote the health of the local FSWs.

Sero-prevalence of hepatitis B and C viral infections in Ghanaian HIV positive cohort: a consideration for their health care

BACKGROUND

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has significantly decreased HIV/AIDS-related morbidity and mortality. However, globally, many people living with HIV die from non-AIDS related illnesses including liver diseases which occur partly due to co-infection with HBV and or HCV. The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of HBV and HCV among HIV infected individuals receiving care from three different hospitals in the Central Region of Ghana.

METHODS

This research was a case-case study. The population consisted of ART naive persons (newly confirmed HIV cases) and those who had been on ART for more than 3 months (old cases). Each individual's sociodemographic characteristics and clinical data including their HBV and HCV status were collected. Those who knew their HBV and HCV status and those who did not know their status were tested for circulating HBsAg and anti-HCV using rapid diagnostic test cassettes. Descriptive analysis was done, and the data presented as median with interquartile range, frequency and percentage. Fisher's exact test and Pearson Chi-square (χ²) test were used to determine associations between categorical variables.

RESULTS

Overall, 394 HIV individuals aged, 3 to 76 years old with a median age of 41 (IQR:34-49) participated in this study. Circulating HBsAg and anti-HCV were detected in 6.1% (24/394) and 0.5% (2/393) participants respectively with an overall seroprevalence of 6.6% (26/394). None of the participants was positive for both HBV and HCV infections. 92.1% (363/394) had no information on their HBV status while all the 394 participants did not know their HCV status during data collection. No significant association of HBV infection rate was found in all the socio-demographic data of the participants. But HBV infection rates were significantly higher in those at WHO clinical stages 2 and 3 (P = 0.004).

CONCLUSION

HBV and HCV were detected among the HIV-infected participants. Majority of the participants had no information on their HBV status and none of the participants had information on his or her HCV status. This study recommends the need for policy makers to provide free HBV and HCV screening for all HIV infected individuals for their effective management.

Syphilis in female sex workers: an epidemiological study of the highway system of the state of Pará, northern Brazil

INTRODUCTION

Female sex workers (FSWs) are considered a bridge for transmission of pathogens from high-risk to general populations. We assessed the epidemiological status of syphilis in FSWs along the Pará highway system.

METHODS

Two hundred and twenty-two FSWs were interviewed and samples were analyzed using rapid qualitative tests and real-time polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

The prevalence of syphilis was high (36.94%). The high rate of prostitution, use of illicit drugs, and search for financial resources increased Treponema pallidum transmission through unprotected sex.

CONCLUSIONS

Several characteristics of FSWs were identified, which reinforce the need for measures guaranteeing their health and protection.