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Ebata H, Umeda K, Nishizawa K, Nagao W, Inokuchi S, Sugino Y, Miyamoto T, Mizuno D. Activity-dependent glassy cell mechanics Ⅰ: Mechanical properties measured with active microrheology. Biophys J 2023; 122:1781-1793. [PMID: 37050875 PMCID: PMC10209042 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2023.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Active microrheology was conducted in living cells by applying an optical-trapping force to vigorously fluctuating tracer beads with feedback-tracking technology. The complex shear modulus G(ω)=G'(ω)-iG″(ω) was measured in HeLa cells in an epithelial-like confluent monolayer. We found that G(ω)∝(-iω)1/2 over a wide range of frequencies (1 Hz < ω/2π < 10 kHz). Actin disruption and cell-cycle progression from G1 to S and G2 phases only had a limited effect on G(ω) in living cells. On the other hand, G(ω) was found to be dependent on cell metabolism; ATP-depleted cells showed an increased elastic modulus G'(ω) at low frequencies, giving rise to a constant plateau such that G(ω)=G0+A(-iω)1/2. Both the plateau and the additional frequency dependency ∝(-iω)1/2 of ATP-depleted cells are consistent with a rheological response typical of colloidal jamming. On the other hand, the plateau G0 disappeared in ordinary metabolically active cells, implying that living cells fluidize their internal states such that they approach the critical jamming point.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Ebata
- Department of Physics, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | | | - Kenji Nishizawa
- Institute of Developmental Biology of Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Wataru Nagao
- Department of Physics, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Shono Inokuchi
- Department of Physics, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yujiro Sugino
- Department of Physics, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Takafumi Miyamoto
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan; Transborder Medical Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Daisuke Mizuno
- Department of Physics, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.
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2
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Purushothaman A, Mohajeri M, Lele TP. The role of glycans in the mechanobiology of cancer. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:102935. [PMID: 36693448 PMCID: PMC9930169 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.102935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Although cancer is a genetic disease, physical changes such as stiffening of the extracellular matrix also commonly occur in cancer. Cancer cells sense and respond to extracellular matrix stiffening through the process of mechanotransduction. Cancer cell mechanotransduction can enhance cancer-promoting cell behaviors such as survival signaling, proliferation, and migration. Glycans, carbohydrate-based polymers, have recently emerged as important mediators and/or modulators of cancer cell mechanotransduction. Stiffer tumors are characterized by increased glycan content on cancer cells and their associated extracellular matrix. Here we review the role of cancer-associated glycans in coupled mechanical and biochemical alterations during cancer progression. We discuss the recent evidence on how increased expression of different glycans, in the form of glycoproteins and proteoglycans, contributes to both mechanical changes in tumors and corresponding cancer cell responses. We conclude with a summary of emerging tools that can be used to modify glycans for future studies in cancer mechanobiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anurag Purushothaman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, Houston, Texas, USA.
| | - Mohammad Mohajeri
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Tanmay P Lele
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA; Artie McFerrin Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA; Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Texas A&M University, Houston, Texas, USA.
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3
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Cell mediated remodeling of stiffness matched collagen and fibrin scaffolds. Sci Rep 2022; 12:11736. [PMID: 35817812 PMCID: PMC9273755 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-14953-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cells are known to continuously remodel their local extracellular matrix (ECM) and in a reciprocal way, they can also respond to mechanical and biochemical properties of their fibrous environment. In this study, we measured how stiffness around dermal fibroblasts (DFs) and human fibrosarcoma HT1080 cells differs with concentration of rat tail type 1 collagen (T1C) and type of ECM. Peri-cellular stiffness was probed in four directions using multi-axes optical tweezers active microrheology (AMR). First, we found that neither cell type significantly altered local stiffness landscape at different concentrations of T1C. Next, rat tail T1C, bovine skin T1C and fibrin cell-free hydrogels were polymerized at concentrations formulated to match median stiffness value. Each of these hydrogels exhibited distinct fiber architecture. Stiffness landscape and fibronectin secretion, but not nuclear/cytoplasmic YAP ratio differed with ECM type. Further, cell response to Y27632 or BB94 treatments, inhibiting cell contractility and activity of matrix metalloproteinases, respectively, was also dependent on ECM type. Given differential effect of tested ECMs on peri-cellular stiffness landscape, treatment effect and cell properties, this study underscores the need for peri-cellular and not bulk stiffness measurements in studies on cellular mechanotransduction.
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Abstract
Morphological transitions are typically attributed to the actions of proteins and lipids. Largely overlooked in membrane shape regulation is the glycocalyx, a pericellular membrane coat that resides on all cells in the human body. Comprised of complex sugar polymers known as glycans as well as glycosylated lipids and proteins, the glycocalyx is ideally positioned to impart forces on the plasma membrane. Large, unstructured polysaccharides and glycoproteins in the glycocalyx can generate crowding pressures strong enough to induce membrane curvature. Stress may also originate from glycan chains that convey curvature preference on asymmetrically distributed lipids, which are exploited by binding factors and infectious agents to induce morphological changes. Through such forces, the glycocalyx can have profound effects on the biogenesis of functional cell surface structures as well as the secretion of extracellular vesicles. In this review, we discuss recent evidence and examples of these mechanisms in normal health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joe Chin-Hun Kuo
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA; ,
| | - Matthew J Paszek
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA; , .,Field of Biomedical Engineering and Field of Biophysics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA.,Kavli Institute at Cornell for Nanoscale Science, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
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5
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Micalet A, Moeendarbary E, Cheema U. 3D In Vitro Models for Investigating the Role of Stiffness in Cancer Invasion. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2021. [PMID: 34081437 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.0c01530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tumorigenesis is attributed to the interactions of cancer cells with the tumor microenvironment through both biochemical cues and physical stimuli. Increased matrix deposition and realignment of the collagen fibers are detected by cancer cells, inducing epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, which in turn stimulates cell motility and invasiveness. METHODS This review provides an overview of current research on the role of the physical microenvironment in cancer invasion. This was achieved by using a systematic approach and providing meta-analyses. Particular focus was placed on in vitro three-dimensional models of epithelial cancers. We investigated questions such as the effect of matrix stiffening, activation of stromal cells, and identified potential advances in mechano-based therapies. RESULTS Meta-analysis revealed that 64% of studies report cancer invasion promotion as stiffness increases, while 36% report the opposite. Experimental approaches and data interpretations were varied, each affecting the invasion of cancer differently. Examples are the experimental timeframes used (24 h to 21 days), the type of polymer used (24 types), and choice of cell line (33 cell lines). The stiffness of the 3D matrices varied from 0.5 to 300 kPa and 19% of these matrices' stiffness were outside commonly accepted physiological range. 100% of the studies outside biological stiffness range (above 20 kPa) report that stiffness does not promote cancer invasion. CONCLUSIONS Taking this analysis into account, we inform on the type of experimental approaches that could be the most relevant and provide what would be a standardized protocol and reporting strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Auxtine Micalet
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London (UCL), Torrington Place, London, U.K. WC1E 6BT.,Division of Surgery and Interventional Sciences, UCL Centre for 3D Models of Health and Disease, University College London (UCL), Charles Bell House, London, U.K. W1W 7TS
| | - Emad Moeendarbary
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London (UCL), Torrington Place, London, U.K. WC1E 6BT.,Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Umber Cheema
- Division of Surgery and Interventional Sciences, UCL Centre for 3D Models of Health and Disease, University College London (UCL), Charles Bell House, London, U.K. W1W 7TS
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6
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Fraldi M, Cutolo A, Carotenuto AR, Palumbo S, Pugno N. A lesson from earthquake engineering for selectively damaging cancer cell structures. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2021; 119:104533. [PMID: 33895664 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2021.104533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The progressive falling of barriers among disciplines is opening unforeseen scenarios in diagnosis and treatment of cancer diseases. By sharing models and mature knowledge in physics, engineering, computer sciences and molecular biology, synergistic efforts have in fact contributed in the last years to re-think still unsolved problems, shedding light on key roles of mechanobiology in tumors and envisaging new effective strategies for a precise medicine. The use of ultrasounds for altering cancer cells' program is one of the most attracting grounds to be explored in oncophysics, although how to administer mechanical energy to impair selected cell structures and functions simultaneously overcoming the critical trade-off between the impact of the cure and the patient risk still remains an open issue. Within this framework, by starting from the theoretical possibility of selectively attacking malignant cells by exploiting the stiffness discrepancies between tumor and healthy single cells, first proposed by Fraldi et al. (2015), we here investigate the in-frequency response of an overall spherical close-packing of geometrically equal polyhedral cells to gain insights into how mechanical resonance and vibration-induced failure phenomena can be oriented to destroy specific target units when both the cell populations coexist, as it happens for in vivo cases. Inspired by the dynamic action of earthquakes - which fracture only selected elements among adjacent ones in the same structure or damage individual constructions in contiguous buildings - we study the harmonic response of hierarchically architectured cell agglomerates, inhabited by both tumor and healthy cells that interact mutually throughout the extra-cellular matrix and whose cytoskeleton is modeled as a nonlinear soft-tensegrity structure. Numerical Finite Element results show that, at frequencies compatible with low intensity therapeutic ultrasounds, mechanical resonance and possible fatigue cycles of the pre-stressed actin filaments and microtubules can be selectively induced in cancer cells as a function of the global volume fraction of the cell species, paving the way for future engineered treatment protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimiliano Fraldi
- Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University of Napoli Federico II, Italy.
| | - Arsenio Cutolo
- Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University of Napoli Federico II, Italy
| | | | - Stefania Palumbo
- Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University of Napoli Federico II, Italy
| | - Nicola Pugno
- Laboratory of Bio-inspired, Bionic, Nano, Meta Materials and Mechanics, Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, Italy; School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, UK.
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Jagiełło A, Lim M, Botvinick E. Dermal fibroblasts and triple-negative mammary epithelial cancer cells differentially stiffen their local matrix. APL Bioeng 2020; 4:046105. [PMID: 33305163 PMCID: PMC7719046 DOI: 10.1063/5.0021030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The bulk measurement of extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness is commonly used in mechanobiology. However, past studies by our group show that peri-cellular stiffness is quite heterogeneous and divergent from the bulk. We use optical tweezers active microrheology (AMR) to quantify how two phenotypically distinct migratory cell lines establish dissimilar patterns of peri-cellular stiffness. Dermal fibroblasts (DFs) and triple-negative human breast cancer cells MDA-MB-231 (MDAs) were embedded within type 1 collagen (T1C) hydrogels polymerized at two concentrations: 1.0 mg/ml and 1.5 mg/ml. We found DFs increase the local stiffness of 1.0 mg/ml T1C hydrogels but, surprisingly, do not alter the stiffness of 1.5 mg/ml T1C hydrogels. In contrast, MDAs predominantly do not stiffen T1C hydrogels as compared to cell-free controls. The results suggest that MDAs adapt to the bulk ECM stiffness, while DFs regulate local stiffness to levels they intrinsically prefer. In other experiments, cells were treated with transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), glucose, or ROCK inhibitor Y27632, which have known effects on DFs and MDAs related to migration, proliferation, and contractility. The results show that TGF-β1 alters stiffness anisotropy, while glucose increases stiffness magnitude around DFs but not MDAs and Y27632 treatment inhibits cell-mediated stiffening. Both cell lines exhibit an elongated morphology and local stiffness anisotropy, where the stiffer axis depends on the cell line, T1C concentration, and treatment. In summary, our findings demonstrate that AMR reveals otherwise masked mechanical properties such as spatial gradients and anisotropy, which are known to affect cell behavior at the macro-scale. The same properties manifest with similar magnitude around single cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicja Jagiełło
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
| | - Micah Lim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
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8
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Marszalek PE, Oberhauser AF. Meeting report - NSF-sponsored workshop 'Progress and Prospects of Single-Molecule Force Spectroscopy in Biological and Chemical Sciences'. J Cell Sci 2020; 133:jcs251421. [PMID: 32817164 PMCID: PMC10679350 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.251421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The goals of the workshop organized by Piotr Marszalek and Andres Oberhauser that took place between 29 August and 1 September 2019 at Duke University were to bring together leading experts and junior researchers to review past accomplishments, recent advances and limitations in the single-molecule force spectroscopy field, which examines nanomechanical forces in diverse biological processes and pathologies. Talks were organized into four sessions, and two in-depth roundtable discussion sessions were held.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr E Marszalek
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Andres F Oberhauser
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
- Sealy Center for Structural Biology and Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
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9
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Hidema R, Yatabe Z, Takahashi H, Higashikawa R, Suzuki H. Inverse integral transformation method to derive local viscosity distribution measured by optical tweezers. SOFT MATTER 2020; 16:6826-6833. [PMID: 32633310 DOI: 10.1039/d0sm00887g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Complex fluids have a non-uniform local inner structure; this is enhanced under deformation, inducing a characteristic flow, such as an abrupt increase in extensional viscosity and drag reduction. However, it is challenging to derive and quantify the non-uniform local structure of a low-concentration solution. In this study, we attempted to characterize the non-uniformity of dilute and semi-dilute polymer and worm-like micellar solutions using the local viscosity at the micro scale. The power spectrum density (PSD) of the particle displacement, measured using optical tweezers, was analyzed to calculate the local viscosity, and two methods were compared. One is based on the PSD roll-off method, which yields a single representative viscosity of the solution. The other is based on our proposed method, called the inverse integral transformation method (IITM), for deriving the local viscosity distribution. The distribution obtained through the IITM reflects the non-uniformity of the solutions at the micro scale, i.e., the distribution widens above the entanglement concentrations of the polymer or viscoelastic worm-like micellar solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruri Hidema
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Kobe University, Kobe 657-8501, Japan.
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10
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Monitoring matrix remodeling in the cellular microenvironment using microrheology for complex cellular systems. Acta Biomater 2020; 111:254-266. [PMID: 32434077 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2020.04.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Multiple particle tracking (MPT) microrheology was employed for monitoring the development of extracellular matrix (ECM) mechanical properties in the direct microenvironment of living cells. A customized setup enabled us to overcome current limitations: (i) Continuous measurements were enabled using a cell culture chamber, with this, matrix remodeling by fibroblasts in the heterogeneous environment of macroporous scaffolds was monitored continuously. (ii) Employing tracer laden porous scaffolds for seeding human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs), we followed conventional differentiation protocols. Thus, we were, for the first time able to study the massive alterations in ECM elasticity during hMSC differentiation. (iii) MPT measurements in 2D cell cultures were enabled using a long distance objective. Exemplarily, local mechanical properties of the ECM in human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) cultures, that naturally form 2D layers, were investigated scaffold-free. Using our advanced setup, we measured local, apparent elastic moduli G0,app in a range between 0.08 and 60 Pa. For fibroblasts grown in collagen-based scaffolds, a continuous decrease of local matrix elasticity resulted during the first 10 hours after seeding. The osteogenic differentiation of hMSC cells cultivated in similar scaffolds, led to an increase of G0,app by 100 %, whereas after adipogenic differentiation it was reduced by 80 %. The local elasticity of ECM that was newly secreted by HUVECs increased significantly upon addition of protease inhibitor and in high glucose conditions even a twofold increase in G0,app was observed. The combination of these advanced methods opens up new avenues for a broad range of investigations regarding cell-matrix interactions and the propagation of ECM mechanical properties in complex biological systems. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Cells sense the elasticity of their environment on a micrometer length scale. For studying the local elasticity of extracellular matrix (ECM) in the direct environment of living cells, we employed an advanced multipleparticle tracking microrheology setup. MPT is based on monitoring the Brownian motion oftracer particles, which is restricted by the surrounding network. Network elasticity can thusbe quantified. Overcoming current limitations, we realized continuous investigations of ECM elasticityduring fibroblast growth. Furthermore, MPT measurements of stem cell ECM showed ECMstiffening during osteogenic differentiation and softening during adipogenic differentiation.Finally, we characterized small amounts of delicate ECM newly secreted in scaffold-freecultures of endothelial cells, that naturally form 2D layers.
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11
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Rajarathnam K, Desai UR. Structural Insights Into How Proteoglycans Determine Chemokine-CXCR1/CXCR2 Interactions: Progress and Challenges. Front Immunol 2020; 11:660. [PMID: 32391006 PMCID: PMC7193095 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteoglycans (PGs), present in diverse environments, such as the cell membrane surface, extracellular milieu, and intracellular granules, are fundamental to life. Sulfated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are covalently attached to the core protein of proteoglycans. PGs are complex structures, and are diverse in terms of amino acid sequence, size, shape, and in the nature and number of attached GAG chains, and this diversity is further compounded by the phenomenal diversity in GAG structures. Chemokines play vital roles in human pathophysiology, from combating infection and cancer to leukocyte trafficking, immune surveillance, and neurobiology. Chemokines mediate their function by activating receptors that belong to the GPCR class, and receptor interactions are regulated by how, when, and where chemokines bind GAGs. GAGs fine-tune chemokine function by regulating monomer/dimer levels and chemotactic/haptotactic gradients, which are also coupled to how they are presented to their receptors. Despite their small size and similar structures, chemokines show a range of GAG-binding geometries, affinities, and specificities, indicating that chemokines have evolved to exploit the repertoire of chemical and structural features of GAGs. In this review, we summarize the current status of research on how GAG interactions regulate ELR-chemokine activation of CXCR1 and CXCR2 receptors, and discuss knowledge gaps that must be overcome to establish causal relationships governing the impact of GAG interactions on chemokine function in human health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishna Rajarathnam
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, United States.,Sealy Center for Structural Biology and Molecular Biophysics, The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, United States
| | - Umesh R Desai
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Structural Biology, Drug Discovery and Development, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
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Scrimgeour J, McLane LT, Chang PS, Curtis JE. Single-Molecule Imaging of Proteoglycans in the Pericellular Matrix. Biophys J 2017; 113:2316-2320. [PMID: 29102037 PMCID: PMC5768515 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2017.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Revised: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The pericellular matrix is a robust, hyaluronan-rich polymer brush-like structure that controls access to the cell surface, and plays an important role in cell adhesion, migration, and proliferation. We report the observation of single bottlebrush proteoglycan dynamics in the pericellular matrix of living chondrocytes. Our investigations show that the pericellular matrix undergoes gross extension on the addition of exogenous aggrecan, and that this extension is significantly in excess of that observed in traditional particle exclusion assays. The mean-square displacement of single, bound proteoglycans increases with distance to cell surface, indicating reduced confinement by neighboring hyaluronan-aggrecan complexes. This is consistent with published data from quantitative particle exclusion assays that show openings in the pericellular matrix microstructure ranging from ∼150 nm near the cell surface to ∼400 nm near the cell edge. In addition, the mobility of tethered aggrecan drops significantly when the cell coat is enriched with bottlebrush proteoglycans. Single-molecule imaging in this thick polysaccharide matrix on living cells has significant promise in the drive to elucidate the role of the pericellular coat in human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Scrimgeour
- Department of Physics, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York; Center for Advanced Materials Processing, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York.
| | - Louis T McLane
- School of Physics and Astronomy, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York; School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Patrick S Chang
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jennifer E Curtis
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia; Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
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13
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Keating M, Kurup A, Alvarez-Elizondo M, Levine A, Botvinick E. Spatial distributions of pericellular stiffness in natural extracellular matrices are dependent on cell-mediated proteolysis and contractility. Acta Biomater 2017; 57:304-312. [PMID: 28483696 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2017.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Revised: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Bulk tissue stiffness has been correlated with regulation of cellular processes and conversely cells have been shown to remodel their pericellular tissue according to a complex feedback mechanism critical to development, homeostasis, and disease. However, bulk rheological methods mask the dynamics within a heterogeneous fibrous extracellular matrix (ECM) in the region proximal to a cell (pericellular region). Here, we use optical tweezers active microrheology (AMR) to probe the distribution of the complex material response function (α=α'+α″, in units of µm/nN) within a type I collagen ECM, a biomaterial commonly used in tissue engineering. We discovered cells both elastically and plastically deformed the pericellular material. α' is wildly heterogeneous, with 1/α' values spanning three orders of magnitude around a single cell. This was observed in gels having a cell-free 1/α' of approximately 0.5nN/µm. We also found that inhibition of cell contractility instantaneously softens the pericellular space and reduces stiffness heterogeneity, suggesting the system was strain hardened and not only plastically remodeled. The remaining regions of high stiffness suggest cellular remodeling of the surrounding matrix. To test this hypothesis, cells were incubated within the type I collagen gel for 24-h in a media containing a broad-spectrum matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitor. While pericellular material maintained stiffness asymmetry, stiffness magnitudes were reduced. Dual inhibition demonstrates that the combination of MMP activity and contractility is necessary to establish the pericellular stiffness landscape. This heterogeneity in stiffness suggests the distribution of pericellular stiffness, and not bulk stiffness alone, must be considered in the study of cell-ECM interactions and design of complex biomaterial scaffolds. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Collagen is a fibrous extracellular matrix (ECM) protein widely used to study cell-ECM interactions. Stiffness of ECM has been shown to instruct cells, which can in turn modify their ECM, as has been shown in the study of cancer and regenerative medicine. Here we measure the stiffness of the collagen microenvironment surrounding cells and quantitatively measure the dependence of pericellular stiffness on MMP activity and cytoskeletal contractility. Competent cell-mediated stiffening results in a wildly heterogeneous micromechanical topography, with values spanning orders of magnitude around a single cell. We speculate studies must consider this notable heterogeneity generated by cells when testing theories regarding the role of ECM mechanics in health and disease.
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14
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Dokukin M, Ablaeva Y, Kalaparthi V, Seluanov A, Gorbunova V, Sokolov I. Pericellular Brush and Mechanics of Guinea Pig Fibroblast Cells Studied with AFM. Biophys J 2017; 111:236-46. [PMID: 27410750 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2016.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Revised: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The atomic force microscopy (AFM) indentation method combined with the brush model can be used to separate the mechanical response of the cell body from deformation of the pericellular layer surrounding biological cells. Although self-consistency of the brush model to derive the elastic modulus of the cell body has been demonstrated, the model ability to characterize the pericellular layer has not been explicitly verified. Here we demonstrate it by using enzymatic removal of hyaluronic content of the pericellular brush for guinea pig fibroblast cells. The effect of this removal is clearly seen in the AFM force-separation curves associated with the pericellular brush layer. We further extend the brush model for brushes larger than the height of the AFM probe, which seems to be the case for fibroblast cells. In addition, we demonstrate that an extension of the brush model (i.e., double-brush model) is capable of detecting the hierarchical structure of the pericellular brush, which, for example, may consist of the pericellular coat and the membrane corrugation (microridges and microvilli). It allows us to quantitatively segregate the large soft polysaccharide pericellular coat from a relatively rigid and dense membrane corrugation layer. This was verified by comparison of the parameters of the membrane corrugation layer derived from the force curves collected on untreated cells (when this corrugation membrane part is hidden inside the pericellular brush layer) and on treated cells after the enzymatic removal of the pericellular coat part (when the corrugations are exposed to the AFM probe). We conclude that the brush model is capable of not only measuring the mechanics of the cell body but also the parameters of the pericellular brush layer, including quantitative characterization of the pericellular layer structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxim Dokukin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts
| | - Yulija Ablaeva
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York
| | | | - Andrei Seluanov
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York
| | - Vera Gorbunova
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York.
| | - Igor Sokolov
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts; Department of Physics, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts.
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15
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Binder MJ, McCoombe S, Williams ED, McCulloch DR, Ward AC. The extracellular matrix in cancer progression: Role of hyalectan proteoglycans and ADAMTS enzymes. Cancer Lett 2016; 385:55-64. [PMID: 27838414 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2016.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Remodelling of the extracellular matrix (ECM) has emerged as a key factor in cancer progression. Proteoglycans, including versican and other hyalectans, represent major structural elements of the ECM where they interact with other important molecules, including the glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan and the CD44 cell surface receptor. The hyalectan proteoglycans are regulated through cleavage by the proteolytic actions of A Disintegrin-like And Metalloproteinase domain with Thrombospondin-1 motif (ADAMTS) family members. Alteration in the balance between hyalectan proteoglycans and ADAMTS enzymes has been proposed to be a crucial factor in cancer progression either in a positive or negative manner depending on the context. Further complexity arises due to the formation of bioactive cleavage products, such as versikine, which may also play a role, and non-enzymatic functions for ADAMTS proteins. This research is providing fresh insights into cancer biology and opportunities for the development of new diagnostic and treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marley J Binder
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria 3216, Australia
| | - Scott McCoombe
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria 3216, Australia
| | - Elizabeth D Williams
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland 4000, Australia
| | - Daniel R McCulloch
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria 3216, Australia; Centre for Molecular and Medical Research, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria 3216, Australia
| | - Alister C Ward
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria 3216, Australia; Centre for Molecular and Medical Research, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria 3216, Australia.
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16
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Waigh TA. Advances in the microrheology of complex fluids. REPORTS ON PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. PHYSICAL SOCIETY (GREAT BRITAIN) 2016; 79:074601. [PMID: 27245584 DOI: 10.1088/0034-4885/79/7/074601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
New developments in the microrheology of complex fluids are considered. Firstly the requirements for a simple modern particle tracking microrheology experiment are introduced, the error analysis methods associated with it and the mathematical techniques required to calculate the linear viscoelasticity. Progress in microrheology instrumentation is then described with respect to detectors, light sources, colloidal probes, magnetic tweezers, optical tweezers, diffusing wave spectroscopy, optical coherence tomography, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, elastic- and quasi-elastic scattering techniques, 3D tracking, single molecule methods, modern microscopy methods and microfluidics. New theoretical techniques are also reviewed such as Bayesian analysis, oversampling, inversion techniques, alternative statistical tools for tracks (angular correlations, first passage probabilities, the kurtosis, motor protein step segmentation etc), issues in micro/macro rheological agreement and two particle methodologies. Applications where microrheology has begun to make some impact are also considered including semi-flexible polymers, gels, microorganism biofilms, intracellular methods, high frequency viscoelasticity, comb polymers, active motile fluids, blood clots, colloids, granular materials, polymers, liquid crystals and foods. Two large emergent areas of microrheology, non-linear microrheology and surface microrheology are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Andrew Waigh
- Biological Physics Group, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Rd., Manchester, M13 9PL, UK. Photon Science Institute, University of Manchester, Oxford Rd., Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
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17
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Simon M, Dokukin M, Kalaparthi V, Spedden E, Sokolov I, Staii C. Load Rate and Temperature Dependent Mechanical Properties of the Cortical Neuron and Its Pericellular Layer Measured by Atomic Force Microscopy. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2016; 32:1111-1119. [PMID: 26727545 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b04317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
When studying the mechanical properties of cells by an indentation technique, it is important to take into account the nontrivial pericellular interface (or pericellular "brush") which includes a pericellular coating and corrugation of the pericellular membrane (microvilli and microridges). Here we use atomic force microscopy (AFM) to study the mechanics of cortical neurons taking into account the presence of the above pericellular brush surrounding cell soma. We perform a systematic study of the mechanical properties of both the brush layer and the underlying neuron soma and demonstrate that the brush layer is likely responsible for the low elastic modulus (<1 kPa) typically reported for cortical neurons. When the contribution of the pericellular brush is excluded, the average elastic modulus of the cortical neuron soma is found to be 3-4 times larger than previously reported values measured under similar physiological conditions. We also demonstrate that the underlying soma behaves as a nonviscous elastic material over the indentation rates studied (1-10 μm/s). As a result, it seems that the brush layer is responsible for the previously reported viscoelastic response measured for the neuronal cell body as a whole, within these indentation rates. Due to of the similarities between the macroscopic brain mechanics and the effective modulus of the pericellular brush, we speculate that the pericellular brush layer might play an important role in defining the macroscopic mechanical properties of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Simon
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, ‡Center for Nanoscopic Physics, §Department of Mechanical Engineering, and ∥Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University , Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Maxim Dokukin
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, ‡Center for Nanoscopic Physics, §Department of Mechanical Engineering, and ∥Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University , Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Vivekanand Kalaparthi
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, ‡Center for Nanoscopic Physics, §Department of Mechanical Engineering, and ∥Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University , Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Elise Spedden
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, ‡Center for Nanoscopic Physics, §Department of Mechanical Engineering, and ∥Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University , Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Igor Sokolov
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, ‡Center for Nanoscopic Physics, §Department of Mechanical Engineering, and ∥Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University , Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Cristian Staii
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, ‡Center for Nanoscopic Physics, §Department of Mechanical Engineering, and ∥Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University , Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
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18
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Abstract
Tissue stiffness is tightly controlled under normal conditions, but changes with disease. In cancer, tumors often tend to be stiffer than the surrounding uninvolved tissue, yet the cells themselves soften. Within the past decade, and particularly in the last few years, there is increasing evidence that the stiffness of the extracellular matrix modulates cancer and stromal cell mechanics and function, influencing such disease hallmarks as angiogenesis, migration, and metastasis. This review briefly summarizes recent studies that investigate how cancer cells and fibrosis-relevant stromal cells respond to ECM stiffness, the possible sensing appendages and signaling mechanisms involved, and the emergence of novel substrates - including substrates with scar-like fractal heterogeneity - that mimic the in vivo mechanical environment of the cancer cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- LiKang Chin
- Department of Physiology and the Institute for Medicine and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Physical Sciences in Oncology Center at Penn (PSOC@Penn), University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Clinical Research Center for Diabetes, Tokushima University Hospital, Tokushima 770-8503, Japan
| | - Yuntao Xia
- Physical Sciences in Oncology Center at Penn (PSOC@Penn), University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Molecular & Cell Biophysics and NanoBioPolymers Labs, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Dennis E Discher
- Physical Sciences in Oncology Center at Penn (PSOC@Penn), University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Molecular & Cell Biophysics and NanoBioPolymers Labs, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Paul A Janmey
- Physical Sciences in Oncology Center at Penn (PSOC@Penn), University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Clinical Research Center for Diabetes, Tokushima University Hospital, Tokushima 770-8503, Japan
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19
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Nia HT, Han L, Bozchalooi IS, Roughley P, Youcef-Toumi K, Grodzinsky AJ, Ortiz C. Aggrecan nanoscale solid-fluid interactions are a primary determinant of cartilage dynamic mechanical properties. ACS NANO 2015; 9:2614-25. [PMID: 25758717 PMCID: PMC6713486 DOI: 10.1021/nn5062707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Poroelastic interactions between interstitial fluid and the extracellular matrix of connective tissues are critical to biological and pathophysiological functions involving solute transport, energy dissipation, self-stiffening and lubrication. However, the molecular origins of poroelasticity at the nanoscale are largely unknown. Here, the broad-spectrum dynamic nanomechanical behavior of cartilage aggrecan monolayer is revealed for the first time, including the equilibrium and instantaneous moduli and the peak in the phase angle of the complex modulus. By performing a length scale study and comparing the experimental results to theoretical predictions, we confirm that the mechanism underlying the observed dynamic nanomechanics is due to solid-fluid interactions (poroelasticity) at the molecular scale. Utilizing finite element modeling, the molecular-scale hydraulic permeability of the aggrecan assembly was quantified (kaggrecan = (4.8 ± 2.8) × 10(-15) m(4)/N·s) and found to be similar to the nanoscale hydraulic permeability of intact normal cartilage tissue but much lower than that of early diseased tissue. The mechanisms underlying aggrecan poroelasticity were further investigated by altering electrostatic interactions between the molecule's constituent glycosaminoglycan chains: electrostatic interactions dominated steric interactions in governing molecular behavior. While the hydraulic permeability of aggrecan layers does not change across species and age, aggrecan from adult human cartilage is stiffer than the aggrecan from newborn human tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadi Tavakoli Nia
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Lin Han
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Iman Soltani Bozchalooi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Peter Roughley
- Shriners Hospital for Children, Montreal, Quebec H3G 1A6, Canada
| | - Kamal Youcef-Toumi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Alan J. Grodzinsky
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Address correspondence to: ,
| | - Christine Ortiz
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Address correspondence to: ,
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20
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van Oosten AS, Janmey PA. Extremely charged and incredibly soft: physical characterization of the pericellular matrix. Biophys J 2013; 104:961-3. [PMID: 23473476 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2013.01.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2012] [Accepted: 01/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anne S van Oosten
- Institute for Medicine and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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21
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McLane L, Chang P, Granqvist A, Boehm H, Kramer A, Scrimgeour J, Curtis J. Spatial organization and mechanical properties of the pericellular matrix on chondrocytes. Biophys J 2013; 104:986-96. [PMID: 23473481 PMCID: PMC3870807 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2013.01.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A voluminous polymer coat adorns the surface of many eukaryotic cells. Although the pericellular matrix (PCM) often extends several microns from the cell surface, its macromolecular structure remains elusive. This massive cellular organelle negotiates the cell's interaction with surrounding tissue, influencing important processes such as cell adhesion, mitosis, locomotion, molecular sequestration, and mechanotransduction. Investigations of the PCM's architecture and function have been hampered by the difficulty of visualizing this invisible hydrated structure without disrupting its integrity. In this work, we establish several assays to noninvasively measure the ultrastructure of the PCM. Optical force probe assays show that the PCM of rat chondrocyte joint (RCJ-P) cells easily reconfigures around optically manipulated microparticles, allowing the probes to penetrate into rather than compress the matrix. We report distinct changes in forces measured from PCMs treated with exogenous aggrecan, illustrating the assay's potential to probe proteoglycan distribution. Measurements reveal an exponentially increasing osmotic force in the PCM arising from an inherent concentration gradient. With this result, we estimate the variation of the PCM's mesh size (correlation length) to range from ∼100 nm at the surface to 500 nm at its periphery. Quantitative particle exclusion assays confirm this prediction and show that the PCM acts like a sieve. These assays provide a much-needed tool to study PCM ultrastructure and its poorly defined but important role in fundamental cellular processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis T. McLane
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Patrick Chang
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Anna Granqvist
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Heike Boehm
- Department of New Materials and Biosystems, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Anthony Kramer
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jan Scrimgeour
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jennifer E. Curtis
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
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22
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Zhou R, Zhou H, Xiong B, He Y, Yeung ES. Pericellular Matrix Enhances Retention and Cellular Uptake of Nanoparticles. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:13404-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ja304119w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics,
College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, P.R. China
| | - Haiying Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics,
College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, P.R. China
| | - Bin Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics,
College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, P.R. China
| | - Yan He
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics,
College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, P.R. China
| | - Edward S. Yeung
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics,
College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, P.R. China
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