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Chen H, Sun Z, Lu K, Liu J, He C, Mao D. Negative Enthalpy Variation Drives Rapid Recovery in Thermoplastic Elastomer. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023:e2311332. [PMID: 38108494 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202311332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
The mechanism behind the resilience of polymeric materials, typically attributed to the well-established entropy elasticity, often ignores the contribution of enthalpy variation (ΔH), because it is based on the assumption of an ideal chain. However, this model does not fully account for the reduced resilience of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) during long-range deformation, which is mainly caused by the dynamics of physical crosslink networks. Such reduction is undesirable for long-range stretchable TPU considering its wide application range. Therefore, a negative ΔH effect is established in this work to facilitate instant recovery in long-range stretchable TPU, achieved by constructing a reversible interim interface via strain-induced phase separation. Consequently, the newly constructed dual soft segmental TPU shows resilience efficiency exceeding 95%, surpassing many synthetic high-performance TPUs with typical efficiencies below 80%, and comparable to biomaterials. Moreover, a remarkable hysteresis loop with a ratio exceeding 50%, makes it a viable candidate for applications such as artificial ligaments or buffer belts. The research also clarifies structural factors influencing resilience, including the symmetry of the dual soft segments and the content of hard segments, offering valuable insights for the design of highly resilient long-range stretchable elastomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiming Chen
- Key Laboratory of Marine Materials and Related Technologies, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Marine Materials and Protective Technologies, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, 315201, China
| | - Zaizheng Sun
- Key Laboratory of Marine Materials and Related Technologies, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Marine Materials and Protective Technologies, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, 315201, China
| | - Kai Lu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Materials and Related Technologies, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Marine Materials and Protective Technologies, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, 315201, China
- College of Materials Science and Opto-Electronic Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jinming Liu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Materials and Related Technologies, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Marine Materials and Protective Technologies, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, 315201, China
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Chaobin He
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore, 117575, Singapore
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis, Singapore, 138634, Singapore
| | - Dongsheng Mao
- Key Laboratory of Marine Materials and Related Technologies, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Marine Materials and Protective Technologies, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, 315201, China
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2
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Simmons M, Horbelt N, Sverko T, Scoppola E, Jackson DJ, Harrington MJ. Invasive mussels fashion silk-like byssus via mechanical processing of massive horizontally acquired coiled coils. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2311901120. [PMID: 37983489 PMCID: PMC10691215 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2311901120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Zebra and quagga mussels (Dreissena spp.) are invasive freshwater biofoulers that perpetrate devastating economic and ecological impact. Their success depends on their ability to anchor onto substrates with protein-based fibers known as byssal threads. Yet, compared to other mussel lineages, little is understood about the proteins comprising their fibers or their evolutionary history. Here, we investigated the hierarchical protein structure of Dreissenid byssal threads and the process by which they are fabricated. Unique among bivalves, we found that threads possess a predominantly β-sheet crystalline structure reminiscent of spider silk. Further analysis revealed unexpectedly that the Dreissenid thread protein precursors are mechanoresponsive α-helical proteins that are mechanically processed into β-crystallites during thread formation. Proteomic analysis of the byssus secretory organ and byssus fibers revealed a family of ultrahigh molecular weight (354 to 467 kDa) asparagine-rich (19 to 20%) protein precursors predicted to form α-helical coiled coils. Moreover, several independent lines of evidence indicate that the ancestral predecessor of these proteins was likely acquired via horizontal gene transfer. This chance evolutionary event that transpired at least 12 Mya has endowed Dreissenids with a distinctive and effective fiber formation mechanism, contributing significantly to their success as invasive species and possibly, inspiring new materials design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Simmons
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QCH3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Nils Horbelt
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam14476, Germany
| | - Tara Sverko
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QCH3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Ernesto Scoppola
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam14476, Germany
| | - Daniel J. Jackson
- Department of Geobiology, Geoscience Center, University of Göttingen, Göttingen37077, Germany
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3
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Miserez A, Yu J, Mohammadi P. Protein-Based Biological Materials: Molecular Design and Artificial Production. Chem Rev 2023; 123:2049-2111. [PMID: 36692900 PMCID: PMC9999432 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Polymeric materials produced from fossil fuels have been intimately linked to the development of industrial activities in the 20th century and, consequently, to the transformation of our way of living. While this has brought many benefits, the fabrication and disposal of these materials is bringing enormous sustainable challenges. Thus, materials that are produced in a more sustainable fashion and whose degradation products are harmless to the environment are urgently needed. Natural biopolymers─which can compete with and sometimes surpass the performance of synthetic polymers─provide a great source of inspiration. They are made of natural chemicals, under benign environmental conditions, and their degradation products are harmless. Before these materials can be synthetically replicated, it is essential to elucidate their chemical design and biofabrication. For protein-based materials, this means obtaining the complete sequences of the proteinaceous building blocks, a task that historically took decades of research. Thus, we start this review with a historical perspective on early efforts to obtain the primary sequences of load-bearing proteins, followed by the latest developments in sequencing and proteomic technologies that have greatly accelerated sequencing of extracellular proteins. Next, four main classes of protein materials are presented, namely fibrous materials, bioelastomers exhibiting high reversible deformability, hard bulk materials, and biological adhesives. In each class, we focus on the design at the primary and secondary structure levels and discuss their interplays with the mechanical response. We finally discuss earlier and the latest research to artificially produce protein-based materials using biotechnology and synthetic biology, including current developments by start-up companies to scale-up the production of proteinaceous materials in an economically viable manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Miserez
- Center for Sustainable Materials (SusMat), School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore637553.,School of Biological Sciences, NTU, Singapore637551
| | - Jing Yu
- Center for Sustainable Materials (SusMat), School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore637553.,Institute for Digital Molecular Analytics and Science (IDMxS), NTU, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore637553
| | - Pezhman Mohammadi
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., Espoo, UusimaaFI-02044, Finland
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4
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Du N, Ye F, Sun J, Liu K. Stimuli-Responsive Natural Proteins and Their Applications. Chembiochem 2021; 23:e202100416. [PMID: 34773331 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202100416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Natural proteins are essential biomacromolecules that fulfill versatile functions in the living organism, such as their usage as cytoskeleton, nutriment transporter, homeostasis controller, catalyzer, or immune guarder. Due to the excellent mechanical properties and good biocompatibility/biodegradability, natural protein-based biomaterials are well equipped for prospective applications in various fields. Among these natural proteins, stimuli-responsive proteins can be reversibly and precisely manipulated on demand, rendering the protein-based biomaterials promising candidates for numerous applications, including disease detection, drug delivery, bio-sensing, and regenerative medicine. Therefore, we present some typical natural proteins with diverse physical stimuli-responsive properties, including temperature, light, force, electrical, and magnetic sensing in this review. The structure-function mechanism of these proteins is discussed in detail. Finally, we give a summary and perspective for the development of stimuli-responsive proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Du
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, 325001, P. R. China.,State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, P. R. China
| | - Fangfu Ye
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, 325001, P. R. China
| | - Jing Sun
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - Kai Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, P. R. China.,Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, P. R. China
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5
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Mechano-responsive hydrogen-bonding array of thermoplastic polyurethane elastomer captures both strength and self-healing. Nat Commun 2021; 12:621. [PMID: 33504800 PMCID: PMC7841158 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-20931-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Self-repairable materials strive to emulate curable and resilient biological tissue; however, their performance is currently insufficient for commercialization purposes because mending and toughening are mutually exclusive. Herein, we report a carbonate-type thermoplastic polyurethane elastomer that self-heals at 35 °C and exhibits a tensile strength of 43 MPa; this elastomer is as strong as the soles used in footwear. Distinctively, it has abundant carbonyl groups in soft-segments and is fully amorphous with negligible phase separation due to poor hard-segment stacking. It operates in dual mechano-responsive mode through a reversible disorder-to-order transition of its hydrogen-bonding array; it heals when static and toughens when dynamic. In static mode, non-crystalline hard segments promote the dynamic exchange of disordered carbonyl hydrogen-bonds for self-healing. The amorphous phase forms stiff crystals when stretched through a transition that orders inter-chain hydrogen bonding. The phase and strain fully return to the pre-stressed state after release to repeat the healing process. Self-healing materials strive to emulate curable and resilient biological tissue but their performance is often insufficient for commercial applications because self-healing and toughening are mutually exclusive properties. Here, the authors report a tough and strong carbonate-type thermoplastic polyurethane elastomer that self-heals at ambient temperature.
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Schröder V, Rău I, Dobrin N, Stefanov C, Mihali CV, Pădureţu CC, Apetroaei MR. Micromorphological details and identification of chitinous wall structures in Rapana venosa (Gastropoda, Mollusca) egg capsules. Sci Rep 2020; 10:14550. [PMID: 32883987 PMCID: PMC7471954 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71348-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study evaluated the structural and ultrastructural characteristics of Rapana venosa egg capsules, starting from observations of their antifouling activity and mechanical resistance to water currents in mid-shore habitats. Optical microscopy, epifluorescence, and electron microscopy were used to evaluate the surface and structure of the R. venosa egg capsules. These measurements revealed an internal multilamellar structure of the capsule wall with in-plane distributions of layers with various orientations. It was found that the walls contained vacuolar structures in the median layer, which provided the particular characteristics. Mechanical, viscoelastic and swelling measurements were also carried out. This study revealed the presence and distribution of chitosan in the capsule of R. venosa. Chitosan identification in the egg capsule wall structure was carried out through SEM-EDX measurements, colorimetric assays, FT-IR spectra and physical-chemical tests. The biopolymer presence in the capsule walls may explain the properties of their surfaces as well as the mechanical resistance of the capsule and its resistance to chemical variations in the living environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verginica Schröder
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, "Ovidius" University, Capitan Aviator Al. Serbanescu Street No. 6, Campus C, Constanta, Romania
| | - Ileana Rău
- Department of General Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Polizu Street No. 1, Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Nicolae Dobrin
- Electron Microscopy Department and Center for Research and Development of the Morphological and Genetic Studies of Malignant Pathology, "Ovidius" University, University Street No. 1, Campus B, Constanta, Romania
| | - Constanţa Stefanov
- Electron Microscopy Department and Center for Research and Development of the Morphological and Genetic Studies of Malignant Pathology, "Ovidius" University, University Street No. 1, Campus B, Constanta, Romania
| | - Ciprian-Valentin Mihali
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, "Vasile Goldiș" Western University From Arad, Arad, Romania
| | - Carla-Cezarina Pădureţu
- Department of General Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Polizu Street No. 1, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Manuela Rossemary Apetroaei
- Department of Naval and Port Engineering and Management, "Mircea Cel Batran" Naval Academy, Fulgerului Street No. 1, Constanta, Romania
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7
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Pasche D, Horbelt N, Marin F, Motreuil S, Fratzl P, Harrington MJ. Self-healing silk from the sea: role of helical hierarchical structure in Pinna nobilis byssus mechanics. SOFT MATTER 2019; 15:9654-9664. [PMID: 31720677 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm01830a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The byssus fibers of Mytilus mussel species have become an important role model in bioinspired materials research due to their impressive properties (e.g. high toughness, self-healing); however, Mytilids represent only a small subset of all byssus-producing bivalves. Recent studies have revealed that byssus from other species possess completely different protein composition and hierarchical structure. In this regard, Pinna nobilis byssus is especially interesting due to its very different morphology, function and its historical use for weaving lightweight golden fabrics, known as sea silk. P. nobilis byssus was recently discovered to be comprised of globular proteins organized into a helical protein superstructure. In this work, we investigate the relationships between this hierarchical structure and the mechanical properties of P. nobilis byssus threads, including energy dissipation and self-healing capacity. To achieve this, we performed in-depth mechanical characterization, as well as tensile testing coupled with in situ X-ray scattering. Our findings reveal that P. nobilis byssus, like Mytilus, possesses self-healing and energy damping behavior and that the initial elastic behavior of P. nobilis byssus is due to stretching and unraveling of the previously observed helical building blocks comprising the byssus. These findings have biological relevance for understanding the convergent evolution of mussel byssus for different species, and also for the field of bio-inspired materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Pasche
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam 14424, Germany
| | - Nils Horbelt
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam 14424, Germany
| | - Frédéric Marin
- UMR CNRS 6282 Biogéosciences, Université de Bourgogne - Franche-Comté, Dijon 21000, France
| | - Sébastien Motreuil
- UMR CNRS 6282 Biogéosciences, Université de Bourgogne - Franche-Comté, Dijon 21000, France
| | - Peter Fratzl
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam 14424, Germany
| | - Matthew J Harrington
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam 14424, Germany and Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B8, Canada.
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8
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Zechel S, Hager MD, Priemel T, Harrington MJ. Healing through Histidine: Bioinspired Pathways to Self-Healing Polymers via Imidazole⁻Metal Coordination. Biomimetics (Basel) 2019; 4:E20. [PMID: 31105205 PMCID: PMC6477608 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics4010020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Biology offers a valuable inspiration toward the development of self-healing engineering composites and polymers. In particular, chemical level design principles extracted from proteinaceous biopolymers, especially the mussel byssus, provide inspiration for design of autonomous and intrinsic healing in synthetic polymers. The mussel byssus is an acellular tissue comprised of extremely tough protein-based fibers, produced by mussels to secure attachment on rocky surfaces. Threads exhibit self-healing response following an apparent plastic yield event, recovering initial material properties in a time-dependent fashion. Recent biochemical analysis of the structure-function relationships defining this response reveal a key role of sacrificial cross-links based on metal coordination bonds between Zn2+ ions and histidine amino acid residues. Inspired by this example, many research groups have developed self-healing polymeric materials based on histidine (imidazole)-metal chemistry. In this review, we provide a detailed overview of the current understanding of the self-healing mechanism in byssal threads, and an overview of the current state of the art in histidine- and imidazole-based synthetic polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Zechel
- Laboratory for Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstr. 10, 07743 Jena, Germany.
- Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany.
| | - Martin D Hager
- Laboratory for Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstr. 10, 07743 Jena, Germany.
- Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany.
| | - Tobias Priemel
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H3A 0B8, Canada.
| | - Matthew J Harrington
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H3A 0B8, Canada.
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9
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Pasche D, Horbelt N, Marin F, Motreuil S, Macías-Sánchez E, Falini G, Hwang DS, Fratzl P, Harrington MJ. A new twist on sea silk: the peculiar protein ultrastructure of fan shell and pearl oyster byssus. SOFT MATTER 2018; 14:5654-5664. [PMID: 29946583 DOI: 10.1039/c8sm00821c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Numerous mussel species produce byssal threads - tough proteinaceous fibers, which anchor mussels in aquatic habitats. Byssal threads from Mytilus species, which are comprised of modified collagen proteins - have become a veritable archetype for bio-inspired polymers due to their self-healing properties. However, threads from different species are comparatively much less understood. In particular, the byssus of Pinna nobilis comprises thousands of fine fibers utilized by humans for millennia to fashion lightweight golden fabrics known as sea silk. P. nobilis is very different from Mytilus from an ecological, morphological and evolutionary point of view and it stands to reason that the structure-function relationships of its byssus are distinct. Here, we performed compositional analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to investigate byssal threads of P. nobilis, as well as a closely related bivalve species (Atrina pectinata) and a distantly related one (Pinctada fucata). This comparative investigation revealed that all three threads share a similar molecular superstructure comprised of globular proteins organized helically into nanofibrils, which is completely distinct from the Mytilus thread ultrastructure, and more akin to the supramolecular organization of bacterial pili and F-actin. This unexpected discovery hints at a possible divergence in byssus evolution in Pinnidae mussels, perhaps related to selective pressures in their respective ecological niches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Pasche
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam 14424, Germany.
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10
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Minin KA, Zhmurov A, Marx KA, Purohit PK, Barsegov V. Dynamic Transition from α-Helices to β-Sheets in Polypeptide Coiled-Coil Motifs. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:16168-16177. [PMID: 29043794 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b06883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We carried out dynamic force manipulations in silico on a variety of coiled-coil protein fragments from myosin, chemotaxis receptor, vimentin, fibrin, and phenylalanine zippers that vary in size and topology of their α-helical packing. When stretched along the superhelical axis, all superhelices show elastic, plastic, and inelastic elongation regimes and undergo a dynamic transition from the α-helices to the β-sheets, which marks the onset of plastic deformation. Using the Abeyaratne-Knowles formulation of phase transitions, we developed a new theoretical methodology to model mechanical and kinetic properties of protein coiled-coils under mechanical nonequilibrium conditions and to map out their energy landscapes. The theory was successfully validated by comparing the simulated and theoretical force-strain spectra. We derived the scaling laws for the elastic force and the force for α-to-β transition, which can be used to understand natural proteins' properties as well as to rationally design novel biomaterials of required mechanical strength with desired balance between stiffness and plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirill A Minin
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology , Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
| | - Artem Zhmurov
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology , Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
| | - Kenneth A Marx
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts , Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, United States
| | - Prashant K Purohit
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Valeri Barsegov
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology , Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia.,Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts , Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, United States
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11
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Baer A, Schmidt S, Haensch S, Eder M, Mayer G, Harrington MJ. Mechanoresponsive lipid-protein nanoglobules facilitate reversible fibre formation in velvet worm slime. Nat Commun 2017; 8:974. [PMID: 29042549 PMCID: PMC5645397 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01142-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Velvet worms eject a fluid capture slime that can be mechanically drawn into stiff biopolymeric fibres. Remarkably, these fibres can be dissolved by extended exposure to water, and new regenerated fibres can be drawn from the dissolved fibre solution-indicating a fully recyclable process. Here, we perform a multiscale structural and compositional investigation of this reversible fabrication process with the velvet worm Euperipatoides rowelli, revealing that biopolymeric fibre assembly is facilitated via mono-disperse lipid-protein nanoglobules. Shear forces cause nanoglobules to self-assemble into nano- and microfibrils, which can be drawn into macroscopic fibres with a protein-enriched core and lipid-rich coating. Fibre dissolution in water leads to re-formation of nanoglobules, suggesting that this dynamic supramolecular assembly of mechanoresponsive protein-building blocks is mediated by reversible non-covalent interactions. These findings offer important mechanistic insights into the role of mechanochemical processes in bio-fibre formation, providing potential avenues for sustainable material fabrication processes.Velvet worms expel a fluid slime that, under shear force, forms stiff fibres that can be dissolved and then regenerated. Here, the authors reveal that the recyclability of these biopolymers relies on mechanoresponsive lipid-protein nanoglobules in the slime that reversibly self-assemble into fibrils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Baer
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, University of Kassel, Heinrich-Plett-Str. 40, 34132, Kassel, Germany.
| | - Stephan Schmidt
- Institute of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Sebastian Haensch
- Center for Advanced Imaging (CAi), Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Michaela Eder
- Dept. of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Research Campus Golm, 14424, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Georg Mayer
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, University of Kassel, Heinrich-Plett-Str. 40, 34132, Kassel, Germany
| | - Matthew J Harrington
- Dept. of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Research Campus Golm, 14424, Potsdam, Germany. .,Dept. of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC, H3A 0B8, Canada.
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12
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Loke JJ, Kumar A, Hoon S, Verma C, Miserez A. Hierarchical Assembly of Tough Bioelastomeric Egg Capsules is Mediated by a Bundling Protein. Biomacromolecules 2017; 18:931-942. [PMID: 28196415 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.6b01810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Marine snail egg capsules are shock-absorbing bioelastomers made from precursor "egg case proteins" (ECPs) that initially lack long-range order. During capsule formation, these proteins self-assemble into coiled-coil filaments that subsequently align into microscopic layers, a multiscale process which is crucial to the capsules' shock-absorbing properties. In this study, we show that the self-assembly of ECPs into their functional capsule material is mediated by a bundling protein that facilitates the aggregation of coiled-coil building blocks and their gelation into a prefinal capsule prior to final stabilization. This low molecular weight bundling protein, termed Pugilina cochlidium Bundling Protein (PcBP), led to gelation of native extracts from gravid snails, whereas crude extracts lacking PcBP did not gelate and remained as a protein solution. Refolding and reconcentration of recombinant PcBP induced bundling and aggregation of ECPs, as evidenced by ECPs oligomerization. We propose that the secretion of PcBP in vivo is a time-specific event during the embryo encapsulation process prior to cross-linking in the ventral pedal gland (VPG). Using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, we further propose plausible disulfide binding sites stabilizing two PcBP monomers, as well as a polarized surface charge distribution, which we suggest plays an important role in the bundling mechanism. Overall, this study shows that controlled bundling is a key step during the extra-cellular self-assembly of egg capsules, which has previously been overlooked.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Jie Loke
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University (NTU) , Singapore 639798, Singapore.,Centre for Biomimetic Sensor Science (CBSS), NTU , Singapore 637553, Singapore
| | - Akshita Kumar
- Centre for Biomimetic Sensor Science (CBSS), NTU , Singapore 637553, Singapore.,School of Biological Sciences, NTU , Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Shawn Hoon
- Molecular Engineering Lab, Biomedical Sciences Institute, Agency for Science Technology and Research (A*STAR) , Singapore 138673, Singapore
| | - Chandra Verma
- School of Biological Sciences, NTU , Singapore 637551, Singapore.,Bioinformatics Institute, A*STAR , 30 Biopolis Street, Singapore 138671, Singapore
| | - Ali Miserez
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University (NTU) , Singapore 639798, Singapore.,Centre for Biomimetic Sensor Science (CBSS), NTU , Singapore 637553, Singapore.,School of Biological Sciences, NTU , Singapore 637551, Singapore
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Reinecke A, Bertinetti L, Fratzl P, Harrington MJ. Cooperative behavior of a sacrificial bond network and elastic framework in providing self-healing capacity in mussel byssal threads. J Struct Biol 2016; 196:329-339. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2016.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Revised: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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14
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Fleissner F, Bonn M, Parekh SH. Microscale spatial heterogeneity of protein structural transitions in fibrin matrices. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2016; 2:e1501778. [PMID: 28861472 PMCID: PMC5566164 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1501778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2015] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Following an injury, a blood clot must form at the wound site to stop bleeding before skin repair can occur. Blood clots must satisfy a unique set of material requirements; they need to be sufficiently strong to resist pressure from the arterial blood flow but must be highly flexible to support large strains associated with tissue movement around the wound. These combined properties are enabled by a fibrous matrix consisting of the protein fibrin. Fibrin hydrogels can support large macroscopic strains owing to the unfolding transition of α-helical fibril structures to β sheets at the molecular level, among other reasons. Imaging protein secondary structure on the submicrometer length scale, we reveal that another length scale is relevant for fibrin function. We observe that the protein polymorphism in the gel becomes spatially heterogeneous on a micrometer length scale with increasing tensile strain, directly showing load-bearing inhomogeneity and nonaffinity. Supramolecular structural features in the hydrogel observed under strain indicate that a uniform fibrin hydrogel develops a composite-like microstructure in tension, even in the absence of cellular inclusions.
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15
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Chang Y, Chen PY. Hierarchical structure and mechanical properties of snake (Naja atra) and turtle (Ocadia sinensis) eggshells. Acta Biomater 2016; 31:33-49. [PMID: 26607769 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2015.11.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Revised: 11/10/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
After hundreds of million years of evolution, natural armors have evolved in various organisms, and has manifested in diverse forms such as eggshells, abalone shells, alligator osteoderms, turtle shells, and fish scales. Eggshells serve as multifunctional shields for successful embryogenesis, such as protection, moisture control and thermal regulation. Unlike calcareous avian eggshells which are brittle and hard, reptilians have leathery eggshells that are tough and flexible. Reptilian eggshells can withstand collision damages when laid in holes and dropped onto each other, and reduce abrasion caused by buried sand. In this study, we investigate structure and mechanical properties of eggshells of Taiwan cobra snake (Naja atra) and Chinese striped-neck turtle (Ocadia sinensis). From Acid Fuchsin Orange G (AFOG) staining and ATR-FTIR examination, we found that both eggshells are mainly composed of keratin. The mechanical properties of demineralized snake and turtle eggshells were evaluated by tensile and fracture tests and show distinctly difference. Turtle eggshells are relatively stiff and rigid, while snake eggshells behave as elastomers, which are highly extensible and reversible. The exceptional deformability (110-230% tensile strain) and toughness of snake eggshells are contributed by the wavy and random arrangement of keratin fibers as well as collagen layers. Multi-scale toughening mechanisms of snake eggshells were observed and elucidated, including crack deflection and twisting, fibers reorientation, sliding and bridging, inter-laminar shear effect, as well as the α-β phase transition of keratin. Inspirations from the structural and mechanical designs of reptilian eggshells may lead to the synthesis of tough, extensible, lightweight composites which could be further applied in the flexible devices, packaging and bio-medical fields. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Amniotic eggshells serve as multifunctional shields for successful embryogenesis. The avian eggshells have been extensively studied while there are very few studies on reptilian eggshells and most of them focused on mineralization and embryotic development. For the first time, the hierarchical structure and mechanical properties of snake and turtle eggshells are comprehensively and comparatively studied. Both snake and turtle eggshells are multilayer, hierarchically-structured composites consisting mainly of keratin yet their mechanical behaviors are distinctly different. Turtle eggshells are stiff and rigid, while snake eggshells are highly extensible (>200%) and reversible due to multiple deformation stages, phase transition of keratin and various toughening mechanisms. We believe that this study will make positive scientific impact and interest the broad and multidisciplinary readership.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Chang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Sec. 2, Kuang-Fu Rd., Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Po-Yu Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Sec. 2, Kuang-Fu Rd., Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan.
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16
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Geitner R, Kötteritzsch J, Siegmann M, Fritzsch R, Bocklitz TW, Hager MD, Schubert US, Gräfe S, Dietzek B, Schmitt M, Popp J. Molecular self-healing mechanisms between C60-fullerene and anthracene unveiled by Raman and two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2016; 18:17973-82. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cp03464k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
C60-fullerene–anthracene self-healing copolymers were studied by time-, temperature- and concentration-dependent FT-Raman spectroscopy and advanced 2D correlation analysis.
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17
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Nabavi SS, Fratzl P, Hartmann MA. Energy dissipation and recovery in a simple model with reversible cross-links. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2015; 91:032603. [PMID: 25871137 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.91.032603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Reversible cross-linking is a method of enhancing the mechanical properties of polymeric materials. The inspiration for this kind of cross-linking comes from nature, which uses this strategy in a large variety of biological materials to dramatically increase their toughness. Recently, first attempts were made to transfer this principle to technological applications. In this study, Monte Carlo simulations are used to investigate the effect of the number and the topology of reversible cross-links on the mechanical performance of a simple model system. Computational cyclic loading tests are performed, and the work to fracture and the energy dissipation per cycle are determined, which both increase when the density of cross-links is increased. Furthermore, a different topology of the bonds may increase the work to fracture by a factor of more than 2 for the same density. This dependence of the mechanical properties on the topology of the bonds has important implications on the self-healing properties of such systems, because only a fast return of the system to its unloaded state after release of the load ensures that the optimal topology may form.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Soran Nabavi
- Institute of Physics, Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Franz-Josef Strasse 18, 8700 Leoben, Austria
| | - Peter Fratzl
- Max-Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Department of Biomaterials, Research Campus Golm, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Markus A Hartmann
- Institute of Physics, Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Franz-Josef Strasse 18, 8700 Leoben, Austria
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18
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Fu T, Guerette PA, Tan RYT, Zhao H, Schefer L, Mezzenga R, Miserez A. Biomimetic self-assembly of recombinant marine snail egg capsule proteins into structural coiled-coil units. J Mater Chem B 2015; 3:2671-2684. [DOI: 10.1039/c4tb01434k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
We report on the biomimetic production of shock-absorbing proteins from marine snail egg capsules and their self-assembly into coiled-coil filaments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianpei Fu
- School of Material Science and Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University (NTU)
- Singapore
- Center for Biomimetic Sensor Science
- NTU
| | - Paul A. Guerette
- School of Material Science and Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University (NTU)
- Singapore
- Center for Biomimetic Sensor Science
- NTU
| | - Raymond Y. T. Tan
- School of Material Science and Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University (NTU)
- Singapore
| | - Hua Zhao
- Institute of Chemical and Engineering Sciences (ICES)
- Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*Star)
- Singapore
| | - Larissa Schefer
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (ETHZ)
- 8092 Zürich
- Switzerland
| | - Raffaele Mezzenga
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (ETHZ)
- 8092 Zürich
- Switzerland
| | - Ali Miserez
- School of Material Science and Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University (NTU)
- Singapore
- Center for Biomimetic Sensor Science
- NTU
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Miserez A, Weaver JC, Chaudhuri O. Biological materials and molecular biomimetics – filling up the empty soft materials space for tissue engineering applications. J Mater Chem B 2015; 3:13-24. [DOI: 10.1039/c4tb01267d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The discovery and molecular (genetic) characterization of novel biological materials offers great potential to expand the range of soft materials used for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Miserez
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore
- School of Biological Sciences
- Nanyang Technological University
| | - James C. Weaver
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering
- Harvard University
- Cambridge
- USA
| | - Ovijit Chaudhuri
- Department of Mechanical Engineering
- Stanford University
- Stanford
- USA
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20
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21
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Geitner R, Kötteritzsch J, Siegmann M, Bocklitz TW, Hager MD, Schubert US, Gräfe S, Dietzek B, Schmitt M, Popp J. Two-dimensional Raman correlation spectroscopy reveals molecular structural changes during temperature-induced self-healing in polymers based on the Diels–Alder reaction. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2015; 17:22587-95. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cp02151k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
For the first time two-dimensional Raman correlation analysis has been used to study self-healing polymers based on the Diels–Alder reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Geitner
- Institute for Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena
- Jena
- Germany
| | - J. Kötteritzsch
- Laboratory for Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC)
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena
- Jena
- Germany
- Jena Center of Soft Matter (JCSM)
| | - M. Siegmann
- Institute for Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena
- Jena
- Germany
| | - T. W. Bocklitz
- Institute for Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena
- Jena
- Germany
| | - M. D. Hager
- Laboratory for Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC)
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena
- Jena
- Germany
- Jena Center of Soft Matter (JCSM)
| | - U. S. Schubert
- Laboratory for Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC)
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena
- Jena
- Germany
- Jena Center of Soft Matter (JCSM)
| | - S. Gräfe
- Institute for Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena
- Jena
- Germany
| | - B. Dietzek
- Institute for Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena
- Jena
- Germany
- Jena Center of Soft Matter (JCSM)
| | - M. Schmitt
- Institute for Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena
- Jena
- Germany
| | - J. Popp
- Institute for Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena
- Jena
- Germany
- Jena Center of Soft Matter (JCSM)
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22
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Nabavi SS, Harrington MJ, Fratzl P, Hartmann MA. Influence of sacrificial bonds on the mechanical behaviour of polymer chains. BIOINSPIRED BIOMIMETIC AND NANOBIOMATERIALS 2014. [DOI: 10.1680/bbn.14.00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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23
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Wasko SS, Tay GZ, Schwaighofer A, Nowak C, Waite JH, Miserez A. Structural proteins from whelk egg capsule with long range elasticity associated with a solid-state phase transition. Biomacromolecules 2014; 15:30-42. [PMID: 24350603 DOI: 10.1021/bm401598z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The robust, proteinaceous egg capsules of marine prosobranch gastropods (genus Busycotypus ) exhibit unique biomechanical properties such as high elastic strain recovery and elastic energy dissipation capability. Capsule material possesses long-range extensibility that is fully recoverable and is the result of a secondary structure phase transition from α-helical coiled-coil to extended β-sheet rather than of entropic (rubber) elasticity. We report here the characterization of the precursor proteins that make up this material. Three different proteins have been purified and analyzed, and complete protein sequences deduced from messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) transcripts. Circular dichroism (CD) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy indicate that the proteins are strongly α-helical in solution and primary sequence analysis suggests that these proteins have a propensity to form coiled-coils. This is in agreement with previous wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) and solid-state Raman spectroscopic analysis of mature egg capsules.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Scott Wasko
- Biomolecular Sciences and Engineering Program, University of California , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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24
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Guerette PA, Z. Tay G, Hoon S, Loke JJ, Hermawan AF, Schmitt CNZ, Harrington MJ, Masic A, Karunaratne A, Gupta HS, Tan KS, Schwaighofer A, Nowak C, Miserez A. Integrative and comparative analysis of coiled-coil based marine snail egg cases – a model for biomimetic elastomers. Biomater Sci 2014; 2:710-722. [DOI: 10.1039/c3bm60264h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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25
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De Tommasi D, Millardi N, Puglisi G, Saccomandi G. An energetic model for macromolecules unfolding in stretching experiments. J R Soc Interface 2013; 10:20130651. [PMID: 24047874 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2013.0651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We propose a simple approach, based on the minimization of the total (entropic plus unfolding) energy of a two-state system, to describe the unfolding of multi-domain macromolecules (proteins, silks, polysaccharides, nanopolymers). The model is fully analytical and enlightens the role of the different energetic components regulating the unfolding evolution. As an explicit example, we compare the analytical results with a titin atomic force microscopy stretch-induced unfolding experiment showing the ability of the model to quantitatively reproduce the experimental behaviour. In the thermodynamic limit, the sawtooth force-elongation unfolding curve degenerates to a constant force unfolding plateau.
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Affiliation(s)
- D De Tommasi
- Dipartimento di Scienze dell' Ingegneria Civile e Architettura, Politecnico di Bari, Bari, Italy
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Krauss S, Metzger TH, Fratzl P, Harrington MJ. Self-Repair of a Biological Fiber Guided by an Ordered Elastic Framework. Biomacromolecules 2013; 14:1520-8. [DOI: 10.1021/bm4001712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Krauss
- Department
of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Till Hartmut Metzger
- Department
of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Peter Fratzl
- Department
of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Matthew James Harrington
- Department
of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
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27
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Miserez A, Guerette PA. Phase transition-induced elasticity of α-helical bioelastomeric fibres and networks. Chem Soc Rev 2013; 42:1973-95. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cs35294j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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