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Nakase T, Brownwright T, Okunromade O, Egwuenu A, Ogunbode O, Lawal B, Akanbi K, Grant G, Bassey OO, Coughlin MM, Bankamp B, Adetifa I, Metcalf CJE, Ferrari M. The impact of sub-national heterogeneities in demography and epidemiology on the introduction of rubella vaccination programs in Nigeria. Vaccine 2024; 42:125982. [PMID: 38811269 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2024.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Rubella infection during pregnancy can result in miscarriage or infants with a constellation of birth defects known as congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). When coverage is inadequate, rubella vaccination can increase CRS cases by increasing the average age of infection. Thus, the World Health Organisation recommends that countries introducing rubella vaccine be able to vaccinate at least 80% of each birth cohort. Previous studies have focused on national-level analyses and have overlooked sub-national variation in introduction risk. We characterised the sub-national heterogeneity in rubella transmission within Nigeria and modelled local rubella vaccine introduction under different scenarios to refine the set of conditions and strategies required for safe rubella vaccine use. Across Nigeria, the basic reproduction number ranged from 2.6 to 6.2. Consequently, the conditions for safe vaccination varied across states with low-risk areas requiring coverage levels well below 80 %. In high-risk settings, inadequate routine coverage needed to be supplemented by campaigns that allowed for gradual improvements in vaccination coverage over time. Understanding local heterogeneities in both short-term and long-term epidemic dynamics can permit earlier nationwide introduction of rubella vaccination and identify sub-national areas suitable for program monitoring, program improvement and campaign support.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taishi Nakase
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Tenley Brownwright
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | | | - Abiodun Egwuenu
- Nigeria Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, FCT, Nigeria
| | - Oladipo Ogunbode
- Nigeria Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, FCT, Nigeria
| | - Bola Lawal
- Nigeria Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, FCT, Nigeria
| | - Kayode Akanbi
- Nigeria Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, FCT, Nigeria
| | - Gavin Grant
- Global Immunization Division, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, FCT, Nigeria
| | - Orji O Bassey
- Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, FCT, Nigeria
| | - Melissa M Coughlin
- Division of Viral Disease, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Bettina Bankamp
- Division of Viral Disease, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ifedayo Adetifa
- Nigeria Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, FCT, Nigeria
| | - C Jessica E Metcalf
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA; Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Matthew Ferrari
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.
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Gavhi F, De Voux A, Kuonza L, Motaze NV. Evaluation of the rubella surveillance system in South Africa, 2016-2018: A cross-sectional study. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0287170. [PMID: 37352228 PMCID: PMC10289429 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0287170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rubella is a leading vaccine-preventable cause of birth defects. We conducted this study to evaluate the rubella surveillance system in South Africa from 2016 to 2018. The rubella surveillance system had not been evaluated since its inception; therefore, a formal evaluation is necessary to assess key attributes and to ascertain the extent to which the system achieves its objectives. METHODS We conducted a cross-sectional study to assess the usefulness, simplicity, positive predictive value, timeliness, and data quality of the rubella surveillance system from 2016 to 2018. We reviewed retrospective rubella surveillance data and conducted a survey with key stakeholders of the system. We compiled a summary report from the survey and calculated the annualized detection rate of rubella and non-rubella febrile rash, positive predictive value, the proportion of complete records, and timeliness between the surveillance steps. We compared our results with recommended performance indicators from the 2015 revised World Health Organization African regional guidelines for measles and rubella surveillance. RESULTS The rubella surveillance system was useful but weak in terms of simplicity. The annualized detection rate of rubella febrile rash was 1.5 per 100,000 populations in 2016, 4.4 in 2017, and 2.1 in 2018. The positive predictive value was 29.1% in 2016, 40.9% in 2017, and 32.9% in 2018. The system did not meet the timeliness goal in the health facility component but met this goal in the laboratory component. The system had poor data quality, particularly in the health facility component. CONCLUSIONS The rubella surveillance system was useful, although it was not simple to use and had low PPV, poor timeliness, and poor data quality. Efforts should be made to improve the system's simplicity, PPV, timeliness, and data quality at the facility level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fhatuwani Gavhi
- National Institute for Communicable Diseases, A Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
- School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Alex De Voux
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa
- School of Public Health, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Lazarus Kuonza
- National Institute for Communicable Diseases, A Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
- School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
- School of Public Health, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Nkengafac Villyen Motaze
- National Institute for Communicable Diseases, A Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
- Medicine Usage in South Africa, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, North-West, South Africa
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Hong H, Malfeld S, Smit S, Makhathini L, Fortuin M, Motsamai T, Tselana D, Manamela MJ, Motaze NV, Ntshoe G, Kamupira M, Khosa-Lesola E, Mokoena S, Buthelezi T, Maseti E, Suchard M. A retrospective 5-year review of rubella in South Africa prior to the introduction of a rubella-containing vaccine. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0265870. [PMID: 35512030 PMCID: PMC9071131 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0265870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
South Africa has yet to introduce a rubella-containing vaccine (RCV) into its Expanded Programme on Immunisation (EPI). Here we evaluated the incidence of laboratory-confirmed rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) cases over the years 2015 to 2019, to document the epidemiology of rubella and CRS within South Africa prior to a RCV introduction. This retrospective study evaluated the number of laboratory-confirmed rubella cases reported through the national febrile rash surveillance system. A positive test for rubella immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies was considered a confirmed rubella case. For CRS cases, we reported laboratory-confirmed CRS cases collected from 28 sentinel-sites from all nine provinces of South Africa. From 2015-2019, 19 773 serum samples were tested for rubella IgM antibodies, 6 643 (33.6%) were confirmed rubella cases. Rubella was seasonal, with peaks in spring (September to November). Case numbers were similar between males (n = 3 239; 50.1%) and females (n = 3 232; 49.9%). The highest burden of cases occurred in 2017 (n = 2 526; 38%). The median age was 5 years (IQR: 3-7 years). Importantly, of females with rubella, 5.0% (161 of 3 232) of the cases were among women of reproductive age (15-44 years). A total of 62 CRS cases were reported, the mortality rate was 12.9% (n = 8), and the most common birth defect was congenital heart disease. In conclusion, rubella is endemic in South Africa. Children below the age of 10 years were the most affected, however, rubella was also reported among women of reproductive age. The baseline data represented here provides insight into the burden of rubella and CRS in South Africa prior to the introduction of a RCV, and can enable planning of RCV introduction into the South African EPI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather Hong
- Centre for Vaccines and Immunology, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Department of Virology, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Susan Malfeld
- Centre for Vaccines and Immunology, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Sheilagh Smit
- Centre for Vaccines and Immunology, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Lillian Makhathini
- Centre for Vaccines and Immunology, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Mirriam Fortuin
- Centre for Vaccines and Immunology, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Tshepo Motsamai
- Centre for Vaccines and Immunology, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Dipolelo Tselana
- Centre for Vaccines and Immunology, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Morubula Jack Manamela
- Centre for Vaccines and Immunology, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Nkengafac Villyen Motaze
- Centre for Vaccines and Immunology, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Department of Global Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Genevie Ntshoe
- Outbreak Response Unit, Division of Public Health Surveillance and Response, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
- School of Health Systems and Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | | | | | | | - Thulasizwe Buthelezi
- Child, Youth and School Health, National Department of Health, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Elizabeth Maseti
- Child, Youth and School Health, National Department of Health, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Melinda Suchard
- Centre for Vaccines and Immunology, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Department of Chemical Pathology, School of Pathology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
- * E-mail:
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Cheng A, Frey K, Mwamba GN, McCarthy KA, Hoff NA, Rimoin AW. Examination of scenarios introducing rubella vaccine in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Vaccine X 2021; 9:100127. [PMID: 34849482 PMCID: PMC8608602 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvacx.2021.100127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Revised: 10/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Serosurvey data suggest R0 values for rubella in the DRC on the range 3 to 8. Supplementary immunization activities provide multi-decade reduction in burden. Post-vaccine introduction, burden will likely be concentrated in outbreaks.
Background Rubella vaccine has yet to be introduced into the national immunization schedule of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC); the current burden of congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) is unknown and likely to be high. An important consideration prior to introducing rubella containing vaccine (RCV) is the potential inverse relationship between RCV coverage and CRS incidence. Increasing RCV coverage will also increase in the average age of infection. Cumulative infections across all age groups will decrease, but the number of infections in age groups vulnerable to CRS may increase. Methods Rubella transmission dynamics in the DRC were simulated using a stochastic agent-based model of transmission. Input parameter values for known properties, demographic variables, and interventions were fixed; infectivity was inferred from seropositivity profiles in survey data. Results Our simulations of RCV introduction for the DRC demonstrate that an increase in CRS burden is unlikely. Continued endemic transmission is only plausible when routine immunization coverage is less than 40% and follow-up supplemental immunization activities have poor coverage for decades. Conclusion Increased vaccination coverage tends to increase the annual variability of CRS burden. Simulations examining low vaccination coverage and high mean CRS burden are outbreak prone, with multiple years of reduced burden followed by acute outbreaks. These outcomes contrast simulations with no vaccination coverage and high mean CRS burden, which have more consistent burden from year to year.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvan Cheng
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Kurt Frey
- Institute for Disease Modeling, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Kevin A McCarthy
- Institute for Disease Modeling, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Nicole A Hoff
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Anne W Rimoin
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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How geographic access to care shapes disease burden: The current impact of post-exposure prophylaxis and potential for expanded access to prevent human rabies deaths in Madagascar. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0008821. [PMID: 33901194 PMCID: PMC8102000 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) is highly effective at preventing human rabies deaths, however access to PEP is limited in many rabies endemic countries. The 2018 decision by Gavi to add human rabies vaccine to its investment portfolio should expand PEP availability and reduce rabies deaths. We explore how geographic access to PEP impacts the rabies burden in Madagascar and the potential benefits of improved provisioning. Methodology & principal findings We use spatially resolved data on numbers of bite patients seeking PEP across Madagascar and estimates of travel times to the closest clinic providing PEP (N = 31) in a Bayesian regression framework to estimate how geographic access predicts reported bite incidence. We find that travel times strongly predict reported bite incidence across the country. Using resulting estimates in an adapted decision tree, we extrapolate rabies deaths and reporting and find that geographic access to PEP shapes burden sub-nationally. We estimate 960 human rabies deaths annually (95% Prediction Intervals (PI): 790–1120), with PEP averting an additional 800 deaths (95% PI: 640–970) each year. Under these assumptions, we find that expanding PEP to one clinic per district (83 additional clinics) could reduce deaths by 19%, but even with all major primary clinics provisioning PEP (1733 additional clinics), we still expect substantial rabies mortality. Our quantitative estimates are most sensitive to assumptions of underlying rabies exposure incidence, but qualitative patterns of the impacts of travel times and expanded PEP access are robust. Conclusions & significance PEP is effective at preventing rabies deaths, and in the absence of strong surveillance, targeting underserved populations may be the most equitable way to provision PEP. Given the potential for countries to use Gavi funding to expand access to PEP in the coming years, this framework could be used as a first step to guide expansion and improve targeting of interventions in similar endemic settings where PEP access is geographically restricted and baseline data on rabies risk is lacking. While better PEP access should save many lives, improved outreach, surveillance, and dog vaccination will be necessary, and if rolled out with Gavi investment, could catalyze progress towards achieving zero rabies deaths. Canine rabies causes an estimated 60,000 deaths each year across the world, primarily in low- and middle-income countries where people have limited access to both human vaccines (post-exposure prophylaxis or PEP) and dog rabies vaccines. Given that we have the tools to prevent rabies deaths, a global target has been set to eliminate deaths due to canine rabies by 2030, and recently, Gavi, a multilateral organization that aims to improve access to vaccines in the poorest countries, added human rabies vaccine to it’s portfolio. In this study, we estimated reported incidence of patients seeking PEP in relation to travel times to clinics provisioning PEP and extrapolate human rabies deaths in Madagascar. We find that PEP currently averts around 800 deaths each year, but that the burden remains high (1000 deaths/year), particularly in remote, hard-to-reach areas. We show that expanding PEP availability to more clinics could significantly reduce rabies deaths in Madagascar, but our results reaffirm that expansion alone is will not achieve the global goal of zero human deaths from dog-mediated rabies by 2030. Combining PEP expansion with outreach, surveillance, and mass dog vaccination programs will be necessary to move Madagascar, and other Low- and Middle-Income countries, forward on the path to rabies elimination.
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Motaze NV, Mthombothi ZE, Adetokunboh O, Hazelbag CM, Saldarriaga EM, Mbuagbaw L, Wiysonge CS. The Impact of Rubella Vaccine Introduction on Rubella Infection and Congenital Rubella Syndrome: A Systematic Review of Mathematical Modelling Studies. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:84. [PMID: 33503898 PMCID: PMC7912610 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9020084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Rubella vaccines have been used to prevent rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) in several World Health Organization (WHO) regions. Mathematical modelling studies have simulated introduction of rubella-containing vaccines (RCVs), and their results have been used to inform rubella introduction strategies in several countries. This systematic review aimed to synthesize the evidence from mathematical models regarding the impact of introducing RCVs. METHODS We registered the review in the international prospective register of systematic reviews (PROSPERO) with registration number CRD42020192638. Systematic review methods for classical epidemiological studies and reporting guidelines were followed as far as possible. A comprehensive search strategy was used to identify published and unpublished studies with no language restrictions. We included deterministic and stochastic models that simulated RCV introduction into the public sector vaccination schedule, with a time horizon of at least five years. Models focused only on estimating epidemiological parameters were excluded. Outcomes of interest were time to rubella and CRS elimination, trends in incidence of rubella and CRS, number of vaccinated individuals per CRS case averted, and cost-effectiveness of vaccine introduction strategies. The methodological quality of included studies was assessed using a modified risk of bias tool, and a qualitative narrative was provided, given that data synthesis was not feasible. RESULTS Seven studies were included from a total of 1393 records retrieved. The methodological quality was scored high for six studies and very high for one study. Quantitative data synthesis was not possible, because only one study reported point estimates and uncertainty intervals for the outcomes. All seven included studies presented trends in rubella incidence, six studies reported trends in CRS incidence, two studies reported the number vaccinated individuals per CRS case averted, and two studies reported an economic evaluation measure. Time to CRS elimination and time to rubella elimination were not reported by any of the included studies. Reported trends in CRS incidence showed elimination within five years of RCV introduction with scenarios involving mass vaccination of older children in addition to routine infant vaccination. CRS incidence was higher with RCV introduction than without RCV when public vaccine coverage was lower than 50% or only private sector vaccination was implemented. Although vaccination of children at a given age achieved slower declines in CRS incidence compared to mass campaigns targeting a wide age range, this approach resulted in the lowest number of vaccinated individuals per CRS case averted. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS We were unable to conduct data synthesis of included studies due to discrepancies in outcome reporting. However, qualitative assessment of results of individual studies suggests that vaccination of infants should be combined with vaccination of older children to achieve rapid elimination of CRS. Better outcomes are obtained when rubella vaccination is introduced into public vaccination schedules at coverage figures of 80%, as recommended by WHO, or higher. Guidelines for reporting of outcomes in mathematical modelling studies and the conduct of systematic reviews of mathematical modelling studies are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nkengafac Villyen Motaze
- National Institute for Communicable Diseases (NICD), A Division of the National Health Laboratory Service (NHLS), Johannesburg 2131, South Africa
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Department of Global Health, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7505, South Africa; (O.A.); (L.M.); (C.S.W.)
- Centre for the Development of Best Practices in Health (CDBPH), Yaoundé Central Hospital, Yaoundé 1211, Cameroon
| | - Zinhle E. Mthombothi
- The South African Department of Science and Innovation-National Research Foundation (DSI-NRF), Centre of Excellence in Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis (SACEMA), Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa; (Z.E.M.); (C.M.H.)
| | - Olatunji Adetokunboh
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Department of Global Health, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7505, South Africa; (O.A.); (L.M.); (C.S.W.)
- The South African Department of Science and Innovation-National Research Foundation (DSI-NRF), Centre of Excellence in Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis (SACEMA), Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa; (Z.E.M.); (C.M.H.)
| | - C. Marijn Hazelbag
- The South African Department of Science and Innovation-National Research Foundation (DSI-NRF), Centre of Excellence in Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis (SACEMA), Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa; (Z.E.M.); (C.M.H.)
| | - Enrique M. Saldarriaga
- The Comparative Health Outcomes, Policy, and Economics (CHOICE) Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA;
| | - Lawrence Mbuagbaw
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Department of Global Health, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7505, South Africa; (O.A.); (L.M.); (C.S.W.)
- Centre for the Development of Best Practices in Health (CDBPH), Yaoundé Central Hospital, Yaoundé 1211, Cameroon
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence, and Impact (HEI), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada
- Biostatistics Unit, The Research Institute, St Joseph’s Healthcare, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6, Canada
| | - Charles Shey Wiysonge
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Department of Global Health, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7505, South Africa; (O.A.); (L.M.); (C.S.W.)
- Centre for the Development of Best Practices in Health (CDBPH), Yaoundé Central Hospital, Yaoundé 1211, Cameroon
- Cochrane South Africa, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town 7505, South Africa
- School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory, Cape Town 7935, South Africa
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Ma Y, Liu K, Hu W, Song S, Zhang S, Shao Z. Epidemiological Characteristics, Seasonal Dynamic Patterns, and Associations with Meteorological Factors of Rubella in Shaanxi Province, China, 2005-2018. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2020; 104:166-174. [PMID: 33241784 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-0585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Rubella occurs worldwide, causing approximately 100,000 cases annually of congenital rubella syndrome, leading to severe birth defects. Better targeting of public health interventions is needed to achieve rubella elimination goals. To that end, we measured the epidemiological characteristics and seasonal dynamic patterns of rubella and determined its association with meteorological factors in Shaanxi Province, China. Data on rubella cases in Shaanxi Province from 2005 to 2018 were obtained from the Chinese National Notifiable Disease Reporting System. The Morlet wavelet analysis was used to estimate temporal periodicity of rubella incidence. Mixed generalized additive models were used to measure associations between meteorological variables (temperature and relative humidity) and rubella incidence. A total of 17,185 rubella cases were reported in Shaanxi during the study period, for an annual incidence of 3.27 cases per 100,000 population. Interannual oscillations in rubella incidence of 0.8-1.4 years, 3.8-4.8 years, and 0.5 years were detected. Both temperature and relative humidity exhibited nonlinear associations with the incidence of rubella. The accumulative relative risk of transmission for the overall pooled estimates was maximized at a temperature of 0.23°C and relative humidity of 41.6%. This study found that seasonality and meteorological factors have impact on the transmission of rubella; public health interventions to eliminate rubella must consider periodic and seasonal fluctuations as well as meteorological factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Ma
- 1Department of Epidemiology, Ministry of Education Key Lab of Hazard Assessment and Control in Special Operational Environment, School of Public Health, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, People's Republic of China.,2Shaanxi Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Xi'an, People's Republic of China
| | - Kun Liu
- 1Department of Epidemiology, Ministry of Education Key Lab of Hazard Assessment and Control in Special Operational Environment, School of Public Health, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, People's Republic of China
| | - Weijun Hu
- 2Shaanxi Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Xi'an, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuxuan Song
- 1Department of Epidemiology, Ministry of Education Key Lab of Hazard Assessment and Control in Special Operational Environment, School of Public Health, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, People's Republic of China
| | - Shaobai Zhang
- 2Shaanxi Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Xi'an, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhongjun Shao
- 1Department of Epidemiology, Ministry of Education Key Lab of Hazard Assessment and Control in Special Operational Environment, School of Public Health, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, People's Republic of China
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Giles JR, Zu Erbach-Schoenberg E, Tatem AJ, Gardner L, Bjørnstad ON, Metcalf CJE, Wesolowski A. The duration of travel impacts the spatial dynamics of infectious diseases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:22572-22579. [PMID: 32839329 PMCID: PMC7486699 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1922663117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans can impact the spatial transmission dynamics of infectious diseases by introducing pathogens into susceptible environments. The rate at which this occurs depends in part on human-mobility patterns. Increasingly, mobile-phone usage data are used to quantify human mobility and investigate the impact on disease dynamics. Although the number of trips between locations and the duration of those trips could both affect infectious-disease dynamics, there has been limited work to quantify and model the duration of travel in the context of disease transmission. Using mobility data inferred from mobile-phone calling records in Namibia, we calculated both the number of trips between districts and the duration of these trips from 2010 to 2014. We fit hierarchical Bayesian models to these data to describe both the mean trip number and duration. Results indicate that trip duration is positively related to trip distance, but negatively related to the destination population density. The highest volume of trips and shortest trip durations were among high-density districts, whereas trips among low-density districts had lower volume with longer duration. We also analyzed the impact of including trip duration in spatial-transmission models for a range of pathogens and introduction locations. We found that inclusion of trip duration generally delays the rate of introduction, regardless of pathogen, and that the variance and uncertainty around spatial spread increases proportionally with pathogen-generation time. These results enhance our understanding of disease-dispersal dynamics driven by human mobility, which has potential to elucidate optimal spatial and temporal scales for epidemic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Giles
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205;
| | - Elisabeth Zu Erbach-Schoenberg
- Department of Geography and the Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
- WorldPop, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J Tatem
- Department of Geography and the Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
- WorldPop, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Lauren Gardner
- Department of Civil and Systems Engineering, Johns Hopkins Whiting School of Engineering, Baltimore, MD 21218
| | - Ottar N Bjørnstad
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
| | - C J E Metcalf
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
- Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
| | - Amy Wesolowski
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205
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Rubella Vaccine Introduction in the South African Public Vaccination Schedule: Mathematical Modelling for Decision Making. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8030383. [PMID: 32668819 PMCID: PMC7565203 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8030383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: age structured mathematical models have been used to evaluate the impact of rubella-containing vaccine (RCV) introduction into existing measles vaccination programs in several countries. South Africa has a well-established measles vaccination program and is considering RCV introduction. This study aimed to provide a comparison of different scenarios and their relative costs within the context of congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) reduction or elimination. Methods: we used a previously published age-structured deterministic discrete time rubella transmission model. We obtained estimates of vaccine costs from the South African medicines price registry and the World Health Organization. We simulated RCV introduction and extracted estimates of rubella incidence, CRS incidence and effective reproductive number over 30 years. Results: compared to scenarios without mass campaigns, scenarios including mass campaigns resulted in more rapid elimination of rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). Routine vaccination at 12 months of age coupled with vaccination of nine-year-old children was associated with the lowest RCV cost per CRS case averted for a similar percentage CRS reduction. Conclusion: At 80% RCV coverage, all vaccine introduction scenarios would achieve rubella and CRS elimination in South Africa. Any RCV introduction strategy should consider a combination of routine vaccination in the primary immunization series and additional vaccination of older children.
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Bozick BA, Worby CJ, Metcalf CJE. Phylogeography of rubella virus in Asia: Vaccination and demography shape synchronous outbreaks. Epidemics 2019; 28:100346. [PMID: 31201039 PMCID: PMC6731519 DOI: 10.1016/j.epidem.2019.100346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Rubella virus causes mild disease in children but for women in the early stages of pregnancy, it can cause spontaneous abortion, congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) and associated birth defects. Despite the availability of an effective vaccine, rubella virus continues to circulate endemically in several regions of the world. This is particularly true in East and Southeast (E/SE) Asia, where control efforts vary widely among countries that are well connected through travel and immigration. It is therefore important to understand how the regional persistence of rubella is affected both by dynamics occurring across countries and susceptibility within countries. Here, we use genetic and epidemiological data from countries in E/SE Asia to explore the phylogeography of rubella virus in this region. Our results underline that metapopulation dynamics are key for rubella persistence and highlight the source-sink population structure of the region. We identify countries that contribute to the regional metapopulation network and link epidemic dynamics to susceptibility profiles within each country. Our results indicate that human movement plays an important role in driving epidemic dynamics in E/SE Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke A Bozick
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States.
| | - Colin J Worby
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States
| | - C Jessica E Metcalf
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States
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Zhao J, Hu X. The complex transmission seasonality of hand, foot, and mouth disease and its driving factors. BMC Infect Dis 2019; 19:521. [PMID: 31196004 PMCID: PMC6567494 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-019-4153-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The transmission rate seasonality is an important index for transmission dynamics in many childhood infections, and has been widely studied in industrialized countries. However, it has been neglected in the study of pathogens in China. Methods To understand the transmission dynamics of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD), we examined the transmission rate seasonality of HFMD in three provinces, Henan, Anhui and Chongqing, in China, using a dynamical stochastic SIR model. We investigated potential driving factors, including school terms, the Chinese Spring Festival period, meteorological factors and population flux for their effects on the HFMD transmission seasonality using multiple regression models. Results The transmission rate of HFMD had complex seasonality with one large major peak in March and one small peak in autumn. School terms, the Chinese Spring Festival period, population flux and meteorological factors had combined effects on the HFMD transmission seasonality in mainland China. The school terms reflects the seasonal contact rate in Children, while the population flux and the Chinese Spring Festival period reflect the seasonal contact rate in population. They drove HFMD transmission rate seasonality in different time periods of the year in China. Contact rate seasonality in population dominated effects on HFMD transmission in February and March. The dramatic increase in transmission rate during February coincides with the Chinese Spring Festival period and high population flux in this month. The contact rate seasonality in children dominated effects on the transmission in the other months of the year in Chongqing. Meteorological factors can not solely explain the seasonality in HFMD transmission in mainland China; however, they may have combined effects with school terms and the highway passenger traffic on the transmission rate in Anhui during the fall semester. Conclusion The transmission rate of HFMD in three provinces in China had complex seasonality. The Chinese Spring Festival period, population flux and (or) school terms explained the majority of the transmission rate seasonality of HFMD, and they drove HFMD transmission rate seasonality in different time periods of the year. The Chinese Spring Festival period dominantly caused the dramatic increase of the HFMD transmission rate during February. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12879-019-4153-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jijun Zhao
- Institute of Complexity Science, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China.
| | - Xiangyu Hu
- The Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
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Motaze NV, Manamela J, Smit S, Rabie H, Harper K, duPlessis N, Reubenson G, Coetzee M, Ballot D, Moore D, Nuttall J, Linley L, Tooke L, Kriel J, Hallbauer U, Sutton C, Moodley P, Hardie D, Mazanderani AH, Goosen F, Kyaw T, Leroux D, Hussain A, Singh R, Kelly C, Ducasse G, Muller M, Blaauw M, Hamese M, Leeuw T, Mekgoe O, Rakgole P, Dungwa N, Maphosa T, Sanyane K, Preiser W, Cohen C, Suchard M. Congenital Rubella Syndrome Surveillance in South Africa Using a Sentinel Site Approach: A Cross-sectional Study. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 68:1658-1664. [PMID: 30203002 PMCID: PMC6495013 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) includes disorders associated with intrauterine rubella infection. Incidence of CRS is higher in countries with no rubella-containing vaccines (RCV) in their immunization schedules. In the World Health Organization African region, RCVs are being introduced as part of the 2012-2020 global measles and rubella strategic plan. This study aimed to describe the epidemiology of confirmed CRS in South Africa prior to introduction of RCVs in the immunization schedule. METHODS This was a descriptive study with 28 sentinel sites reporting laboratory-confirmed CRS cases in all 9 provinces of South Africa. In the retrospective phase (2010 to 2014), CRS cases were retrieved from medical records, and in the prospective phase (2015 to 2017) clinicians at study sites reported CRS cases monthly. RESULTS There were 42 confirmed CRS cases in the retrospective phase and 53 confirmed CRS cases in the prospective phase. Most frequently reported birth defects were congenital heart disease and cataracts. The median age of mothers of CRS cases was 21 years in the retrospective phase (range: 11 to 38 years) and 22 years in the prospective phase (range: 15 to 38 years). CONCLUSION Baseline data on laboratory-confirmed CRS will enable planning and monitoring of RCV implementation in the South African Expanded Programme on Immunization program. Ninety-eight percent of mothers of infants with CRS were young women 14-30 years old, indicating a potential immunity gap in this age group for consideration during introduction of RCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nkengafac Villyen Motaze
- National Institute for Communicable Diseases, a Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Department of Global Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, South Africa
| | - Jack Manamela
- National Institute for Communicable Diseases, a Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Sheilagh Smit
- National Institute for Communicable Diseases, a Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Helena Rabie
- Department of Pediatrics, Tygerberg Hospital, Stellenbosch University, South Africa
| | - Kim Harper
- Department of Pediatrics, Frere Hospital, East London, South Africa
| | - Nicolette duPlessis
- Department of Pediatrics, Kalafong Hospital, University of Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Gary Reubenson
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Empilweni Service and Research Unit, Rahima Moosa Mother and Child Hospital, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Melantha Coetzee
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Steve Biko Academic Hospital, University of Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Daynia Ballot
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Charlotte Maxeke Academic Hospital, Johannesburg
| | - David Moore
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - James Nuttall
- Department of Pediatrics, Red Cross War Memorial Children’s Hospital, South Africa
| | - Lucy Linley
- Department of Pediatrics, Mowbray Maternity Hospital, South Africa
| | - Lloyd Tooke
- Department of Pediatrics, Groote Schuur Hospital, University of Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Jeannette Kriel
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Ute Hallbauer
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Christopher Sutton
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Polokwane Hospital, University of Limpopo, South Africa
| | - Pravi Moodley
- Department of Virology, Inkosi Albert Luthuli Central Hospital, University of Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa
| | - Diana Hardie
- Division of Medical Virology, Groote Schuur Hospital, University of Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Ahmad Haeri Mazanderani
- National Institute for Communicable Diseases, a Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Felicity Goosen
- Department of Pediatrics, Cecilia Makiwane Hospital, East London, South Africa
| | - Thanda Kyaw
- Department of Virological Pathology, Dr George Mukhari Academic Hospital, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Dave Leroux
- Department of Pediatrics, New Somerset Hospital, University of Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Akhtar Hussain
- Department of Pediatrics, Prince Mshiyeni Memorial Hospital, Durban
| | - Radhika Singh
- Department of Pediatrics, King Edward VIII Hospital, Durban
| | | | - Graham Ducasse
- Department of Pediatrics, Grey’s Hospital, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
| | | | - Magdaleen Blaauw
- Department of Pediatrics and Neonatology, Dr Harry Surtie Hospital, Upington, South Africa
| | - Mohlabi Hamese
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Mankweng Hospital, University of Limpopo, South Africa
| | - Tumelo Leeuw
- Department of Pediatrics, Mafikeng Provincial Hospital, South Africa
| | - Omphile Mekgoe
- Department of Pediatrics, Klerksdorp Hospital, South Africa
| | - Philemon Rakgole
- Department of Pediatrics, Job Shimankana Tabane Hospital, Rustenburg, South Africa
| | - Norman Dungwa
- Department of Pediatrics, Witbank Hospital, South Africa
| | - Thulisile Maphosa
- Department of Pediatrics, Rob Fereirra Hospital, Nelspruit, South Africa
| | - Kgomotso Sanyane
- Department of Pediatrics, Dr George Mukhari Hospital, Sefako Makgatho University, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Wolfgang Preiser
- Division of Medical Virology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University and National Health Laboratory Service Tygerberg, South Africa
| | - Cheryl Cohen
- National Institute for Communicable Diseases, a Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Melinda Suchard
- National Institute for Communicable Diseases, a Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Chemical Pathology, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Reconstructing the transmission dynamics of rubella in Japan, 2012-2013. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0205889. [PMID: 30332469 PMCID: PMC6192647 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0205889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Japan experienced a nationwide rubella epidemic from 2012 to 2013, mostly in urban prefectures with large population sizes. The present study aimed to capture the spatiotemporal patterns of rubella using a parsimonious metapopulation epidemic model and examine the potential usefulness of spatial vaccination. Methodology/Principal findings A metapopulation epidemic model in discrete time and space was devised and applied to rubella notification data from 2012 to 2013. Employing a piecewise constant model for the linear growth rate in six different time periods, and using the particle Markov chain Monte Carlo method, the effective reproduction numbers were estimated at 1.37 (95% CrI: 1.12, 1.77) and 1.37 (95% CrI: 1.24, 1.48) in Tokyo and Osaka groups, respectively, during the growing phase of the epidemic in 2013. The rubella epidemic in 2012 involved substantial uncertainties in its parameter estimates and forecasts. We examined multiple scenarios of spatial vaccination with coverages of 1%, 3% and 5% for all of Japan to be distributed in different combinations of prefectures. Scenarios indicated that vaccinating the top six populous urban prefectures (i.e., Tokyo, Kanagawa, Osaka, Aichi, Saitama and Chiba) could potentially be more effective than random allocation. However, greater uncertainty was introduced by stochasticity and initial conditions such as the number of infectious individuals and the fraction of susceptibles. Conclusions While the forecast in 2012 was accompanied by broad uncertainties, a narrower uncertainty bound of parameters and reliable forecast were achieved during the greater rubella epidemic in 2013. By better capturing the underlying epidemic dynamics, spatial vaccination could substantially outperform the random vaccination.
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Wesolowski A, Winter A, Tatem AJ, Qureshi T, Engø-Monsen K, Buckee CO, Cummings DAT, Metcalf CJE. Measles outbreak risk in Pakistan: exploring the potential of combining vaccination coverage and incidence data with novel data-streams to strengthen control. Epidemiol Infect 2018; 146:1575-1583. [PMID: 29860954 PMCID: PMC6090714 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268818001449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Although measles incidence has reached historic lows in many parts of the world, the disease still causes substantial morbidity globally. Even where control programs have succeeded in driving measles locally extinct, unless vaccination coverage is maintained at extremely high levels, susceptible numbers may increase sufficiently to spark large outbreaks. Human mobility will drive potentially infectious contacts and interact with the landscape of susceptibility to determine the pattern of measles outbreaks. These interactions have proved difficult to characterise empirically. We explore the degree to which new sources of data combined with existing public health data can be used to evaluate the landscape of immunity and the role of spatial movement for measles introductions by retrospectively evaluating our ability to predict measles outbreaks in vaccinated populations. Using inferred spatial patterns of accumulation of susceptible individuals and travel data, we predicted the timing of epidemics in each district of Pakistan during a large measles outbreak in 2012-2013 with over 30 000 reported cases. We combined these data with mobility data extracted from over 40 million mobile phone subscribers during the same time frame in the country to quantify the role of connectivity in the spread of measles. We investigate how different approaches could contribute to targeting vaccination efforts to reach districts before outbreaks started. While some prediction was possible, accuracy was low and we discuss key uncertainties linked to existing data streams that impede such inference and detail what data might be necessary to robustly infer timing of epidemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Wesolowski
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, USA
| | - Amy Winter
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, USA
| | - Andrew J. Tatem
- Department of Geography and Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA
- Flowminder Foundation, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | | | - Caroline O. Buckee
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, USA
- Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, USA
| | - Derek A. T. Cummings
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - C. Jessica E. Metcalf
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, USA
- Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University, Princeton, USA
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Utazi CE, Thorley J, Alegana VA, Ferrari MJ, Takahashi S, Metcalf CJE, Lessler J, Tatem AJ. High resolution age-structured mapping of childhood vaccination coverage in low and middle income countries. Vaccine 2018; 36:1583-1591. [PMID: 29454519 PMCID: PMC6344781 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The expansion of childhood vaccination programs in low and middle income countries has been a substantial public health success story. Indicators of the performance of intervention programmes such as coverage levels and numbers covered are typically measured through national statistics or at the scale of large regions due to survey design, administrative convenience or operational limitations. These mask heterogeneities and 'coldspots' of low coverage that may allow diseases to persist, even if overall coverage is high. Hence, to decrease inequities and accelerate progress towards disease elimination goals, fine-scale variation in coverage should be better characterized. METHODS Using measles as an example, cluster-level Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) data were used to map vaccination coverage at 1 km spatial resolution in Cambodia, Mozambique and Nigeria for varying age-group categories of children under five years, using Bayesian geostatistical techniques built on a suite of publicly available geospatial covariates and implemented via Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods. RESULTS Measles vaccination coverage was found to be strongly predicted by just 4-5 covariates in geostatistical models, with remoteness consistently selected as a key variable. The output 1 × 1 km maps revealed significant heterogeneities within the three countries that were not captured using province-level summaries. Integration with population data showed that at the time of the surveys, few districts attained the 80% coverage, that is one component of the WHO Global Vaccine Action Plan 2020 targets. CONCLUSION The elimination of vaccine-preventable diseases requires a strong evidence base to guide strategies and inform efficient use of limited resources. The approaches outlined here provide a route to moving beyond large area summaries of vaccination coverage that mask epidemiologically-important heterogeneities to detailed maps that capture subnational vulnerabilities. The output datasets are built on open data and methods, and in flexible format that can be aggregated to more operationally-relevant administrative unit levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Edson Utazi
- WorldPop, Department of Geography and Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK; Southampton Statistical Sciences Research Institute, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK.
| | - Julia Thorley
- WorldPop, Department of Geography and Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Victor A Alegana
- WorldPop, Department of Geography and Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK; Flowminder Foundation, Stockholm SE-11355, Sweden
| | - Matthew J Ferrari
- Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA 16802, USA
| | - Saki Takahashi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - C Jessica E Metcalf
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Justin Lessler
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Andrew J Tatem
- WorldPop, Department of Geography and Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK; Flowminder Foundation, Stockholm SE-11355, Sweden
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Takahashi S, Metcalf CJE, Ferrari MJ, Tatem AJ, Lessler J. The geography of measles vaccination in the African Great Lakes region. Nat Commun 2017; 8:15585. [PMID: 28541287 PMCID: PMC5458501 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms15585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Expanded access to measles vaccination was among the most successful public health interventions of recent decades. All WHO regions currently target measles elimination by 2020, yet continued measles circulation makes that goal seem elusive. Using Demographic and Health Surveys with generalized additive models, we quantify spatial patterns of measles vaccination in ten contiguous countries in the African Great Lakes region between 2009-2014. Seven countries have 'coldspots' where vaccine coverage is below the WHO target of 80%. Over 14 million children under 5 years of age live in coldspots across the region, and a total of 8-12 million children are unvaccinated. Spatial patterns of vaccination do not map directly onto sub-national administrative units and transnational coldspots exist. Clustering of low vaccination areas may allow for pockets of susceptibility that sustain circulation despite high overall coverage. Targeting at-risk areas and transnational coordination are likely required to eliminate measles in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saki Takahashi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
| | - C. Jessica E. Metcalf
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
- Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
| | - Matthew J. Ferrari
- Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Andrew J. Tatem
- WorldPop, Department of Geography and Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
- Flowminder Foundation, Stockholm SE-11355, Sweden
| | - Justin Lessler
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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Wu Y, Wood J, Khandaker G, Waddington C, Snelling T. Informing rubella vaccination strategies in East Java, Indonesia through transmission modelling. Vaccine 2016; 34:5636-5642. [PMID: 27670077 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Revised: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
An estimated 110,000 babies are born with congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) worldwide annually; a significant proportion of cases occur in Southeast Asia. Rubella vaccine programs have led to successful control of rubella and CRS, and even the elimination of disease in many countries. However, if vaccination is poorly implemented it might increase the number of women reaching childbearing age who remain susceptible to rubella and thereby paradoxically increase CRS. We used an age-structured transmission model to compare seven alternative vaccine strategies for their impact on reducing CRS disease burden in East Java, a setting which is yet to implement a rubella vaccine program. We also investigated the robustness of model predictions to variation in vaccine coverage and other key epidemiological factors. Without rubella vaccination, approximately 700 babies are estimated to be born with CRS in East Java every year at an incidence of 0.77 per 1000live births. This incidence could be reduced to 0.0045 per 1000 live births associated with 99.9% annual reduction in rubella infections after 20 years if the existing two doses of measles vaccine are substituted with two doses of measles plus rubella combination vaccine with the same coverage (87.8% of 9-month-old infants and 80% of 6-year-old children). By comparison a single dose of rubella vaccine will take longer to reduce the burden of rubella and CRS and will be less robust to lower vaccine coverage. While the findings of this study should be informative for settings similar to East Java, the conclusions are dependent on vaccine coverage which would need consideration before applying to all of Indonesia and elsewhere in Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wu
- Wesfarmers Centre of Vaccines & Infectious Diseases, Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Australia
| | - James Wood
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Australia
| | | | - Claire Waddington
- Princess Margaret Hospital, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Wesfarmers Centre of Vaccines & Infectious Diseases, Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Australia
| | - Thomas Snelling
- Princess Margaret Hospital, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Wesfarmers Centre of Vaccines & Infectious Diseases, Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Australia; Menzies School of Health Research, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Australia.
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Thompson KM, Odahowski CL. Systematic Review of Measles and Rubella Serology Studies. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2016; 36:1459-1486. [PMID: 26077609 DOI: 10.1111/risa.12430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Serological tests provide information about individual immunity from historical infection or immunization. Cross-sectional serological studies provide data about the age- and sex-specific immunity levels for individuals in the studied population, and these data can provide a point of comparison for the results of transmission models. In the context of developing an integrated model for measles and rubella transmission, we reviewed the existing measles and rubella literature to identify the results of national serological studies that provided cross-sectional estimates of population immunity at the time of data collection. We systematically searched PubMed, the Science Citation Index, and references we identified from relevant articles published in English. We extracted serological data for comparison to transmission model outputs. For rubella, serological studies of women of child-bearing age provide information about the potential risks of infants born with congenital rubella syndrome. Serological studies also document the loss of maternal antibodies, which occurs at different rates for the different viruses and according to the nature of the induced immunity (i.e., infection or vaccine). The serological evidence remains limited for some areas, with studies from developed countries representing a disproportionate part of the evidence. The collection and review of serological evidence can help program managers identify immunity gaps in the population, which may help them better understand the characteristics of individuals within their populations who may participate in transmission and manage risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly M Thompson
- Kid Risk, Inc, Orlando, FL, USA
- University of Central Florida, College of Medicine, Orlando, FL, USA
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Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease in China: Critical Community Size and Spatial Vaccination Strategies. Sci Rep 2016; 6:25248. [PMID: 27125917 PMCID: PMC4850478 DOI: 10.1038/srep25248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Hand Foot and Mouth Disease (HFMD) constitutes a considerable burden for health care systems across China. Yet this burden displays important geographic heterogeneity that directly affects the local persistence and the dynamics of the disease, and thus the ability to control it through vaccination campaigns. Here, we use detailed geographic surveillance data and epidemic models to estimate the critical community size (CCS) of HFMD associated enterovirus serotypes CV-A16 and EV-A71 and we explore what spatial vaccination strategies may best reduce the burden of HFMD. We found CCS ranging from 336,979 (±225,866) to 722,372 (±150,562) with the lowest estimates associated with EV-A71 in the southern region of China where multiple transmission seasons have previously been identified. Our results suggest the existence of a regional immigration-recolonization dynamic driven by urban centers. If EV-A71 vaccines doses are limited, these would be optimally deployed in highly populated urban centers and in high-prevalence areas. If HFMD vaccines are included in China's National Immunization Program in order to achieve high coverage rates (>85%), routine vaccination of newborns largely outperforms strategies in which the equivalent number of doses is equally divided between routine vaccination of newborns and pulse vaccination of the community at large.
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Wesolowski A, Mensah K, Brook CE, Andrianjafimasy M, Winter A, Buckee CO, Razafindratsimandresy R, Tatem AJ, Heraud JM, Metcalf CJE. Introduction of rubella-containing-vaccine to Madagascar: implications for roll-out and local elimination. J R Soc Interface 2016; 13:20151101. [PMID: 27122178 PMCID: PMC4874430 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2015.1101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Few countries in Africa currently include rubella-containing vaccination (RCV) in their immunization schedule. The Global Alliance for Vaccines Initiative (GAVI) recently opened a funding window that has motivated more widespread roll-out of RCV. As countries plan RCV introductions, an understanding of the existing burden, spatial patterns of vaccine coverage, and the impact of patterns of local extinction and reintroduction for rubella will be critical to developing effective programmes. As one of the first countries proposing RCV introduction in part with GAVI funding, Madagascar provides a powerful and timely case study. We analyse serological data from measles surveillance systems to characterize the epidemiology of rubella in Madagascar. Combining these results with data on measles vaccination delivery, we develop an age-structured model to simulate rubella vaccination scenarios and evaluate the dynamics of rubella and the burden of congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) across Madagascar. We additionally evaluate the drivers of spatial heterogeneity in age of infection to identify focal locations where vaccine surveillance should be strengthened and where challenges to successful vaccination introduction are expected. Our analyses indicate that characteristics of rubella in Madagascar are in line with global observations, with an average age of infection near 7 years, and an impact of frequent local extinction with reintroductions causing localized epidemics. Modelling results indicate that introduction of RCV into the routine programme alone may initially decrease rubella incidence but then result in cumulative increases in the burden of CRS in some regions (and transient increases in this burden in many regions). Deployment of RCV with regular supplementary campaigns will mitigate these outcomes. Results suggest that introduction of RCV offers a potential for elimination of rubella in Madagascar, but also emphasize both that targeted vaccination is likely to be a lynchpin of this success, and the public health vigilance that this introduction will require.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Wesolowski
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Keitly Mensah
- Virology Unit and Measles and Rubella WHO National Reference Laboratory, Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Cara E Brook
- Department of Geography and Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Miora Andrianjafimasy
- Virology Unit and Measles and Rubella WHO National Reference Laboratory, Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Amy Winter
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Caroline O Buckee
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA Office of Population Research, Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Richter Razafindratsimandresy
- Virology Unit and Measles and Rubella WHO National Reference Laboratory, Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - Andrew J Tatem
- Department of Geography and Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA Flowminder Foundation, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jean-Michel Heraud
- Virology Unit and Measles and Rubella WHO National Reference Laboratory, Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | - C Jessica E Metcalf
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA Office of Population Research, Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
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Quantifying seasonal population fluxes driving rubella transmission dynamics using mobile phone data. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:11114-9. [PMID: 26283349 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1423542112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Changing patterns of human aggregation are thought to drive annual and multiannual outbreaks of infectious diseases, but the paucity of data about travel behavior and population flux over time has made this idea difficult to test quantitatively. Current measures of human mobility, especially in low-income settings, are often static, relying on approximate travel times, road networks, or cross-sectional surveys. Mobile phone data provide a unique source of information about human travel, but the power of these data to describe epidemiologically relevant changes in population density remains unclear. Here we quantify seasonal travel patterns using mobile phone data from nearly 15 million anonymous subscribers in Kenya. Using a rich data source of rubella incidence, we show that patterns of population travel (fluxes) inferred from mobile phone data are predictive of disease transmission and improve significantly on standard school term time and weather covariates. Further, combining seasonal and spatial data on travel from mobile phone data allows us to characterize seasonal fluctuations in risk across Kenya and produce dynamic importation risk maps for rubella. Mobile phone data therefore offer a valuable previously unidentified source of data for measuring key drivers of seasonal epidemics.
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Evaluating Spatial Interaction Models for Regional Mobility in Sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS Comput Biol 2015; 11:e1004267. [PMID: 26158274 PMCID: PMC4497594 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple spatial interaction models of human mobility based on physical laws have been used extensively in the social, biological, and physical sciences, and in the study of the human dynamics underlying the spread of disease. Recent analyses of commuting patterns and travel behavior in high-income countries have led to the suggestion that these models are highly generalizable, and as a result, gravity and radiation models have become standard tools for describing population mobility dynamics for infectious disease epidemiology. Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa may not conform to these models, however; physical accessibility, availability of transport, and cost of travel between locations may be variable and severely constrained compared to high-income settings, informal labor movements rather than regular commuting patterns are often the norm, and the rise of mega-cities across the continent has important implications for travel between rural and urban areas. Here, we first review how infectious disease frameworks incorporate human mobility on different spatial scales and use anonymous mobile phone data from nearly 15 million individuals to analyze the spatiotemporal dynamics of the Kenyan population. We find that gravity and radiation models fail in systematic ways to capture human mobility measured by mobile phones; both severely overestimate the spatial spread of travel and perform poorly in rural areas, but each exhibits different characteristic patterns of failure with respect to routes and volumes of travel. Thus, infectious disease frameworks that rely on spatial interaction models are likely to misrepresent population dynamics important for the spread of disease in many African populations. Human mobility underlies many social, biological, and physical phenomena, including the spread of infectious diseases. Analyses in high-income countries have led to the notion that populations obey universal rules of mobility that are effectively captured by spatial interaction models. However, communities in Africa may not conform to these rules since the availability of transport and geographic barriers may impose different constraints compared to high-income settings. We use anonymous mobile phone data from ~15 million subscribers to quantify different spatial and temporal scales of mobility within Kenya and test their performance with respect to this measurement of human travel. We find that standard models systematically fail to describe regional mobility in Kenya, with poor performance in rural areas. Epidemiological models that rely on these frameworks may therefore fail to capture important aspects of population dynamics driving disease spread in many African populations.
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METCALF CJE, TATEM A, BJORNSTAD ON, LESSLER J, O'REILLY K, TAKAHASHI S, CUTTS F, GRENFELL B. Transport networks and inequities in vaccination: remoteness shapes measles vaccine coverage and prospects for elimination across Africa. Epidemiol Infect 2015; 143:1457-66. [PMID: 25119237 PMCID: PMC4411642 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268814001988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2014] [Revised: 06/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Measles vaccination is estimated to have averted 13·8 million deaths between 2000 and 2012. Persisting heterogeneity in coverage is a major contributor to continued measles mortality, and a barrier to measles elimination and introduction of rubella-containing vaccine. Our objective is to identify determinants of inequities in coverage, and how vaccine delivery must change to achieve elimination goals, which is a focus of the WHO Decade of Vaccines. We combined estimates of travel time to the nearest urban centre (⩾50 000 people) with vaccination data from Demographic Health Surveys to assess how remoteness affects coverage in 26 African countries. Building on a statistical mapping of coverage against age and geographical isolation, we quantified how modifying the rate and age range of vaccine delivery affects national coverage. Our scenario analysis considers increasing the rate of delivery of routine vaccination, increasing the target age range of routine vaccination, and enhanced delivery to remote areas. Geographical isolation plays a key role in defining vaccine inequity, with greater inequity in countries with lower measles vaccine coverage. Eliminating geographical inequities alone will not achieve thresholds for herd immunity, indicating that changes in delivery rate or age range of routine vaccination will be required. Measles vaccine coverage remains far below targets for herd immunity in many countries on the African continent and is likely to be inadequate for achieving rubella elimination. The impact of strategies such as increasing the upper age range eligible for routine vaccination should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. J. E. METCALF
- Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Oxford, UK
- Fogarty International Center, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Eno Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - A. TATEM
- Fogarty International Center, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Department of Geography and Environment University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
- Flowminder Foundation, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - O. N. BJORNSTAD
- Centre for Infectious Disease Dynamics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - J. LESSLER
- Department of Epidemiology, John Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - K. O'REILLY
- Medical Research Council Centre for Outbreak Analysis and Modelling, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - S. TAKAHASHI
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Eno Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - F. CUTTS
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - B.T. GRENFELL
- Fogarty International Center, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Eno Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
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Heesterbeek H, Anderson RM, Andreasen V, Bansal S, De Angelis D, Dye C, Eames KTD, Edmunds WJ, Frost SDW, Funk S, Hollingsworth TD, House T, Isham V, Klepac P, Lessler J, Lloyd-Smith JO, Metcalf CJE, Mollison D, Pellis L, Pulliam JRC, Roberts MG, Viboud C. Modeling infectious disease dynamics in the complex landscape of global health. Science 2015; 347:aaa4339. [PMID: 25766240 PMCID: PMC4445966 DOI: 10.1126/science.aaa4339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 349] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Despite some notable successes in the control of infectious diseases, transmissible pathogens still pose an enormous threat to human and animal health. The ecological and evolutionary dynamics of infections play out on a wide range of interconnected temporal, organizational, and spatial scales, which span hours to months, cells to ecosystems, and local to global spread. Moreover, some pathogens are directly transmitted between individuals of a single species, whereas others circulate among multiple hosts, need arthropod vectors, or can survive in environmental reservoirs. Many factors, including increasing antimicrobial resistance, increased human connectivity and changeable human behavior, elevate prevention and control from matters of national policy to international challenge. In the face of this complexity, mathematical models offer valuable tools for synthesizing information to understand epidemiological patterns, and for developing quantitative evidence for decision-making in global health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Heesterbeek
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands.
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Ken T D Eames
- Centre for the Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - W John Edmunds
- Centre for the Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | | | | | - T Deirdre Hollingsworth
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, UK. School of Tropical Medicine, University of Liverpool, UK
| | - Thomas House
- Warwick Mathematics Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Valerie Isham
- Department of Statistical Science, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - Justin Lessler
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - James O Lloyd-Smith
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - C Jessica E Metcalf
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK, and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | | | - Lorenzo Pellis
- Warwick Mathematics Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Juliet R C Pulliam
- Department of Biology-Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA. Division of International Epidemiology and Population Studies, Fogarty International Center, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Mick G Roberts
- Institute of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Cecile Viboud
- Division of International Epidemiology and Population Studies, Fogarty International Center, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
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26
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Cutts FT, Lessler J, Metcalf CJE. Measles elimination: progress, challenges and implications for rubella control. Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 12:917-32. [DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2013.814847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Rozhnova G, Metcalf CJE, Grenfell BT. Characterizing the dynamics of rubella relative to measles: the role of stochasticity. J R Soc Interface 2013; 10:20130643. [PMID: 24026472 PMCID: PMC3785835 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2013.0643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2013] [Accepted: 08/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Rubella is a completely immunizing and mild infection in children. Understanding its behaviour is of considerable public health importance because of congenital rubella syndrome, which results from infection with rubella during early pregnancy and may entail a variety of birth defects. The recurrent dynamics of rubella are relatively poorly resolved, and appear to show considerable diversity globally. Here, we investigate the behaviour of a stochastic seasonally forced susceptible-infected-recovered model to characterize the determinants of these dynamics and illustrate patterns by comparison with measles. We perform a systematic analysis of spectra of stochastic fluctuations around stable attractors of the corresponding deterministic model and compare them with spectra from full stochastic simulations in large populations. This approach allows us to quantify the effects of demographic stochasticity and to give a coherent picture of measles and rubella dynamics, explaining essential differences in the recurrent patterns exhibited by these diseases. We discuss the implications of our findings in the context of vaccination and changing birth rates as well as the persistence of these two childhood infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganna Rozhnova
- Theoretical Physics Division, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK.
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28
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Metcalf CJE, Hampson K, Tatem AJ, Grenfell BT, Bjørnstad ON. Persistence in epidemic metapopulations: quantifying the rescue effects for measles, mumps, rubella and whooping cough. PLoS One 2013; 8:e74696. [PMID: 24040325 PMCID: PMC3767637 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Metapopulation rescue effects are thought to be key to the persistence of many acute immunizing infections. Yet the enhancement of persistence through spatial coupling has not been previously quantified. Here we estimate the metapopulation rescue effects for four childhood infections using global WHO reported incidence data by comparing persistence on island countries vs all other countries, while controlling for key variables such as vaccine cover, birth rates and economic development. The relative risk of extinction on islands is significantly higher, and approximately double the risk of extinction in mainland countries. Furthermore, as may be expected, infections with longer infectious periods tend to have the strongest metapopulation rescue effects. Our results quantitate the notion that demography and local community size controls disease persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Jessica E Metcalf
- Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Oxford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom ; Fogarty International Center; National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America ; Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
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29
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Lessler J, Metcalf CJE. Balancing evidence and uncertainty when considering rubella vaccine introduction. PLoS One 2013; 8:e67639. [PMID: 23861777 PMCID: PMC3702572 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2013] [Accepted: 05/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite a safe and effective vaccine, rubella vaccination programs with inadequate coverage can raise the average age of rubella infection; thereby increasing rubella cases among pregnant women and the resulting congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) in their newborns. The vaccination coverage necessary to reduce CRS depends on the birthrate in a country and the reproductive number, R0, a measure of how efficiently a disease transmits. While the birthrate within a country can be known with some accuracy, R0 varies between settings and can be difficult to measure. Here we aim to provide guidance on the safe introduction of rubella vaccine into countries in the face of substantial uncertainty in R0. METHODS We estimated the distribution of R0 in African countries based on the age distribution of rubella infection using Bayesian hierarchical models. We developed an age specific model of rubella transmission to predict the level of R0 that would result in an increase in CRS burden for specific birth rates and coverage levels. Combining these results, we summarize the safety of introducing rubella vaccine across demographic and coverage contexts. FINDINGS The median R0 of rubella in the African region is 5.2, with 90% of countries expected to have an R0 between 4.0 and 6.7. Overall, we predict that countries maintaining routine vaccination coverage of 80% or higher are can be confident in seeing a reduction in CRS over a 30 year time horizon. CONCLUSIONS Under realistic assumptions about human contact, our results suggest that even in low birth rate settings high vaccine coverage must be maintained to avoid an increase in CRS. These results lend further support to the WHO recommendation that countries reach 80% coverage for measles vaccine before introducing rubella vaccination, and highlight the importance of maintaining high levels of vaccination coverage once the vaccine is introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Lessler
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
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