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Pereira OS, Gonzalez J, Mendoza G, Le J, McNeill M, Ontiveros J, Lee RW, Rouse GW, Cortés J, Levin LA. Does substrate matter in the deep sea? A comparison of bone, wood, and carbonate rock colonizers. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0271635. [PMID: 35857748 PMCID: PMC9299329 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0271635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Continental margins host methane seeps, animal falls and wood falls, with chemosynthetic communities that may share or exchange species. The goal of this study was to examine the existence and nature of linkages among chemosynthesis-based ecosystems by deploying organic fall mimics (bone and wood) alongside defaunated carbonate rocks within high and lesser levels of seepage activity for 7.4 years. We compared community composition, density, and trophic structure of invertebrates on these hard substrates at active methane seepage and transition (less seepage) sites at Mound 12 at ~1,000 m depth, a methane seep off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica. At transition sites, the community composition on wood and bone was characteristic of natural wood- and whale-fall community composition, which rely on decay of the organic substrates. However, at active sites, seepage activity modified the relationship between fauna and substrate, seepage activity had a stronger effect in defining and homogenizing these communities and they depend less on organic decay. In contrast to community structure, macrofaunal trophic niche overlap between substrates, based on standard ellipse areas, was greater at transition sites than at active sites, except between rock and wood. Our observations suggest that whale- and wood-fall substrates can function as stepping stones for seep fauna even at later successional stages, providing hard substrate for attachment and chemosynthetic food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olívia S. Pereira
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Gonzalez
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Guillermo Mendoza
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Le
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Madison McNeill
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
- College of Health and Sciences, East Central University, Ada, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Jorge Ontiveros
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
- Instituto Tecnológico de Tijuana, Tijuana, Mexico
| | - Raymond W. Lee
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Greg W. Rouse
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Jorge Cortés
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Lisa A. Levin
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
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2
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Sen A, Didriksen A, Hourdez S, Svenning MM, Rasmussen TL. Frenulate siboglinids at high Arctic methane seeps and insight into high latitude frenulate distribution. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:1339-1351. [PMID: 32076518 PMCID: PMC7029078 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Frenulate species were identified from a high Arctic methane seep area on Vestnesa Ridge, western Svalbard margin (79°N, Fram Strait) based on mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (mtCOI). Two species were found: Oligobrachia haakonmosbiensis, and a new, distinct, and undescribed Oligobrachia species. The new species adds to the cryptic Oligobrachia species complex found at high latitude methane seeps in the north Atlantic and the Arctic. However, this species displays a curled tube morphology and light brown coloration that could serve to distinguish it from other members of the complex. A number of single tentacle individuals were recovered which were initially thought to be members of the only unitentaculate genus, Siboglinum. However, sequencing revealed them to be the new species and the single tentacle morphology, in addition to thin, colorless, and ringless tubes indicate that they are juveniles. This is the first known report of juveniles of northern Oligobrachia. Since the juveniles all appeared to be at about the same developmental stage, it is possible that reproduction is either synchronized within the species, or that despite continuous reproduction, settlement, and growth in the sediment only takes place at specific periods. The new find of the well-known species O. haakonmosbiensis extends its range from the Norwegian Sea to high latitudes of the Arctic in the Fram Strait. We suggest bottom currents serve as the main distribution mechanism for high latitude Oligobrachia species and that water depth constitutes a major dispersal barrier. This explains the lack of overlap between the distributions of northern Oligobrachia species despite exposure to similar current regimes. Our results point toward a single speciation event within the Oligobrachia clade, and we suggest that this occurred in the late Neogene, when topographical changes occurred and exchanges between Arctic and North Atlantic water masses and subsequent thermohaline circulation intensified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arunima Sen
- CAGE-Centre for Arctic Gas Hydrate, Environment and Climate Department of Geosciences UiT The Arctic University of Norway Tromsø Norway
- Present address: Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture Nord University Bodø Norway
| | - Alena Didriksen
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology UiT The Arctic University of Norway Tromsø Norway
| | - Stéphane Hourdez
- Laboratoire d'écogéochimie des Environnements Benthiques UMR8222 CNRS-Sorbonne Université Banyuls-sur-Mer France
| | - Mette Marianne Svenning
- CAGE-Centre for Arctic Gas Hydrate, Environment and Climate Department of Geosciences UiT The Arctic University of Norway Tromsø Norway
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology UiT The Arctic University of Norway Tromsø Norway
| | - Tine L Rasmussen
- CAGE-Centre for Arctic Gas Hydrate, Environment and Climate Department of Geosciences UiT The Arctic University of Norway Tromsø Norway
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3
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McClain CR, Nunnally C, Dixon R, Rouse GW, Benfield M. Alligators in the abyss: The first experimental reptilian food fall in the deep ocean. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0225345. [PMID: 31860642 PMCID: PMC6924670 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0225345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The high respiration rates of the deep-sea benthos cannot be sustained by known carbon supply pathways alone. Here, we investigate moderately-sized reptilian food falls as a potential alternative carbon pathway. Specifically, three individual carcasses of Alligator mississippiensis were deployed along the continental slope of the northern Gulf of Mexico at depths of ~2000m in early 2019. We posit the tough hide of alligators would impeded scavengers by limiting access to soft tissues of the alligator fall. However, the scavengers began consuming the food fall 43 hours post-deployment for one individual (198.2cm, 29.7kg), and the carcass of another individual (175.3 cm, 19.5kg) was completely devoid of soft tissue at 51 days post-deployment. A third individual (172.7cm, 18.5kg) was missing completely after 8 days, with only the deployment harness and weight remaining drug 8 meters away, suggesting a large elasmobranch scavenger. Additionally, bones recovered post-deployment reveal the first observations of the bone-eating Osedax in the Gulf of Mexico and are confirmed here as new to science. The findings of this study indicate the quick and successful utilization of terrestrial and aquatic-based carbon food sources in the deep marine environment, though outcome variability may be high.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig Robert McClain
- Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, Chauvin, LA, United States of America
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana, Lafayette, LA, United States of America
| | - Clifton Nunnally
- Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, Chauvin, LA, United States of America
| | - River Dixon
- Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, Chauvin, LA, United States of America
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana, Lafayette, LA, United States of America
| | - Greg W. Rouse
- Scripps Oceanography, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Mark Benfield
- Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, College of the Coast and Environment, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States of America
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4
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Urayama SI, Takaki Y, Nunoura T, Miyamoto N. Complete Genome Sequence of a Novel RNA Virus Identified from a Deep-Sea Animal, Osedax japonicus. Microbes Environ 2018; 33:446-449. [PMID: 30318497 PMCID: PMC6308001 DOI: 10.1264/jsme2.me18089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The deep sea, the largest biosphere on Earth, nurtures a large variety of animals. However, no virus that infects deep-sea animals has been found. We herein report the first full-length RNA viral genome sequence identified from the deep-sea animal, Osedax japonicus, called Osedax japonicus RNA virus 1 (OjRV1). This sequence showed the highest amino acid sequence similarity to a virus of the family Togaviridae. However, the phylogenetic position and genome structure of OjRV1 differed from those of viruses in Togaviridae. These results suggest that OjRV1 belongs to a new virus family and that deep-sea animals may associate with new viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syun-Ichi Urayama
- Research and Development Center for Marine Biosciences, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC).,Laboratory of Fungal Interaction and Molecular Biology (donated by IFO), Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba
| | - Yoshihiro Takaki
- Research and Development Center for Marine Biosciences, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC).,Department of Subsurface Geobiological Analysis and Research, JAMSTEC
| | - Takuro Nunoura
- Research and Development Center for Marine Biosciences, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC)
| | - Norio Miyamoto
- Research and Development Center for Marine Biosciences, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC)
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5
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Miyamoto N, Yoshida MA, Koga H, Fujiwara Y. Genetic mechanisms of bone digestion and nutrient absorption in the bone-eating worm Osedax japonicus inferred from transcriptome and gene expression analyses. BMC Evol Biol 2017; 17:17. [PMID: 28086748 PMCID: PMC5237233 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-016-0844-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 12/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bone-eating worms of the genus Osedax (Annelida, Siboglinidae) have adapted to whale fall environments by acquiring a novel characteristic called the root, which branches and penetrates into sunken bones. The worms lack a digestive tract and mouth opening, and it has been suggested that Osedax degrade vertebrate bones and uptake nutrients through acidification and secretion of enzymes from the root. Symbiotic bacteria in the root tissue may have a crucial role in the metabolism of Osedax. However, the molecular mechanisms and cells responsible for bone digestion and nutrient uptake are still unclear, and information on the metabolic interaction between Osedax and symbiotic bacteria is limited. RESULTS We compared transcriptomes from three different RNA samples from the following tissues: trunk + palps, root + ovisac, and larva + male. A Pfam domain enrichment analysis revealed that protease- and transporter-related genes were enriched in the root + ovisac specific genes compared with the total transcriptome. Through targeted gene annotation we found gene family expansions resulting in a remarkably large number of matrix metalloproteinase (mmp) genes in the Osedax compared with other invertebrates. Twelve of these Osedax mmp genes were expressed in the root epidermal cells. Genes encoding various types of transporters, including amino acid, oligopeptide, bicarbonate, and sulfate/carboxylate transporters, were also expressed in root epidermal cells. In addition, amino acid and other metabolite transporter genes were expressed in bacteriocytes. These protease and transporter genes were first expressed in root tissues at the juvenile stage, when the root starts to develop. CONCLUSIONS The expression of various proteinase and transporter genes in the root epidermis supports the theory that the root epidermal cells are responsible for bone digestion and subsequent nutrient uptake. Expression of transporter genes in the host bacteriocytes suggests the presence of metabolic interaction between Osedax and symbiotic bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norio Miyamoto
- Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Techonology, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan.
| | - Masa-Aki Yoshida
- National Institute of Genetics, Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan.,Postodoctral research fellow, Japanese Society for Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Koga
- Postodoctral research fellow, Japanese Society for Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan.,Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Fujiwara
- Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Techonology, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan
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6
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Smith CR, Glover AG, Treude T, Higgs ND, Amon DJ. Whale-fall ecosystems: recent insights into ecology, paleoecology, and evolution. ANNUAL REVIEW OF MARINE SCIENCE 2014; 7:571-596. [PMID: 25251277 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-marine-010213-135144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Whale falls produce remarkable organic- and sulfide-rich habitat islands at the seafloor. The past decade has seen a dramatic increase in studies of modern and fossil whale remains, yielding exciting new insights into whale-fall ecosystems. Giant body sizes and especially high bone-lipid content allow great-whale carcasses to support a sequence of heterotrophic and chemosynthetic microbial assemblages in the energy-poor deep sea. Deep-sea metazoan communities at whale falls pass through a series of overlapping successional stages that vary with carcass size, water depth, and environmental conditions. These metazoan communities contain many new species and evolutionary novelties, including bone-eating worms and snails and a diversity of grazers on sulfur bacteria. Molecular and paleoecological studies suggest that whale falls have served as hot spots of adaptive radiation for a specialized fauna; they have also provided evolutionary stepping stones for vent and seep mussels and could have facilitated speciation in other vent/seep taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig R Smith
- Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822; ,
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7
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Romano C, Voight JR, Pérez-Portela R, Martin D. Morphological and genetic diversity of the wood-boring Xylophaga (Mollusca, Bivalvia): new species and records from deep-sea Iberian canyons. PLoS One 2014; 9:e102887. [PMID: 25061913 PMCID: PMC4111485 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Deep-sea bivalves of the Xylophagaidae, a poorly known group, are obligate wood-borers. Deployment of wood in three submarine canyons off the Iberian coast, the Blanes and La Fonera Canyons (Mediterranean Sea) and the Avilés Canyon (Cantabric Sea, Bay of Biscay), lead to the discovery of four xylophagaid species in our samples. Xylophaga dorsalis (the dominant species), X. atlantica, X. cf. anselli and the new species X. brava, were identified on the basis of morphological data, and supported by a phylogenetic reconstruction based on the nuclear genes 18S rDNA and 28S rDNA and including several genus of Xylophagaidae. Genetic divergence between species of Xylophaga varied between genes, ranging from 0.5 to 4.0% for the 18SrDNA and from 4.1 to 16.6% for the 28SrDNA. Xylophaga brava sp. nov. appeared to be restricted to the Mediterranean and morphologically resembled the closely related X. cf. anselli from the Cantabrian Sea. However, they clearly diverged in two well-supported clades. Low levels of intraspecific variability and higher interspecific divergence between species also supported the existence of these two different species. Morphologically they differ in the number of cirri at the siphon openings, in the shape of the posterior shell and in the size of prodissoconch II. The new species is characterized by having weak, poorly mineralized mesoplax and siphons united throughout, covered by a periostracal, non-calcified tube; distinct proximal and distal siphons, the former translucent and soft, the latter muscular, with concentric rings. Xylophaga atlantica, previously known only from the western Atlantic, is reported for the first time in the Mediterranean Sea. Whether its presence in the Mediterranean indicates its natural distribution or reflects its recent introduction is unknown. Although xylophagaids have been previously reported to recruit heavily to wood deposited on the seabed, these four species colonized wood suspended 30 m above the seafloor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Romano
- Centre d'Estudis Avancats de Blanes (CEAB - CSIC), Blanes (Girona), Catalunya, Spain
- * E-mail:
| | - Janet Ruth Voight
- Integrative Research Center, The Field Museum, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Rocío Pérez-Portela
- Centre d'Estudis Avancats de Blanes (CEAB - CSIC), Blanes (Girona), Catalunya, Spain
| | - Daniel Martin
- Centre d'Estudis Avancats de Blanes (CEAB - CSIC), Blanes (Girona), Catalunya, Spain
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8
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Amon DJ, Wiklund H, Dahlgren TG, Copley JT, Smith CR, Jamieson AJ, Glover AG. Molecular taxonomy ofOsedax(Annelida: Siboglinidae) in the Southern Ocean. ZOOL SCR 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/zsc.12057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diva J. Amon
- Ocean and Earth Science; National Oceanography Centre; Southampton; University of Southampton; Waterfront Campus Southampton SO14 3ZH UK
| | - Helena Wiklund
- Life Sciences Department; The Natural History Museum; Cromwell Road London SW7 5BD UK
| | | | - Jonathan T. Copley
- Ocean and Earth Science; National Oceanography Centre; Southampton; University of Southampton; Waterfront Campus Southampton SO14 3ZH UK
| | - Craig R. Smith
- Department of Oceanography; University of Hawai'i at Manoa; 1000 Pope Road Honolulu HI 96822 USA
| | - Alan J. Jamieson
- Oceanlab; University of Aberdeen; Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences; Main Street Newburgh Aberdeenshire AB41 6AA UK
| | - Adrian G. Glover
- Life Sciences Department; The Natural History Museum; Cromwell Road London SW7 5BD UK
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Tresguerres M, Katz S, Rouse GW. How to get into bones: proton pump and carbonic anhydrase in Osedax boneworms. Proc Biol Sci 2013; 280:20130625. [PMID: 23760644 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2013.0625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Osedax are gutless siboglinid worms that thrive on vertebrate bones lying on the ocean floor, mainly those of whales. The posterior body of female Osedax penetrates into the bone forming extensions known as 'roots', which host heterotrophic symbiotic bacteria in bacteriocytes beneath the epidermis. The Osedax root epithelium presumably absorbs bone collagen and/or lipids, which are metabolized by the symbiotic bacteria that in turn serve for Osedax's nutrition. Here, we show that Osedax roots express extremely high amounts of vacuolar-H(+)-ATPase (VHA), which is located in the apical membrane and in cytoplasmic vesicles of root and ovisac epithelial cells. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA), which catalyses the hydration of CO2 into H(+) and HCO3(-), is also expressed in roots and throughout Osedax body. These results suggest Osedax roots have massive acid-secreting capacity via VHA, fuelled by H(+) derived from the CA-catalysed hydration of CO2 produced by aerobic metabolism. We propose the secreted acid dissolves the bone carbonate matrix to then allow the absorption of bone-derived nutrients across the skin. In an exciting example of convergent evolution, this model for acid secretion is remarkably similar to mammalian osteoclast cells. However, while osteoclasts dissolve bone for repairing and remodelling, the Osedax root epithelium secretes acid to dissolve foreign bone to access nutrients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Tresguerres
- Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 93092-0202, USA.
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10
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Postembryonic development of the bone-eating worm Osedax japonicus. Naturwissenschaften 2013; 100:285-9. [PMID: 23443811 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-013-1024-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2012] [Revised: 02/08/2013] [Accepted: 02/12/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Bone-eating worms of the genus Osedax exclusively inhabit sunken vertebrate bones on the seafloor. The unique lifestyle and morphology of Osedax spp. have received much scientific attention, but the whole process of their development has not been observed. We herein report the postembryonic development and settlement of Osedax japonicus Fujikura et al. (Zool Sci 23:733-740, 2006). Fertilised eggs were spawned into the mucus of a female, and the larvae swam out from the mucus at the trochophore stage. Larvae survived for 10 days under laboratory conditions. The larvae settled on bones, elongated their bodies and crawled around on the bones. Then they secreted mucus to create a tube and the palps started to develop. The palps of O. japonicus arose from the prostomium, whereas the anterior appendages of other siboglinids arose from the peristomium. The recruitment of dwarf males was induced by rearing larvae with adult females. Females started to spawn eggs 6 weeks after settlement.
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11
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Yáñez-Rivera B, Carrera-Parra LF. Reestablishment of Notopygos megalops McIntosh, description of N. caribea sp. n. from the Greater Caribbean and barcoding of "amphiamerican" Notopygos species (Annelida, Amphinomidae). Zookeys 2012; 223:69-84. [PMID: 23459182 PMCID: PMC3501236 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.223.3561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2012] [Accepted: 09/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The species of the genus Notopygos Grube, 1855 are characterized by an ovate body, a prominent caruncle with three lobes, dendritic branchiae, and double dorsal cirri. Twenty-two species belonging to Notopygos have been described, mostly from the Indo-Pacific region. In America, few species are frequently recorded: Notopygos crinita Grube, 1855 from St. Helena Island (Atlantic) and Notopygos ornata Grube and Ørsted in Grube 1857 from Costa Rica (Pacific). Notopygos crinita is a widely distributed species in the Western Atlantic with additional reports in the Mediterranean Sea (as a questionable alien species) and in the Pacific Ocean. However, only the genus features have been considered, consequently some records could be misidentifications. During a revision of materials from collections and the barcode project, 'Mexican Barcode of Life, MEXBOL', we found specimens of Notopygos megalops and an undescribed species from reef zones in the Caribbean; the former had been considered a junior synonym of Notopygos crinita. Herein, Notopygos megalops is reestablished and Notopygos caribeasp. n. is described. A morphological and DNA barcode approach was used to explain the records of Notopygos ornata in the Atlantic and to show the differences with the new species, since both species share features such as complex pigmentation patterns, and circular projections in the median lobe of the caruncle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Yáñez-Rivera
- Posgrado en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Unidad Académica Mazatlán, Joel Montes Camarena s/n, Ap. Postal 811, 82000, Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Mexico
| | - Luis Fernando Carrera-Parra
- El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Unidad Chetumal, Depto. Ecología Acuática, Av. Centenario km 5.5, 77014, Chetumal, Quintana Roo, Mexico
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12
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Salathé RM, Vrijenhoek RC. Temporal variation and lack of host specificity among bacterial endosymbionts of Osedax bone worms (Polychaeta: Siboglinidae). BMC Evol Biol 2012; 12:189. [PMID: 23006795 PMCID: PMC3551747 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-12-189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 09/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Osedax worms use a proliferative root system to extract nutrients from the bones of sunken vertebrate carcasses. The roots contain bacterial endosymbionts that contribute to the nutrition of these mouthless and gutless worms. The worms acquire these essential endosymbionts locally from the environment in which their larvae settle. Here we report on the temporal dynamics of endosymbiont diversity hosted by nine Osedax species sampled during a three-year investigation of an experimental whale fall at 1820-m depth in the Monterey Bay, California. The host species were identified by their unique mitochondrial COI haplotypes. The endosymbionts were identified by ribotyping with PCR primers specifically designed to target Oceanospirillales. RESULTS Thirty-two endosymbiont ribotypes associated with these worms clustered into two distinct bacterial ribospecies that together comprise a monophyletic group, mostly restricted to deep waters (>1000 m). Statistical analyses confirmed significant changes in the relative abundances of host species and the two dominant endosymbiont ribospecies during the three-year sampling period. Bone type (whale vs. cow) also had a significant effect on host species, but not on the two dominant symbiont ribospecies. No statistically significant association existed between the host species and endosymbiont ribospecies. CONCLUSIONS Standard PCR and direct sequencing proved to be an efficient method for ribotyping the numerically dominant endosymbiont strains infecting a large sample of host individuals; however, this method did not adequately represent the frequency of mixed infections, which appears to be the rule rather than an exception for Osedax individuals. Through cloning and the use of experimental dilution series, we determined that minority ribotypes constituting less than 30% of a mixture would not likely be detected, leading to underestimates of the frequency of multiple infections in host individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahel M Salathé
- Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA
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13
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Huusgaard RS, Vismann B, Kühl M, Macnaugton M, Colmander V, Rouse GW, Glover AG, Dahlgren T, Worsaae K. The potent respiratory system of Osedax mucofloris (Siboglinidae, Annelida)--a prerequisite for the origin of bone-eating Osedax? PLoS One 2012; 7:e35975. [PMID: 22558289 PMCID: PMC3338503 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2012] [Accepted: 03/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the conspicuous bone-eating genus, Osedax, are widely distributed on whale falls in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. These gutless annelids contain endosymbiotic heterotrophic bacteria in a branching root system embedded in the bones of vertebrates, whereas a trunk and anterior palps extend into the surrounding water. The unique life style within a bone environment is challenged by the high bacterial activity on, and within, the bone matrix possibly causing O2 depletion, and build-up of potentially toxic sulphide. We measured the O2 distribution around embedded Osedax and showed that the bone microenvironment is anoxic. Morphological studies showed that ventilation mechanisms in Osedax are restricted to the anterior palps, which are optimized for high O2 uptake by possessing a large surface area, large surface to volume ratio, and short diffusion distances. The blood vascular system comprises large vessels in the trunk, which facilitate an ample supply of oxygenated blood from the anterior crown to a highly vascularised root structure. Respirometry studies of O. mucofloris showed a high O2 consumption that exceeded the average O2 consumption of a broad line of resting annelids without endosymbionts. We regard this combination of features of the respiratory system of O. mucofloris as an adaptation to their unique nutrition strategy with roots embedded in anoxic bones and elevated O2 demand due to aerobic heterotrophic endosymbionts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randi S. Huusgaard
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Bent Vismann
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Michael Kühl
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Helsingør, Denmark
- Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster, Department of Environmental Science, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Martin Macnaugton
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Veronica Colmander
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Greg W. Rouse
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Adrian G. Glover
- Zoology Department, The Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Katrine Worsaae
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Helsingør, Denmark
- * E-mail:
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Verna C, Ramette A, Wiklund H, Dahlgren TG, Glover AG, Gaill F, Dubilier N. High symbiont diversity in the bone-eating worm Osedax mucofloris from shallow whale-falls in the North Atlantic. Environ Microbiol 2011; 12:2355-70. [PMID: 21966925 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2010.02299.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Osedax worms are whale-fall specialists that infiltrate whale bones with their root tissues. These are filled with endosymbiotic bacteria hypothesized to provide their hosts with nutrition by extracting organic compounds from the whale bones. We investigated the diversity and distribution of symbiotic bacteria in Osedax mucofloris from shallow-water whale-falls in the North Atlantic using comparative 16S rRNA sequence analysis and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). We observed a higher diversity of endosymbionts than previously described from other Osedax species. Endosymbiont sequences fell into eight phylogenetically distinct clusters (with 91.4-98.9% similarity between clusters), and considerable microdiversity within clusters (99.5-99.7% similarity) was observed. Statistical tests revealed a highly significant effect of the host individual on endosymbiont diversity and distribution, with 68% of the variability between clusters and 40% of the variability within clusters explained by this effect. FISH analyses showed that most host individuals were dominated by endosymbionts from a single cluster, with endosymbionts from less abundant clusters generally confined to peripheral root tissues. The observed diversity and distribution patterns indicate that the endosymbionts are transmitted horizontally from the environment with repeated infection events occurring as the host root tissues grow into the whale bones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Verna
- Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology, Celsiusstr. 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
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15
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Higgs ND, Glover AG, Dahlgren TG, Little CTS. Bone-boring worms: characterizing the morphology, rate, and method of bioerosion by Osedax mucofloris (Annelida, Siboglinidae). THE BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2011; 221:307-316. [PMID: 22186919 DOI: 10.1086/bblv221n3p307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Osedax worms possess unique "root" tissues that they use to bore into bones on the seafloor, but details of the boring pattern and processes are poorly understood. Here we use X-ray micro-computed tomography to investigate the borings of Osedax mucofloris in bones of the minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), quantitatively detailing their morphological characteristics for the first time. Comparative thin-sections of the borings reveal how the bone is eroded at the sub-millimeter level. On the basis of these results we hypothesize a model of boring that is dependent on the density and microstructure of the bone. We also present evidence of acidic mucopolysaccharides in the mucus of the root tissue, and hypothesize that this plays an important role in the boring mechanism. We discuss the utility of these new data in evaluating Osedax trace fossils and their relevance for O. mucofloris ecology. Measured rates of bone erosion (6% per year) and evidence of enhanced sulfide release from the borings indicate that Osedax worms are important habitat modifiers in whale-fall communities.
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Rouse GW, Goffredi SK, Johnson SB, Vrijenhoek RC. Not whale-fall specialists, Osedax worms also consume fishbones. Biol Lett 2011; 7:736-9. [PMID: 21490008 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2011.0202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine annelid worms of the genus Osedax exploit sunken vertebrate bones for food. To date, the named species occur on whale or other mammalian bones, and it is argued that Osedax is a whale-fall specialist. To assess whether extant Osedax species could obtain nutrition from non-mammalian resources, we deployed teleost bones and calcified shark cartilage at approximately 1000 m depth for five months. Although the evidence from shark cartilage was inconclusive, the teleost bones hosted three species of Osedax, each of which also lives off whalebones. This suggests that rather than being a whale-fall specialist, Osedax has exploited and continues to exploit a variety of food sources. The ability of Osedax to colonize and to grow on fishbone lends credibility to a hypothesis that it might have split from its siboglinid relatives to assume the bone-eating lifestyle during the Cretaceous, well before the origin of marine mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg W Rouse
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UCSD 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0202, USA.
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Katz S, Klepal W, Bright M. The Osedax trophosome: organization and ultrastructure. THE BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2011; 220:128-139. [PMID: 21551449 DOI: 10.1086/bblv220n2p128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The polychaete family Siboglinidae, which is currently construed as comprising the Frenulata, Monilifera (composed of Sclerolinum), Vestimentifera, and Osedax, has become known for its specialized symbiont-housing organ called the trophosome. This organ replaced the digestive system of the worms and is located in the elongated trunk region in Frenulata, Sclerolinum, and Vestimentifera. Currently two types of trophosomes have been described: in the taxa Frenulata and Sclerolinum the bacteriocytes originate from endoderm, and in Vestimentifera they originate from mesoderm. In Osedax, a trophosome was described as lacking (Rouse et al., 2004), but bacteriocytes are located in Osedax's characteristic root tissue. Here, we argue for a consistent name for the symbiont-housing tissue, namely trophosome, as in other siboglinids. In this study we provide morphological evidence that in Osedax the bacteriocytes are derived from somatic mesoderm. We show that the trophosome in Osedax is an apolar tissue composed of bacteriocytes and nonsymbiotic cells. As in vestimentiferans, a specific cell cycle was identified; however, in this case it is directed from the posterior to the anterior end of the worms instead of from the center toward the periphery. Comparison of all siboglinid trophosomes and re-evaluation of their body regions allows us to discuss whether the trophosomes are homologous and to hypothesize about the organization of the last common ancestor of Siboglinidae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sigrid Katz
- Department of Marine Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Austria
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Kiel S, Kahl WA, Goedert JL. Osedax borings in fossil marine bird bones. Naturwissenschaften 2010; 98:51-5. [PMID: 21103978 PMCID: PMC3018246 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-010-0740-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2010] [Revised: 11/03/2010] [Accepted: 11/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The bone-eating marine annelid Osedax consumes mainly whale bones on the deep-sea floor, but recent colonization experiments with cow bones and molecular age estimates suggesting a possible Cretaceous origin of Osedax indicate that this worm might be able grow on a wider range of substrates. The suggested Cretaceous origin was thought to imply that Osedax could colonize marine reptile or fish bones, but there is currently no evidence that Osedax consumes bones other than those of mammals. We provide the first evidence that Osedax was, and most likely still is, able to consume non-mammalian bones, namely bird bones. Borings resembling those produced by living Osedax were found in bones of early Oligocene marine flightless diving birds (family Plotopteridae). The species that produced these boreholes had a branching filiform root that grew to a length of at least 3 mm, and lived in densities of up to 40 individuals per square centimeter. The inclusion of bird bones into the diet of Osedax has interesting implications for the recent suggestion of a Cretaceous origin of this worm because marine birds have existed continuously since the Cretaceous. Bird bones could have enabled this worm to survive times in the Earth’s history when large marine vertebrates other than fish were rare, specifically after the disappearance of large marine reptiles at the end-Cretaceous mass extinction event and before the rise of whales in the Eocene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Kiel
- Geowissenschaftliches Zentrum der Universität Göttingen, Goldschmidtstr. 3, 37077, Göttingen, Germany.
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VRIJENHOEK ROBERTC. Genetic diversity and connectivity of deep-sea hydrothermal vent metapopulations. Mol Ecol 2010; 19:4391-411. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2010.04789.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Fossil traces of the bone-eating worm Osedax in early Oligocene whale bones. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:8656-9. [PMID: 20424110 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1002014107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Osedax is a recently discovered group of siboglinid annelids that consume bones on the seafloor and whose evolutionary origins have been linked with Cretaceous marine reptiles or to the post-Cretaceous rise of whales. Here we present whale bones from early Oligocene bathyal sediments exposed in Washington State, which show traces similar to those made by Osedax today. The geologic age of these trace fossils ( approximately 30 million years) coincides with the first major radiation of whales, consistent with the hypothesis of an evolutionary link between Osedax and its main food source, although older fossils should certainly be studied. Osedax has been destroying bones for most of the evolutionary history of whales and the possible significance of this "Osedax effect" in relation to the quality and quantity of their fossils is only now recognized.
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Worsaae K, Rouse GW. The simplicity of males: dwarf males of four species of Osedax (Siboglinidae; Annelida) investigated by confocal laser scanning microscopy. J Morphol 2010; 271:127-42. [PMID: 19658166 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.10786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Dwarf males of the bone-eating worms Osedax (Siboglinidae, Annelida) have been proposed to develop from larvae that settle on females rather than on bone. The apparent arrest in somatic development and resemblance of the males to trochophore larvae has been posited as an example of paedomorphosis. Here, we present the first investigation of the entire muscle and nervous system in dwarf males of Osedax frankpressi, O. roseus, O. rubiplumus, and O. "spiral" analyzed by multistaining and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Sperm shape and spermiogenesis, the sperm duct and internal and external ciliary patterns were likewise visualized. The males of all four species possess morphological traits typical of newly settled siboglinid larvae: a prostomium, a peristomium with a prototroch, one elongate segment and a second shorter segment. Each segment has a ring of eight long-handled hooked chaetae. The longitudinal muscles are distributed as evenly spaced strands forming a grid with the thin outer circular muscles. Oblique protractor and retractor muscles are associated with each of the chaetal sacs. The nervous system comprises a cerebral ganglion, a prototroch nerve ring, paired dorsolateral longitudinal nerves, five ventral longitudinal nerves with paired, posterior ganglia and a terminal commissure, as well as a net of fine peripheral transverse plexuses surrounding the first segment. Internal ciliation occurs as paired ventrolateral bands along the first segment. The bands appear to lead the free mature sperm to a ciliated duct and seminal vesicle lying just behind the prototroch region. A duct then runs from the seminal vesicle into the dorsal part of the prostomium. The similarity of Osedax males to the larvae of Osedax and other siboglinid annelids as well as similarities shown here to the neuromuscular organization seen in other annelid larvae supports the hypothesis of paedomorphosis in males of Osedax.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrine Worsaae
- Marine Biological Laboratory, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, 3000 Helsingør, Denmark
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A remarkable diversity of bone-eating worms (Osedax; Siboglinidae; Annelida). BMC Biol 2009; 7:74. [PMID: 19903327 PMCID: PMC2780999 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7007-7-74] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2009] [Accepted: 11/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Bone-eating Osedax worms have proved to be surprisingly diverse and widespread. Including the initial description of this genus in 2004, five species that live at depths between 25 and 3,000 m in the eastern and western Pacific and in the north Atlantic have been named to date. Here, we provide molecular and morphological evidence for 12 additional evolutionary lineages from Monterey Bay, California. To assess their phylogenetic relationships and possible status as new undescribed species, we examined DNA sequences from two mitochondrial (COI and 16S rRNA) and three nuclear genes (H3, 18S and 28S rRNA). Results Phylogenetic analyses identified 17 distinct evolutionary lineages. Levels of sequence divergence among the undescribed lineages were similar to those found among the named species. The 17 lineages clustered into five well-supported clades that also differed for a number of key morphological traits. Attempts to determine the evolutionary age of Osedax depended on prior assumptions about nucleotide substitution rates. According to one scenario involving a molecular clock calibrated for shallow marine invertebrates, Osedax split from its siboglinid relatives about 45 million years ago when archeocete cetaceans first appeared and then diversified during the late Oligocene and early Miocene when toothed and baleen whales appeared. Alternatively, the use of a slower clock calibrated for deep-sea annelids suggested that Osedax split from its siboglinid relatives during the Cretaceous and began to diversify during the Early Paleocene, at least 20 million years before the origin of large marine mammals. Conclusion To help resolve uncertainties about the evolutionary age of Osedax, we suggest that the fossilized bones from Cretaceous marine reptiles and late Oligocene cetaceans be examined for possible trace fossils left by Osedax roots. Regardless of the outcome, the present molecular evidence for strong phylogenetic concordance across five separate genes suggests that the undescribed Osedax lineages comprise evolutionarily significant units that have been separate from one another for many millions of years. These data coupled with ongoing morphological analyses provide a solid foundation for their future descriptions as new species.
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Pleijel F, Dahlgren TG, Rouse GW. Progress in systematics: from Siboglinidae to Pogonophora and Vestimentifera and back to Siboglinidae. C R Biol 2009; 332:140-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crvi.2008.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Accepted: 07/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Whiteman NK. Between a whale bone and the deep blue sea: the provenance of dwarf males in whale bone-eating tubeworms. Mol Ecol 2008; 17:4395-7. [PMID: 18986491 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2008.03938.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
When researchers first caught a glimpse of the lush carpet of pink tubeworms covering the scattered bones of a dead grey whale 2900 m below the surface of Monterey Bay, the excitement onboard the Western Flyer (the mother ship of the remotely operated vehicle the Tiburon) must have been electrifying. The discovery of a new genus and several species of whale bone-eating Osedax tubeworms (Annelida, Siboglinidae) a mere 6 years ago from the deep sea was itself noteworthy. But what the researchers peering into the video monitors aboard the Western Flyer could not have known at that moment was that in the gelatinous tubes of those worms clung even more peculiar forms: harems of tiny, paedomorphic males of Osedax, numbering in the hundreds at times. Whereas female tubeworms bore into the marrow of whale bones (possibly via enzymes from their endosymbiotic bacteria), the dwarf males secondarily colonize the tubes of the resident females. The number of males in a female's tube increases over time in a curvilinear fashion. Dwarf males are known from all Osedax species examined to date, yet the origin of the males was an open question. In this issue, Vrijenhoek et al. provide compelling evidence that dwarf males found in the tubes of female Osedax worms are derived from a common larval pool and are unlikely to be the sons of host females or the progeny of females in the local genetic neighbourhood. This study provides an important foundation for future work on the ecology and evolution of extreme male dwarfism in Osedax and sexual size dimorphism more generally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah K Whiteman
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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Glover AG, Kemp KM, Smith CR, Dahlgren TG. On the role of bone-eating worms in the degradation of marine vertebrate remains. Proc Biol Sci 2008; 275:1959-61; discussion 1963-4. [PMID: 18505721 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2008.0177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Adrian G Glover
- Department of Zoology, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, UK
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Dubilier N, Bergin C, Lott C. Symbiotic diversity in marine animals: the art of harnessing chemosynthesis. Nat Rev Microbiol 2008; 6:725-40. [DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro1992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 687] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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VRIJENHOEK RC, JOHNSON SB, ROUSE GW. Bone-eatingOsedaxfemales and their ‘harems’ of dwarf males are recruited from a common larval pool. Mol Ecol 2008; 17:4535-44. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2008.03937.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Vrijenhoek RC, Collins P, Van Dover CL. Bone-eating marine worms: habitat specialists or generalists? Proc Biol Sci 2008. [DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2008.0350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Haag A. Marine worms chow down on cow bones. Nature 2007. [DOI: 10.1038/news.2007.371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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