Large cutaneous rabbit papillomas that persist during cyclosporin A treatment can regress spontaneously after cessation of immunosuppression

Modeling HPV-Associated Disease and Cancer Using the Cottontail Rabbit Papillomavirus

Approximately 5% of all human cancers are attributable to human papillomavirus (HPV) infections. HPV-associated diseases and cancers remain a substantial public health and economic burden worldwide despite the availability of prophylactic HPV vaccines. Current diagnosis and treatments for HPV-associated diseases and cancers are predominantly based on cell/tissue morphological examination and/or testing for the presence of high-risk HPV types. There is a lack of robust targets/markers to improve the accuracy of diagnosis and treatments. Several naturally occurring animal papillomavirus models have been established as surrogates to study HPV pathogenesis. Among them, the Cottontail rabbit papillomavirus (CRPV) model has become known as the gold standard. This model has played a pivotal role in the successful development of vaccines now available to prevent HPV infections. Over the past eighty years, the CRPV model has been widely applied to study HPV carcinogenesis. Taking advantage of a large panel of functional mutant CRPV genomes with distinct, reproducible, and predictable phenotypes, we have gained a deeper understanding of viral–host interaction during tumor progression. In recent years, the application of genome-wide RNA-seq analysis to the CRPV model has allowed us to learn and validate changes that parallel those reported in HPV-associated cancers. In addition, we have established a selection of gene-modified rabbit lines to facilitate mechanistic studies and the development of novel therapeutic strategies. In the current review, we summarize some significant findings that have advanced our understanding of HPV pathogenesis and highlight the implication of the development of novel gene-modified rabbits to future mechanistic studies.

Gene Editing in Rabbits: Unique Opportunities for Translational Biomedical Research

The rabbit is a classic animal model for biomedical research, but the production of gene targeted transgenic rabbits had been extremely challenging until the recent advent of gene editing tools. More than fifty gene knockout or knock-in rabbit models have been reported in the past decade. Gene edited (GE) rabbit models, compared to their counterpart mouse models, may offer unique opportunities in translational biomedical research attributed primarily to their relatively large size and long lifespan. More importantly, GE rabbit models have been found to mimic several disease pathologies better than their mouse counterparts particularly in fields focused on genetically inherited diseases, cardiovascular diseases, ocular diseases, and others. In this review we present selected examples of research areas where GE rabbit models are expected to make immediate contributions to the understanding of the pathophysiology of human disease, and support the development of novel therapeutics.

Antibody-Mediated Immune Subset Depletion Modulates the Immune Response in a Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Model of Epstein-Barr Virus Infection

Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) is a γ-herpesvirus which infects over 90% of the adult human population. Most notably, this virus causes infectious mononucleosis but it is also associated with cancers such as Hodgkin and Burkitt lymphoma. EBV is a species-specific virus and has been studied in many animal models, including nonhuman primates, guinea pigs, humanized mice, and tree shrews. However, none of these animal models are considered the "gold standard" for EBV research. Recently, rabbits have emerged as a viable alternative model, as they are susceptible to EBV infection. In addition, the EBV infection progresses after immune suppression with cyclosporine A (CsA), modeling the reactivation of EBV after latency. We sought to refine this model for acute or active EBV infections by performing antibody-mediated depletion of certain immune subsets in rabbits. Fourteen 16 to 20-wk old, NZW rabbits were intravenously inoculated with EBV and concurrently treated with either anti-CD4 T-cell antibody, anti-pan-T-cell antibody (anti CD45), CSA, or, as a control, anti-HPV antibody. Rabbits that received the depleting antibodies were treated with CsA 3 times at a dose of 15 mg/kg SC once per day for 4 d starting at the time of EBV inoculation then the dose was increased to 20 mg/kg SC twice weekly for 2 wk. Weights, temperatures, and clinical signs were monitored, and rabbits were anesthetized once weekly for blood collection. When compared with the control group, anti-CD4-treated rabbits had fewer clinical signs and displayed higher levels of viral DNA via qPCR in splenocytes; however, flow cytometry results showed only a partial depletion of CD4 T-cells. Treatment with anti-pan-T-cell antibody did not result in noticeable T-cell depletion. These data suggest the EBV-infected rabbit is a promising model for testing antiviral medications and prophylactic vaccines for EBV.

The rabbit papillomavirus model: a valuable tool to study viral-host interactions

Cottontail rabbit papillomavirus (CRPV) was the first DNA virus shown to be tumorigenic. The virus has since been renamed and is officially known as Sylvilagus floridanus papillomavirus 1 (SfPV1). Since its inception as a surrogate preclinical model for high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infections, the SfPV1/rabbit model has been widely used to study viral-host interactions and has played a pivotal role in the successful development of three prophylactic virus-like particle vaccines. In this review, we will focus on the use of the model to gain a better understanding of viral pathogenesis, gene function and host immune responses to viral infections. We will discuss the application of the model in HPV-associated vaccine testing, in therapeutic vaccine development (using our novel HLA-A2.1 transgenic rabbits) and in the development and validation of novel anti-viral and anti-tumour compounds. Our goal is to demonstrate the role the SfPV1/rabbit model has played, and continues to play, in helping to unravel the intricacies of papillomavirus infections and to develop tools to thwart the disease. This article is part of the theme issue 'Silent cancer agents: multi-disciplinary modelling of human DNA oncoviruses'.

HPV disease transmission protection and control

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) represent a large collection of viral types associated with significant clinical disease of cutaneous and mucosal epithelium. HPV-associated cancers are found in anogenital and oral mucosa, and at various cutaneous sites. Papillomaviruses are highly species and tissue restricted, and these viruses display both mucosotropic, cutaneotropic or dual tropism for epithelial tissues. A subset of HPV types, predominantly mucosal, are also oncogenic and cancers with these HPV types account for more than 200,000 deaths world-wide. Host control of HPV infections requires both innate and adaptive immunity, but the viruses have developed strategies to escape immune detection. Viral proteins can disrupt both innate pathogen-sensing pathways and T-cell based recognition and subsequent destruction of infected tissues. Current treatments to manage HPV infections include mostly ablative strategies in which recurrences are common and only active disease is treated. Although much is known about the papillomavirus life cycle, viral protein functions, and immune responsiveness, we still lack knowledge in a number of key areas of PV biology including tissue tropism, site-specific cancer progression, codon usage profiles, and what are the best strategies to mount an effective immune response to the carcinogenic stages of PV disease. In this review, disease transmission, protection and control are discussed together with questions related to areas in PV biology that will continue to provide productive opportunities of discovery and to further our understanding of this diverse set of human viral pathogens.

Mouse papillomavirus MmuPV1 infects oral mucosa and preferentially targets the base of the tongue

In 2010, a new mouse papillomavirus, MmuPV1, was discovered in a colony of NMRI- Foxn1(nu)/Foxn1(nu) athymic mice in India. This finding was significant because it was the first papillomavirus to be found in a laboratory mouse. In this paper we report successful infections of both dorsal and ventral surfaces of the rostral tongues of outbred athymic nude mice. We also report the observation that the base of the tongue, the area of the tongue often targeted by cancer-associated high-risk papillomavirus infections in humans, is especially susceptible to infection. A suitable animal model for the study of oral papillomavirus infections, co-infections, and cancers has long been sought. The work presented here suggests that such a model is now at hand.

A novel pre-clinical murine model to study the life cycle and progression of cervical and anal papillomavirus infections

Background

Papillomavirus disease and associated cancers remain a significant health burden in much of the world. The current protective vaccines, Gardasil and Cervarix, are expensive and not readily available to the underprivileged. In addition, the vaccines have not gained wide acceptance in the United States nor do they provide therapeutic value. Papillomaviruses are strictly species specific and thus human viruses cannot be studied in an animal host. An appropriate model for mucosal disease has long been sought. We chose to investigate whether the newly discovered mouse papillomavirus, MmuPV1, could infect mucosal tissues in Foxn1^nu/Foxn1^nu mice.

Methods

The vaginal and anal canals of Foxn1^nu/Foxn1^nu mice were gently abraded using Nonoxynol-9 and “Doctor’s BrushPicks” and MmuPV1 was delivered into the vaginal tract or the anal canal.

Results

Productive vaginal, cervical and anal infections developed in all mice. Vaginal/cervical infections could be monitored by vaginal lavage. Dysplasias were evident in all animals.

Conclusions

Anogenital tissues of a common laboratory mouse can be infected with a papillomavirus unique to that animal. This observation will pave the way for fundamental virological and immunological studies that have been challenging to carry out heretofore due to lack of a suitable model system.

Healthy rabbits are susceptible to Epstein-Barr virus infection and infected cells proliferate in immunosuppressed animals

Background

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is an oncogenic virus implicated in the pathogenesis of several human malignancies. However, due to the lack of a suitable animal model, a number of fundamental questions pertaining to the biology of EBV remain poorly understood. Here, we explore the potential of rabbits as a model for EBV infection and investigate the impact of immunosuppression on viral proliferation and gene expression.

Methods

Six healthy New Zealand white rabbits were inoculated intravenously with EBV and blood samples collected prior to infection and for 7 weeks post-infection. Three weeks after the last blood collection, animals were immunosuppressed with daily intramuscular injections of cyclosporin A at doses of 20 mg/kg for 15 days and blood collected twice a week from each rabbit. The animals were subsequently sacrificed and tissues from all major organs were collected for subsequent analysis.

Results

Following intravenous inoculation, all 6 rabbits seroconverted with raised IgG and IgM titres to EBV, but viral DNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) could only be detected intermittently. Following immunosuppression however, EBV DNA could be readily detected in PBMCs from all 4 rabbits that survived the treatment. Quantitative PCR indicated an increase in EBV viral load in PBMCs as the duration of immunosuppression increased. At autopsy, splenomegaly was seen in 3/4 rabbits, but spleens from all 4 rabbit were EBV PCR positive. EBER-in situ hybridization and immunoshistochemistry revealed the presence of a large number of EBER-positive and LMP-1 positive lymphoblasts in the spleens of 3/4 rabbits. To a lesser extent, EBER-positive cells were also seen in the portal tract regions of the liver of these rabbits. Western blotting indicated that EBNA-1 and EBNA-2 were also expressed in the liver and spleen of infected animals.

Conclusion

EBV can infect healthy rabbits and the infected cells proliferate when the animals are immunocompromised. The infected cells expressed several EBV-latent gene products which are probably driving the proliferation, reminiscent of what is seen in immunocompromised individuals. Further work is required to explore the potential of rabbits as an animal model for studying EBV biology and tumorigenesis.

Immunosuppression facilitates the reactivation of latent papillomavirus infections

At mucosal sites, papillomavirus genomes can persist in the epithelial basal layer following immune-mediated regression. Subsequent T-cell depletion stimulates a 3- to 5-log increase in the viral copy number, to levels associated with productive infection. Reappearance of microlesions was rare within the short time frame of our experiments but was observed in one instance. Our studies provide direct evidence that immunosuppression can trigger the reactivation of latent papillomavirus genomes, as previously proposed in humans.

Secondary infections, expanded tissue tropism, and evidence for malignant potential in immunocompromised mice infected with Mus musculus papillomavirus 1 DNA and virus

Papillomavirus disease poses a special challenge to people with compromised immune systems. Appropriate models to study infections in these individuals are lacking. We report here the development of a model that will help to address these deficiencies. The MmuPV1 genome was synthesized and used successfully to produce virus from DNA infections in immunocompromised mice. In these early studies, we have demonstrated both primary and secondary infections, expanded tissue tropism, and extensive dysplasia.

Synonymous codon changes in the oncogenes of the cottontail rabbit papillomavirus lead to increased oncogenicity and immunogenicity of the virus

Papillomaviruses use rare codons with respect to the host. The reasons for this are incompletely understood but among the hypotheses is the concept that rare codons result in low protein production and this allows the virus to escape immune surveillance. We changed rare codons in the oncogenes E6 and E7 of the cottontail rabbit papillomavirus to make them more mammalian-like and tested the mutant genomes in our in vivo animal model. While the amino acid sequences of the proteins remained unchanged, the oncogenic potential of some of the altered genomes increased dramatically. In addition, increased immunogenicity, as measured by spontaneous regression, was observed as the numbers of codon changes increased. This work suggests that codon usage may modify protein production in ways that influence disease outcome and that evaluation of synonymous codons should be included in the analysis of genetic variants of infectious agents and their association with disease.

Papillomavirus DNA complementation in vivo

Recent phylogenic studies indicate that DNA recombination could have occurred in ancient papillomavirus types. However, no experimental data are available to demonstrate this event because of the lack of human papillomavirus infection models. We have used the cottontail rabbit papillomavirus (CRPV)/rabbit model to study pathogenesis and immunogenicity of different mutant genomes in vivo. Although the domestic rabbit is not a natural host for CRPV infection, it is possible to initiate infection with naked CRPV DNA cloned into a plasmid and monitor papilloma outgrowth on these animals. Taking advantage of a large panel of mutants based on a CRPV strain (Hershey CRPV), we tested the hypothesis that two non-viable mutant genomes could induce papillomas by either recombination or complementation. We found that co-infection with a dysfunctional mutant with an E2 transactivation domain mutation and another mutant with an E7 ATG knock out generated papillomas in rabbits. DNA extracted from these papillomas contained genotypes from both parental genomes. Three additional pairs of dysfunctional mutants also showed similar results. Individual wild type genes were also shown to rescue the function of corresponding dysfunctional mutants. Therefore, we suggest that complementation occurred between these two non-viable mutant PV genomes in vivo.

Establishment of a cottontail rabbit papillomavirus/HLA-A2.1 transgenic rabbit model

Three transgenic rabbit lines that express a well-characterized human major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) gene (HLA-A2.1) have been established. All three lines carry the HLA-A2.1 heavy chain and are able to pass the transgene to their offspring with both the outbred and the inbred EIII/JC genetic background. HLA-A2.1 colocalizes exclusively with rabbit MHC-I on the cell surfaces. These HLA-A2.1 transgenic rabbits demonstrated infection patterns similar to those found after cottontail rabbit papillomavirus (CRPV) challenge when compared with results in normal rabbits, although higher regression rates were found in HLA-A2.1 transgenic rabbits. Because the CRPV genome can accommodate significant modifications, the CRPV/HLA-A2.1 rabbit model has the potential to be used to screen HLA-A2.1-restricted immunogenic epitopes from human papillomaviruses in the context of in vivo papillomavirus infection.

An HLA-A2.1-transgenic rabbit model to study immunity to papillomavirus infection

We have established several HLA-A2.1-transgenic rabbit lines to provide a host to study CD8(+) T cell responses during virus infections. HLA-A2.1 protein expression was detected on cell surfaces within various organ tissues. Continuous cultured cells from these transgenic rabbits were capable of presenting both endogenous and exogenous HLA-A2.1-restricted epitopes to an HLA-A2.1-restricted epitope-specific CTL clone. A DNA vaccine containing an HLA-A2.1-restricted human papillomavirus type 16 E7 epitope (amino acid residues 82-90) stimulated epitope-specific CTLs in both PBLs and spleen cells of transgenic rabbits. In addition, vaccinated transgenic rabbits were protected against infection with a mutant cottontail rabbit papillomavirus DNA containing an embedded human papillomavirus type 16 E7/82-90 epitope. Complete protection was achieved using a multivalent epitope DNA vaccine based on epitope selection from cottontail rabbit papillomavirus E1 using MHC class I epitope prediction software. HLA-A2.1-transgenic rabbits will be an important preclinical animal model system to study virus-host interactions and to assess specific targets for immunotherapy.

Impact of genetic changes to the CRPV genome and their application to the study of pathogenesis in vivo

The cottontail rabbit papillomavirus (CRPV)/rabbit model has been used to study oncogenicity and immunogenicity of different antigens from the papillomavirus genome and has therefore served as a preclinical model for the development of preventive and therapeutic vaccines against papillomavirus infections. One unique property of the CRPV model is that infection can be initiated using viral DNA. This property allows for the functional testing of viral mutants in vivo. We have introduced point mutations, insertions and deletions into all of the different coding and non-coding regions of the CRPV genome and have tested their infectivity in this model. We found that the majority of the mutant genomes retained viability and could induce papillomas in domestic rabbits. These data indicated that the CRPV genome is tolerant of many modifications without compromising its ability to initiate skin papillomas. In combination with our recently established HLA-A2.1 transgenic rabbit model, this plasticity allows us to extend the utility of the CRPV/rabbit model to the screening of HLA-A2.1 restricted epitopes from other human viral and tumor antigens.

Cottontail rabbit papillomavirus (CRPV) model system to test antiviral and immunotherapeutic strategies

The cottontail rabbit papillomavirus (CRPV)/rabbit model has proven to be the most versatile preclinical model to test antiviral, immunopotentiating and immunotherapeutic strategies for papilloma-virus infections. We have utilized this model for many years and have recently observed significant improvements in the utility of the model. Improvements have included various techniques to infect rabbit skin sites with strains of wild-type and mutant CRPV DNA prepared using standard molecular biological procedures. A better understanding of the virus life cycle in vivo has been gained also from these studies such that we now have several defined strains of CRPV including i) antigenically diverse strains of CRPV, ii) mutant strains of CRPV with reduced growth rates, and iii) mutant strains of CRPV that demonstrate accelerated malignant progression rates. Collectively, these mutant genomes provide laboratories with a powerful pre-clinical model to assess a variety of antiviral therapies. Many of the treatments already tested in the CRPV/rabbit model have shown parallel efficacy against HPV infections in a clinical setting. Some of our recent experiences with the CRPV/rabbit model are outlined in this brief overview.