The Basal Ganglia: More than just a switching device

Trail making test - black & white (TMT B&W): Normative study for the Chilean population

The trailmaking test (TMT) has an educational bias that makes it inapplicable to people with low levels of education due to its dependence on the alphabet. The TMT standardization is the only one available in Chile, and there is a need for alternative ways of using the TMT that do not depend on the level of education for its applicability. To determine the normative scores of the TMT - black & white (TMT B&W), considering sociodemographic factors in adult and elderly Chilean population. A total sample of 227 participants (133 healthy, 94 cognitively impaired) from the Ageing Mets cohort were recruited from three areas in Chile (Antofagasta, Santiago, and Puerto Montt). The TMT B&W was administered to all participants. A multiple regression model was used to generate normative data only in the cognitively healthy group, considering the effect of age, education and sex. A significant effect of age was found in the score of the TMT B&W Parts A and B. The level of education influenced the part B of the test; however, the completion rate of the TMT B&W parts A and B was over 90% in cognitively healthy people. Norms for the number of errors were obtained, and differences between groups were found after controlling for the effect of age and education. This study is the first to provide normative data for the Chilean version of the TMT B&W and will benefit clinical neuropsychologists by improving the procedures for more accurately assessing executive functions and its impairments.

Electrocardiographic approach strategies in patients with Parkinson disease treated with deep brain stimulation

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an interdisciplinary and reversible therapy that uses high-frequency electrical stimulation to correct aberrant neural pathways in motor and cognitive neurological disorders. However, the high frequency of the waves used in DBS can interfere with electrical recording devices (e.g., electrocardiogram, electroencephalogram, cardiac monitor), creating artifacts that hinder their interpretation. The compatibility of DBS with these devices varies and depends on factors such as the underlying disease and the configuration of the neurostimulator. In emergencies where obtaining an electrocardiogram is crucial, the need for more consensus on reducing electrical artifacts in patients with DBS becomes a significant challenge. Various strategies have been proposed to attenuate the artifact generated by DBS, such as changing the DBS configuration from monopolar to bipolar, temporarily deactivating DBS during electrocardiographic recording, applying frequency filters both lower and higher than those used by DBS, and using non-standard leads. However, the inexperience of medical personnel, variability in DBS models, or the lack of a controller at the time of approach limit the application of these strategies. Current evidence on their reproducibility and efficacy is limited. Due to the growing elderly population and the rising utilization of DBS, it is imperative to create electrocardiographic methods that are easily accessible and reproducible for general physicians and emergency services.

The Cortical and Subcortical Neural Control of Swallowing: A Narrative Review

Swallowing is a sophisticated process involving the precise and timely coordination of the central and peripheral nervous systems, along with the musculatures of the oral cavity, pharynx, and airway. The role of the infratentorial neural structure, including the swallowing central pattern generator and cranial nerve nuclei, has been described in greater detail compared with both the cortical and subcortical neural structures. Nonetheless, accumulated data from analysis of swallowing performance in patients with different neurological diseases and conditions, along with results from neurophysiological studies of normal swallowing have gradually enhanced understanding of the role of cortical and subcortical neural structures in swallowing, potentially leading to the development of treatment modalities for patients suffering from dysphagia. This review article summarizes findings about the role of both cortical and subcortical neural structures in swallowing based on results from neurophysiological studies and studies of various neurological diseases. In sum, cortical regions are mainly in charge of initiation and coordination of swallowing after receiving afferent information, while subcortical structures including basal ganglia and thalamus are responsible for movement control and regulation during swallowing through the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop. This article also presents how cortical and subcortical neural structures interact with each other to generate the swallowing response. In addition, we provided the updated evidence about the clinical applications and efficacy of neuromodulation techniques, including both non-invasive brain stimulation and deep brain stimulation on dysphagia.

Striatal dopamine neurotransmission is altered in age- and region-specific manner in a Parkinson's disease transgenic mouse

Dopamine (DA) plays a critical role in striatal motor control. The drop in DA level within the dorsal striatum is directly associated with the appearance of motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease (PD). The progression of the disease and inherent disruption of the DA neurotransmission has been closely related to accumulation of the synaptic protein α-synuclein. However, it is still unclear how α-synuclein affects dopaminergic terminals in different areas of dorsal striatum. Here we demonstrate that the overexpression of human α-synuclein (h-α-syn) interferes with the striatal DA neurotransmission in an age-dependent manner, preferentially in the dorsolateral striatum (DLS) of PDGF-h-α-syn mice. While 3-month-old mice showed an increase at the onset of h-α-syn accumulation in the DLS, 12-month-old mice revealed a decrease in electrically-evoked DA release. The enhanced DA release in 3-month-old mice coincided with better performance in a behavioural task. Notably, DA amplitude alterations were also accompanied by a delay in the DA clearance independently from the animal age. Structurally, dopamine transporter (DAT) was found to be redistributed in larger DAT-positive clumps only in the DLS of 3- and 12-month-old mice. Together, our data provide new insight into the vulnerability of DLS and suggest DAT-related dysfunctionalities from the very early stages of h-α-syn accumulation.

Local Administrations of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles in the Prefrontal Cortex and Caudate Putamen of Rats Do Not Compromise Working Memory and Motor Activity

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have come into focus for their use in medical applications although possible health risks for humans, especially in terms of brain functions, have not yet been fully clarified. The present study investigates the effects of IONPs on neurobehavioural functions in rats. For this purpose, we infused dimercaptosuccinic acid-coated IONPs into the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and caudate putamen (CPu). Saline (VEH) and ferric ammonium citrate (FAC) were administered as controls. One- and 4-week post-surgery mPFC-infused animals were tested for their working memory performance in the delayed alternation T-maze task and in the open field (OF) for motor activity, and CPu-infused rats were tested for their motor activity in the OF. After completion of the experiments, the brains were examined histologically and immunohistochemically. We did not observe any behavioural or structural abnormalities in the rats after administration of IONPs in the mPFC and the CPu. In contrast, administration of FAC into the CPu resulted in decreased motor activity and increased the number of microglia in the mPFC. Perls' Prussian blue staining revealed that FAC- and IONP-treated rats had more iron-containing ramified cells than VEH-treated rats, indicating iron uptake by microglia. Our results demonstrate that local infusions of IONPs into selected brain regions have no adverse impact on locomotor behaviour and working memory.

Are the sensorimotor control capabilities of the hands the factors influencing hand function in people with schizophrenia?

BACKGROUND

Previous works reported people with schizophrenia experienced inferior hand functions which influence their daily participation and work efficiency. Sensorimotor capability is one of indispensable elements acting in a well-executed feed-forward and feedback control loop to contribute to hand performances. However, rare studies investigated contribution of sensorimotor ability to hand functions for people with schizophrenia. This study aimed to explore hand function in people with schizophrenia based on the perspective of the sensorimotor control capabilities of the hands.

METHODS

Twenty-seven people at the chronic stage of schizophrenia were enrolled. The following assessment tools were used: the Purdue Pegboard Test (PPT) and the VALPAR Component Work Sample-8 (VCWS 8) system for hand function; the Self-Reported Graphic version of the Personal and Social Performance (SRG-PSP) scale for functionality; and the Semmes-Weinstein Monofilaments (SWM), the pinch-holding-up-activity (PHUA) test and the Manual Tactile Test (MTT) for the sensory and sensorimotor parameters. The Clinical Global Impression-Severity (CGI-S) scale and the Extrapyramidal Symptom Rating Scale (ESRS) were used to grade the severity of the illness and the side-effects of the drugs. Spearman's rank correlation coefficient was used to analyze associations among hand function, functionality, and sensorimotor capabilities. A multiple linear regression analysis was used to identify the determinants of hand function.

RESULTS

The results indicated that both hand function and sensorimotor capability were worse in people with schizophrenia than in healthy people, with the exception of the sensory threshold measured with the SWM. Moreover, the sensorimotor abilities of the hands were associated with hand function. The results of the regression analysis showed that the MTT measure of stereognosis was a determinant of the PPT measure of the dominant hand function and of the performance on the VCWS 8, and that the ESRS and the MTT measure of barognosis were determinants of the performance on the assembly task of the PPT.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggested that sensorimotor capabilities, especially stereognosis and barognosis, are crucial determinants of hand function in people with schizophrenia. The results also revealed that the side effects of drugs and the duration of the illness directly affect hand function.

CLINICAL TRAIL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov , identifier NCT04941677, 28/06/2021.

The social cognitive and neural mechanisms that underlie social functioning in individuals with schizophrenia - a review

In many individuals with a diagnosis of schizophrenia social functioning is impaired across the lifespan. Social cognition has emerged as one of the possible factors that may contribute to these challenges. Neuroimaging research can give further insights into the underlying mechanisms of social (cognitive) difficulties. This review summarises the evidence on the associations between social cognition in the domains of theory of mind and emotion perception and processing, and individuals' social functioning and social skills, as well as associated neural mechanisms. Eighteen behavioural studies were conducted since the last major review and meta-analysis in the field (inclusion between 7/2017 and 1/2022). No major review has investigated the link between the neural mechanisms of social cognition and their association with social functioning in schizophrenia. Fourteen relevant studies were included (from 1/2000 to 1/2022). The findings of the behavioural studies showed that associations with social outcomes were slightly stronger for theory of mind than for emotion perception and processing. Moreover, performance in both social cognitive domains was more strongly associated with performance on social skill measures than questionnaire-based assessment of social functioning in the community. Studies on the underlying neural substrate of these associations presented mixed findings. In general, higher activation in various regions of the social brain was associated with better social functioning. The available evidence suggests some shared regions that might underlie the social cognition-social outcome link between different domains. However, due to the heterogeneity in approaches and findings, the current knowledge base will need to be expanded before firm conclusions can be drawn.

Enhanced brain functional connectivity and activation after 12-week Tai Chi-based action observation training in patients with Parkinson's disease

Introduction

Motor-cognitive interactive interventions, such as action observation training (AOT), have shown great potential in restoring cognitive function and motor behaviors. It is expected that an advanced AOT incorporating specific Tai Chi movements with continuous and spiral characteristics can facilitate the shift from automatic to intentional actions and thus enhance motor control ability for early-stage PD. Nonetheless, the underlying neural mechanisms remain unclear. The study aimed to investigate changes in brain functional connectivity (FC) and clinical improvement after 12 weeks of Tai Chi-based action observation training (TC-AOT) compared to traditional physical therapy (TPT).

Methods

Thirty early-stage PD patients were recruited and randomly assigned to the TC-AOT group (N = 15) or TPT group (N = 15). All participants underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) scans before and after 12 weeks of training and clinical assessments. The FCs were evaluated by seed-based correlation analysis based on the default mode network (DMN). The rehabilitation effects of the two training methods were compared while the correlations between significant FC changes and clinical improvement were investigated.

Results

The results showed that the TC-AOT group exhibited significantly increased FCs between the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex and cerebellum crus I, between the posterior inferior parietal lobe and supramarginal gyrus, and between the temporal parietal junction and clusters of middle occipital gyrus and superior temporal. Moreover, these FC changes had a positive relationship with patients' improved motor and cognitive performance.

Discussion

The finding supported that the TC-AOT promotes early-stage PD rehabilitation outcomes by promoting brain neuroplasticity where the FCs involved in the integration of sensorimotor processing and motor learning were strengthened.

p-Nrf2/HO-1 Pathway Involved in Methamphetamine-induced Executive Dysfunction through Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Apoptosis in the Dorsal Striatum

Methamphetamine (METH) abuse is known to cause executive dysfunction. However, the molecular mechanism underlying METH induced executive dysfunction remains unclear. Go/NoGo experiment was performed in mice to evaluate METH-induced executive dysfunction. Immunoblot analysis of Nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), phosphorylated Nrf2 (p-Nrf2), heme-oxygenase-1 (HO-1), Glucose Regulated Protein 78(GRP78), C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP), Bcl-2, Bax and Caspase3 was performed to evaluate the levels of oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and apoptosis in the dorsal striatum (Dstr). Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity was conducted to evaluate the level of oxidative stress. TUNEL staining was conducted to detect apoptotic neurons. The animal Go/NoGo testing confirmed that METH abuse impaired the inhibitory control ability of executive function. Meanwhile, METH down-regulated the expression of p-Nrf2, HO-1 and GSH-Px and activated ER stress and apoptosis in the Dstr. Microinjection of Tert-butylhydroxyquinone (TBHQ), an Nrf2 agonist, into the Dstr increased the expression of p-Nrf2, HO-1, and GSH-Px, ameliorated ER stress, apoptosis and executive dysfunction caused by METH. Our results indicated that the p-Nrf2/HO-1 pathway was potentially involved in mediating methamphetamine-induced executive dysfunction by inducing endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis in the dorsal striatum.

Emotional state as a modulator of autonomic and somatic nervous system activity in postural control: a review

Advances in our understanding of postural control have highlighted the need to examine the influence of higher brain centers in the modulation of this complex function. There is strong evidence of a link between emotional state, autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity and somatic nervous system (somatic NS) activity in postural control. For example, relationships have been demonstrated between postural threat, anxiety, fear of falling, balance confidence, and physiological arousal. Behaviorally, increased arousal has been associated with changes in velocity and amplitude of postural sway during quiet standing. The potential links between ANS and somatic NS, observed in control of posture, are associated with shared neuroanatomical connections within the central nervous system (CNS). The influence of emotional state on postural control likely reflects the important influence the limbic system has on these ANS/somatic NS control networks. This narrative review will highlight several examples of behaviors which routinely require coordination between the ANS and somatic NS, highlighting the importance of the neurofunctional link between these systems. Furthermore, we will extend beyond the more historical focus on threat models and examine how disordered/altered emotional state and ANS processing may influence postural control and assessment. Finally, this paper will discuss studies that have been important in uncovering the modulatory effect of emotional state on postural control including links that may inform our understanding of disordered control, such as that observed in individuals living with Parkinson's disease and discuss methodological tools that have the potential to advance understanding of this complex relationship.

Succinyl-CoA Synthetase Dysfunction as a Mechanism of Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy: More than Just an Oxidative Energy Deficit

Biallelic pathogenic variants in subunits of succinyl-CoA synthetase (SCS), a tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle enzyme, are associated with mitochondrial encephalomyopathy in humans. SCS catalyzes the interconversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate, coupled to substrate-level phosphorylation of either ADP or GDP, within the TCA cycle. SCS-deficient encephalomyopathy typically presents in infancy and early childhood, with many patients succumbing to the disease during childhood. Common symptoms include abnormal brain MRI, basal ganglia lesions and cerebral atrophy, severe hypotonia, dystonia, progressive psychomotor regression, and growth deficits. Although subunits of SCS were first identified as causal genes for progressive metabolic encephalomyopathy in the early 2000s, recent investigations are now beginning to unravel the pathomechanisms underlying this metabolic disorder. This article reviews the current understanding of SCS function within and outside the TCA cycle as it relates to the complex and multifactorial mechanisms underlying SCS-related mitochondrial encephalomyopathy.

Relationship between temporal dynamics of intrinsic brain activity and motor function remodeling in patients with acute BGIS

Background

patients with acute basal ganglia ischemic stroke (BGIS) show changes in local brain activity represented by the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF), but the time-varying characteristics of this local nerve activity are still unclear. This study aimed to investigate the abnormal time-varying local brain activity of patients with acute BGIS by using the ALFF method combined with the sliding-window approach.

Methods

In this study, 34 patients with acute BGIS with motor dysfunction and 44 healthy controls (HCs) were recruited. The dynamic amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (dALFF) was employed to detect the alterations in brain activity induced by acute BGIS patients. A two-sample t-test comparison was performed to compare the dALFF value between the two groups and a Spearman correlation analysis was conducted to assess the relationship between the local brain activity abnormalities and clinical characteristics.

Results

Compared with HCs, the activity of neurons in the left temporal pole (TP), parahippocampal gyrus (paraHIP), middle occipital gyrus (MOG), dorsolateral superior frontal gyrus (SFGdl), medial cingulate cortex (MCC), right rectus, precuneus (PCu) and right cerebellum crus1 were significantly increased in patients with BGIS. In addition, we found that there was a negative correlation (r = -0.458, p = 0.007) between the dALFF value of the right rectus and the scores of the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS), and a positive correlation (r = 0.488, 0.499, p < 0.05) with the scores of the Barthel Index scale (BI) and the Fugl Meyer motor function assessment (FMA). ROC analysis results demonstrated that the area under the curves (AUC) of the right rectus was 0.880, p<0.001.

Conclusion

The pattern of intrinsic brain activity variability was altered in patients with acute BGIS compared with HCs. The abnormal dALFF variability might be a potential tool to assess motor function in patients with acute BGIS and potentially inform the diagnosis of this disease.

Neurocognitive Psychiatric and Neuropsychological Alterations in Parkinson's Disease: A Basic and Clinical Approach

The main histopathological hallmarks of Parkinson's disease (PD) are the degeneration of the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta and the loss of neuromelanin as a consequence of decreased dopamine synthesis. The destruction of the striatal dopaminergic pathway and blocking of striatal dopamine receptors cause motor deficits in humans and experimental animal models induced by some environmental agents. In addition, neuropsychiatric symptoms such as mood and anxiety disorders, hallucinations, psychosis, cognitive impairment, and dementia are common in PD. These alterations may precede the appearance of motor symptoms and are correlated with neurochemical and structural changes in the brain. This paper reviews the most crucial pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric alterations in PD. It is worth noting that PD patients have global task learning deficits, and cognitive functions are compromised in a way is associated with hypoactivation within the striatum, anterior cingulate cortex, and inferior frontal sulcus regions. An appropriate and extensive neuropsychological screening battery in PD must accurately assess at least five cognitive domains with some tests for each cognitive domain. This neuropsychological screening should consider the pathophysiological and clinical heterogeneity of cognitive dysfunction in PD.

Learned Irrelevance, Perseveration, and Cognitive Aging: A Cross-Sectional Study of Cognitively Unimpaired Older Adults

The effect of natural aging on physiologic mechanisms that regulate attentional set-shifting represents an area of high interest in the study of cognitive function. In visual discrimination learning, reward contingency changes in categorization tasks impact individual performance, which is constrained by attention-shifting costs. Perseveration (PE) and learned irrelevance (LI) are viewed as two different mechanisms that shape responses to stimuli, which are predicated on the shift in stimulus form. To date, only studies examining patients with Parkinson’s disease have provided some insight into the relationship between individual age and performance in PE and LI tasks. We enrolled 60 healthy individuals (mean [SD] age, 63.0 [12.6]) without a history of dementia, a cerebrovascular incident, or a neurodegenerative disease. No association was observed between crystallized intelligence or verbal fluency scores and reaction time in both PE (r = 0.074, p = 0.603; r = −0.124, p = 0.346) and LI (r = −0.076, p = 0.562; r = −0.081, p = 0.536) task conditions, respectively. In contrast, a statistically significant linear relationship was observed between age and reaction time (RT) for PE (r = 0.259, p = 0.046) but not for LI (r = 0.226, p = 0.083). No significant linear relationship was observed for changing RTs in PE and LI (r = 0.209, p = 0.110). The present study is the first report that provides a descriptive overview of age-related differences in PE and LI in a sample of cognitively unimpaired middle- to older-aged adults.

Midbrain structure volume, estimated myelin and functional connectivity in idiopathic generalised epilepsy

BACKGROUND

Structural and functional neuroimaging studies often overlook lower basal ganglia structures located in and adjacent to the midbrain due to poor contrast on clinically acquired T1-weighted scans. Here, we acquired T1-weighted, T2-weighted, and resting-state fMRI scans to investigate differences in volume, estimated myelin content and functional connectivity of the substantia nigra (SN), subthalamic nuclei (SubTN) and red nuclei (RN) of the midbrain in IGE.

METHODS

Thirty-three patients with IGE (23 refractory, 10 non-refractory) and 39 age and sex-matched healthy controls underwent MR imaging. Midbrain structures were automatically segmented from T2-weighted images and structural volumes were calculated. The estimated myelin content for each structure was determined using a T1-weighted/T2-weighted ratio method. Resting-state functional connectivity analysis of midbrain structures (seed-based) was performed using the CONN toolbox.

RESULTS

An increased volume of the right RN was found in IGE and structural volumes of the right SubTN differed between patients with non-refractory and refractory IGE. However, no volume findings survived corrections for multiple comparisons. No myelin alterations of midbrain structures were found for any subject groups. We found functional connectivity alterations including significantly decreased connectivity between the left SN and the thalamus and significantly increased connectivity between the right SubTN and the superior frontal gyrus in IGE.

CONCLUSIONS

We report volumetric and functional connectivity alterations of the midbrain in patients with IGE. We postulate that potential increases in structural volumes are due to increased iron deposition that impacts T2-weighted contrast. These findings are consistent with previous studies demonstrating pathophysiological abnormalities of the lower basal ganglia in animal models of generalised epilepsy.

17β-estradiol does not have a direct effect on the function of striatal cholinergic interneurons in adult mice in vitro

The striatum is an essential component of the basal ganglia that is involved in motor control, action selection and motor learning. The pathophysiological changes of the striatum are present in several neurological and psychiatric disorder including Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases. The striatal cholinergic neurons are the main regulators of striatal microcircuitry. It has been demonstrated that estrogen exerts various effects on neuronal functions in dopaminergic and medium spiny neurons (MSN), however little is known about how the activity of cholinergic interneurons are influenced by estrogens. In this study we examined the acute effect of 17β-estradiol on the function of striatal cholinergic neurons in adult mice in vitro. We also tested the effect of estrus cycle and sex on the spontaneous activity of cholinergic interneurons in the striatum. Our RNAscope experiments showed that ERα, ERβ, and GPER1 receptor mRNAs are expressed in some striatal cholinergic neurons at a very low level. In cell-attached patch clamp experiments, we found that a high dose of 17β-estradiol (100 nM) affected the spontaneous firing rate of these neurons only in old males. Our findings did not demonstrate any acute effect of a low concentration of 17β-estradiol (100 pM) or show any association of estrus cycle or sex with the activity of striatal cholinergic neurons. Although estrogen did not induce changes in the intrinsic properties of neurons, indirect effects via modulation of the synaptic inputs of striatal cholinergic interneurons cannot be excluded.

Embouchure Dystonia as a Network Disease

While the pathophysiology of embouchure dystonia, a sub-entity of musician's dystonia, is still not fully understood, recent research has shown that it involves alterations of several brain functions and networks. Maladaptive plasticity in sensorimotor integration, sensory perception, and deficient inhibitory mechanisms at cortical, subcortical, and spinal level seem to contribute to its pathophysiology. Furthermore, functional systems of the basal ganglia and the cerebellum are involved, clearly pointing toward a network disorder. We therefore propose a novel network model, based on electrophysiological and recent neuroimaging studies highlighting embouchure dystonia.

Inhibition, Shifting and Updating: Inter and intra-domain commonalities and differences from an executive functions activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis

Executive functions are higher-order mental processes that support goal-directed behavior. Among these processes, Inhibition, Updating, and Shifting have been considered core executive domains. In this meta-analysis, we comprehensively investigate the neural networks of these executive domains and we synthesize for the first time the neural convergences and divergences among the most frequently used executive paradigms within those domains. A systematic search yielded 1055 published neuroimaging studies (including 26,191 participants in total). Our study revealed that a fronto-parietal network was shared by the three main domains. Furthermore, we executed conjunction analyses among the paradigms of the same domain to extract the core distinctive components of the main executive domains. This approach showed that Inhibition and Shifting are characterized by a strongly lateralized neural activation in the right and left hemisphere, respectively. In addition, both networks overlapped with the Updating network but not with each other. Remarkably, our study detected heterogeneity among the paradigms from the same domain. More specifically, analysis of Inhibition tasks revealed differing activations for Response Inhibition compared to Interference Control paradigms, suggesting that Inhibition encompasses relatively heterogeneous sub-functions. Shifting analyses revealed a bilateral overlap of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task with the Updating network, but this pattern was absent for Rule Switching and Dual Task paradigms. Moreover, our Updating meta-analyses revealed the neural signatures associated with the specific modules of the Working Memory model from Baddeley and Hitch. To our knowledge, this is the most comprehensive meta-analysis of executive functions to date. Its paradigm-driven analyses provide a unique contribution to a better understanding of the neural convergences and divergences among executive processes that are relevant for clinical applications, such as cognitive enhancement and neurorehabilitation interventions.

Nanoscopic distribution of VAChT and VGLUT3 in striatal cholinergic varicosities suggests colocalization and segregation of the two transporters in synaptic vesicles

Striatal cholinergic interneurons (CINs) use acetylcholine (ACh) and glutamate (Glut) to regulate the striatal network since they express vesicular transporters for ACh (VAChT) and Glut (VGLUT3). However, whether ACh and Glut are released simultaneously and/or independently from cholinergic varicosities is an open question. The answer to that question requires the multichannel detection of vesicular transporters at the level of single synaptic vesicle (SV). Here, we used super-resolution STimulated Emission Depletion microscopy (STED) to characterize and quantify the distribution of VAChT and VGLUT3 in CINs SVs. Nearest-neighbor distances analysis between VAChT and VGLUT3-immunofluorescent spots revealed that 34% of CINs SVs contain both VAChT and VGLUT3. In addition, 40% of SVs expressed only VAChT while 26% of SVs contain only VGLUT3. These results suggest that SVs from CINs have the potential to store simultaneously or independently ACh and/or Glut. Overall, these morphological findings support the notion that CINs varicosities can signal with either ACh or Glut or both with an unexpected level of complexity.

Regional homogeneity alterations in multifrequency bands in patients with basal ganglia stroke: A resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging study

Objective

The aim of this study was to investigate the spontaneous regional neural activity abnormalities in patients with acute basal ganglia ischemic stroke (BGIS) using a multifrequency bands regional homogeneity (ReHo) method and to explore whether the alteration of ReHo values was associated with clinical characteristics.

Methods

In this study, 34 patients with acute BGIS and 44 healthy controls (HCs) were recruited. All participants were examined by resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI). The ReHo method was used to detect the alterations of spontaneous neural activities in patients with acute BGIS. A two-sample t-test comparison was performed to compare the ReHo value between the two groups, and a Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to assess the relationship between the regional neural activity abnormalities and clinical characteristics.

Results

Compared with the HCs, the patients with acute BGIS showed increased ReHo in the left caudate and subregions such as the right caudate and left putamen in conventional frequency bands. In the slow-5 frequency band, patients with BGIS showed decreased ReHo in the left medial cingulum of BGIS compared to the HCs and other subregions such as bilateral caudate and left putamen. No brain regions with ReHo alterations were found in the slow-4 frequency band. Moreover, we found that the ReHo value of left caudate was positively correlated with the NIHSS score.

Conclusion

Our findings revealed the alterations of ReHo in patients with acute BGIS in a specific frequency band and provided a new insight into the pathogenesis mechanism of BGIS. This study demonstrated the frequency-specific characteristics of ReHo in patients with acute BGIS, which may have a positive effect on the future neuroimaging studies.

Action and emotion perception in Parkinson's disease: A neuroimaging meta-analysis

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The neural substrates for action and emotion perception deficits in PD are still unclear.

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We addressed this issue via coordinate-based meta-analyses of previous fMRI data.

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PD patients exhibit decreased response in the basal ganglia.

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PD patients exhibit a trend toward decreased response in the parietal areas.

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PD patients exhibit a trend toward increased activation in the posterior cerebellum.

Patients with Parkinson disease (PD) may show impairments in the social perception. Whether these deficits have been consistently reported, it remains to be clarified which brain alterations subtend them. To this aim, we conducted a neuroimaging meta-analysis to compare the brain activity during social perception in patients with PD versus healthy controls. Our results show that PD patients exhibit a significantly decreased response in the basal ganglia (putamen and pallidum) and a trend toward decreased activity in the mirror system, particularly in the left parietal cortex (inferior parietal lobule and intraparietal sulcus). This reduced activation may be tied to a disruption of cognitive resonance mechanisms and may thus constitute the basis of impaired others’ representations underlying action and emotion perception. We also found increased activation in the posterior cerebellum in PD, although only in a within-group analysis and not in comparison with healthy controls. This cerebellar activation may reflect compensatory mechanisms, an aspect that deserves further investigation. We discuss the clinical implications of our findings for the development of novel social skill training programs for PD patients.

Glutamate levels across deep brain structures in patients with a psychotic disorder and its relation to cognitive functioning

BACKGROUND

Patients with psychotic disorders often show prominent cognitive impairment. Glutamate seems to play a prominent role, but its role in deep gray matter (DGM) regions is unclear.

AIMS

To evaluate glutamate levels within deep gray matter structures in patients with a psychotic disorder in relation to cognitive functioning, using advanced spectroscopic acquisition, reconstruction, and post-processing techniques.

METHODS

A 7-Tesla magnetic resonance imaging scanner combined with a lipid suppression coil and subject-specific water suppression pulses was used to acquire high-resolution magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging data. Tissue fraction correction and registration to a standard brain were performed for group comparison in specifically delineated DGM regions. The brief assessment of cognition in schizophrenia was used to evaluate cognitive status.

RESULTS

Average glutamate levels across DGM structures (i.e. caudate, pallidum, putamen, and thalamus) in mostly medicated patients with a psychotic disorder (n = 16, age = 33, 4 females) were lower compared to healthy controls (n = 23, age = 24, 7 females; p = 0.005, d = 1.06). Stratified analyses showed lower glutamate levels in the caudate (p = 0.046, d = 0.76) and putamen p = 0.013, d = 0.94). These findings were largely explained by age differences between groups. DGM glutamate levels were positively correlated with psychomotor speed (r(30) = 0.49, p = 0.028), but not with other cognitive domains.

CONCLUSIONS

We find reduced glutamate levels across DGM structures including the caudate and putamen in patients with a psychotic disorder that are linked to psychomotor speed. Despite limitations concerning age differences, these results underscore the potential role of detailed in vivo glutamate assessments to understand cognitive deficits in psychotic disorders.

Characterization of basal ganglia volume changes in the context of HIV and polysubstance use

HIV and psychoactive substances can impact the integrity of the basal ganglia (BG), a neural substrate of cognition, motor control, and reward-seeking behaviors. This study assessed BG gray matter (GM) volume as a function of polysubstance (stimulant and opioid) use and HIV status. We hypothesized that comorbid polysubstance use and HIV seropositivity would alter BG GM volume differently than would polysubstance use or HIV status alone. We collected structural MRI scans, substance use history, and HIV diagnoses. Participants who had HIV (HIV +), a history of polysubstance dependence (POLY +), both, or neither completed assessments for cognition, motor function, and risk-taking behaviors (N = 93). All three clinical groups showed a left-lateralized pattern of GM reduction in the BG relative to controls. However, in the HIV + /POLY + group, stimulant use was associated with increased GM volume within the globus pallidus and putamen. This surpassed the effects from opioid use, as indicated by decreased GM volume throughout the BG in the HIV-/POLY + group. Motor learning was impaired in all three clinical groups, and in the HIV + /POLY + group, motor learning was associated with increased caudate and putamen GM volume. We also observed associations between BG GM volume and risk-taking behaviors in the HIV + /POLY- and HIV-/POLY + groups. The effects of substance use on the BG differed as a function of substance type used, HIV seropositivity, and BG subregion. Although BG volume decreased in association with HIV and opioid use, stimulants can, inversely, lead to BG volume increases within the context of HIV.

Alamandine Induces Neuroprotection in Ischemic Stroke Models

Background and Objective:

Stroke, a leading cause of mortality and disability, characterized by neuronal death, can be induced by a reduction or interruption of blood flow. In this study, the role of Alamandine, a new peptide of the renin-angiotensin system, was evaluated in in-vitro and in-vivo brain ischemia models.

Method:

In the in-vitro model, hippocampal slices from male C57/Bl6 mice were placed in a glucose-free aCSF solution and bubbled with 95% N2 and 5% CO2 to mimic brain ischemia. An Alamandine concentration-response curve was generated to evaluate cell damage, glutamatergic excitotoxicity, and cell death. In the in-vivo model, cerebral ischemia/reperfusion was induced by bilateral occlusion of common carotid arteries (BCCAo-untreated) in SD rats. An intracerebroventricular injection of Alamandine was given 20–30 min before BCCAo. Animals were subjected to neurological tests 24 h and 72 h after BCCAo. Cytokine levels, oxidative stress markers, and immunofluorescence were assessed in the brain 72 h after BCCAo.

Results:

Alamandine was able to protect brain slices from cellular damage, excitotoxicity and cell death. When the Alamandine receptor was blocked, protective effects were lost. ICV injection of Alamandine attenuated neurological deficits of animals subjected to BCCAo and reduced the number of apoptotic neurons/cells. Furthermore, Alamandine induced anti-inflammatory effects in BCCAo animals as shown by reductions in TNFα, IL-1β, IL-6, and antioxidant effects through attenuation of the decreased SOD, catalase, and GSH activities in the brain.

Conclusion:

This study showed, for the first time, a neuroprotective role for Alamandine in different ischemic stroke models.

Striatonigrostriatal Spirals in Addiction

A biological reward system is integral to all animal life and humans are no exception. For millennia individuals have investigated this system and its influences on human behavior. In the modern day, with the US facing an ongoing epidemic of substance use without an effective treatment, these investigations are of paramount importance. It is well known that basal ganglia contribute to rewards and are involved in learning, approach behavior, economic choices, and positive emotions. This review aims to elucidate the physiological role of striatonigrostriatal (SNS) spirals, as part of basal ganglia circuits, in this reward system and their pathophysiological role in perpetuating addiction. Additionally, the main functions of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and glutamate and their receptors in SNS circuits will be summarized. With this information, the claim that SNS spirals are crucial intermediaries in the shift from goal-directed behavior to habitual behavior will be supported, making this circuit a viable target for potential therapeutic intervention in those with substance use disorders.

Frequency of hand movements as a possible diagnostic tool for parkinsonian bradykinesia. Proposal of a simple bedside test

BACKGROUND

Bradykinesia, dysrhythmia, and decrement in hand movements (HM) are core symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD). The maximal rate of repetitive rhythm-preserving HM can be a diagnostic tool for PD bradykinesia.

OBJECTIVES

To improve the clinical diagnosis of bradykinesia by identifying the frequencies at which rhythmic HM become irregular in PD patients compared to healthy age-matched controls.

METHOD

Forty PD patients and 16 controls were asked to alternately perform left and right hand movements following the rate of a metronome with sound stimulation beginning at 85 beats per minute (BPM) and increasing in increments of 15 BPM up to 355 BPM. The rhythm of the HM for each rate was assessed visually, and the threshold frequency at which the subject could no longer rhythmically continue HM was measured by the metronome. The increasing rates of HM until reaching that threshold were compared between patients with PD and controls.

RESULTS

The mean rates of a metronome in PD vs. healthy subjects were 173.3 ± 42.0 vs. 248.8 ± 48.5 BPM (p < 0.001) and 164.8 ± 34.2 vs. 241.2 ± 40.1 BPM (p < 0.001) for the dominant and non-dominant hands, respectively. The areas under the ROC curve were 0.929 [95%CI: (0.86-0.99)] for the dominant hand and 0.947 [95%CI: (0.88-1.0)] for the non-dominant hand. The BMP score cut-off value was 208 (sensitivity 72.7%, specificity 100%) for the dominant hand and 206 (sensitivity 87.5%, specificity 95%) for the non-dominant hand.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed test quantified the frequencies of rhythmic HMs in PD patients vs. controls and improved the diagnosis of bradykinesia in PD patients.

Domains of Health-Related Quality of Life Are Associated With Specific Deficits and Lesion Locations in Chronic Aphasia

BACKGROUND

Health-related quality of life (HRQL) in stroke survivors is related to numerous factors, but more research is needed to delineate factors related to HRQL in people with aphasia.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationship between HRQL and demographic factors, impairment-based measures, and lesion characteristics in chronic aphasia.

METHODS

A total of 41 left-hemisphere stroke survivors with aphasia underwent cognitive testing and magnetic resonance imaging. To address relationships with demographic and impairment-based measures, test scores were entered into a principal component analysis (PCA) and multiple linear regression was performed for overall and domain (physical, communication, psychosocial) scores of the Stroke and Aphasia Quality of Life Scale (SAQOL-39g). Independent variables included factor scores from the PCA, motricity, lesion volume, depressed mood, and demographic variables. To address relationships with lesion location, multivariate support vector regression lesion-symptom mapping (SVR-LSM) was used to localize lesions associated with SAQOL-39g scores.

RESULTS

The PCA yielded 3 factors, which were labeled Language Production, Nonlinguistic Cognition, and Language Comprehension. Multiple linear regression revealed that depression symptoms predicted lower SAQOL-39g average and domain scores. Lower motricity scores predicted lower SAQOL-39g average and physical scores, and lower Language Production factor scores predicted lower communication scores. SVR-LSM demonstrated that basal ganglia lesions were associated with lower physical scores, and inferior frontal lesions were associated with lower psychosocial scores.

CONCLUSIONS

HRQL in chronic left-hemisphere stroke survivors with aphasia relates to lesion location, depression symptoms, and impairment-based measures. This information may help identify individuals at risk for specific aspects of low HRQL and facilitate targeted interventions to improve well-being.

Dynamic Neural Network Changes Revealed by Voxel-Based Functional Connectivity Strength in Left Basal Ganglia Ischemic Stroke

Objective

This study intends to track whole-brain functional connectivity strength (FCS) changes and the lateralization index (LI) in left basal ganglia (BG) ischemic stroke patients.

Methods

Twenty-five patients (N = 25; aged 52.73 ± 10.51 years) with five visits at <7, 14, 30, 90, and 180 days and 26 healthy controls (HCs; N = 26; 51.84 ± 8.06 years) were examined with resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) and motor function testing. FCS and LI were calculated through constructing the voxel-based brain functional network. One-way analysis of covariance (ANOVA) was first performed to obtain longitudinal FCS and LI changes in patients among the five visits (Bonferroni corrected, P < 0.05). Then, pairwise comparisons of FCS and LI were obtained during the five visits, and the two-sample t test was used to examine between-group differences in FCS [family-wise error (FWE) corrected, P < 0.05] and LI. Correlations between connectivity metrics (FCS and LI) and motor function were further assessed.

Results

Compared to HCs, decreased FCS in the patients localized in the calcarine and inferior occipital gyrus (IOG), while increased FCS gathered in the middle prefrontal cortex (MPFC), middle frontal gyrus, and insula (P < 0.05). The LI and FCS of patients first decreased and then increased, which showed significant differences compared with HCs (P < 0.05) and demonstrated a transition at the 30-day visit. Additionally, LI at the third visit was significantly different from those at the other visits (P < 0.05). No significant longitudinal correlations were observed between motor function and FCS or LI (P > 0.05).

Conclusion

Focal ischemic stroke in the left BG leads to extensive alterations in the FCS. Strong plasticity in the functional networks could be reorganized in different temporal dynamics to facilitate motor recovery after BG stroke, contribute to diagnosing the disease course, and estimate the intervention treatment.

Stereotyped, automatized and habitual behaviours: are they similar constructs under the control of the same cerebral areas?

Comprehensive knowledge about higher executive functions of motor control has been covered in the last decades. Critical goals have been targeted through many different technological approaches. An abundant flow of new results greatly progressed our ability to respond at better-posited answers to look more than ever at the challenging neural system functioning. Behaviour is the observable result of the invisible, as complex cerebral functioning. Many pathological states are approached after symptomatology categorisation of behavioural impairments is achieved. Motor, non-motor and psychiatric signs are greatly shared by many neurological/psychiatric disorders. Together with the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia contribute to the expression of behaviour promoting the correct action schemas and the selection of appropriate sub-goals based on the evaluation of action outcomes. The present review focus on the basic classification of higher motor control functioning, taking into account the recent advances in basal ganglia structural knowledge and the computational model of basal ganglia functioning. We discuss about the basal ganglia capability in executing ordered motor patterns in which any single movement is linked to each other into an action, and many actions are ordered into each other, giving them a syntactic value to the final behaviour. The stereotypic, automatized and habitual behaviour's constructs and controls are the expression of successive stages of rule internalization and categorisation aimed in producing the perfect spatial-temporal control of motor command.

GPRIN3 Controls Neuronal Excitability, Morphology, and Striatal-Dependent Behaviors in the Indirect Pathway of the Striatum

The regulation of the striatum by the GPCR signaling through neuromodulators is essential for its physiology and physiopathology, so it is necessary to know all the compounds of these pathways. In this study, we identified a new important partner of the dopaminergic pathway: GPRIN3 (a member of the GPRIN family). GPRIN3 is highly expressed in the striatum but with undefined function. Cell sorting of medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in indirect MSNs and direct MSNs indicated the presence of the GPRIN3 gene in both populations with a preferential expression in indirect MSNs. This led us to generate GPRIN3 KO mice by CRISPR/Cas9 and test male animals to access possible alterations in morphological, electrophysiological, and behavioral parameters following its absence. 3D reconstruction analysis of MSNs revealed increased neuronal arborization in GPRIN3 KO and modified passive and active electrophysiological properties. These cellular alterations were coupled with increased motivation and cocaine-induced hyperlocomotion. Additionally, using a specific indirect MSN knockdown, we showed a preferential role for GPRIN3 in indirect MSNs related to the D₂R signaling. Together, these results show that GPRIN3 is a mediator of D₂R function in the striatum playing a major role in striatal physiology.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The striatum is the main input of the basal ganglia processing information from different brain regions through the combined actions of direct pathway neurons and indirect pathway neurons. Both neuronal populations are defined by the expression of dopamine D₁R or D₂R GPCRs, respectively. How these neurons signal to the respective G-protein is still debatable. Here we identified GPRIN3 as a putative selective controller of D₂R function in the striatum playing a critical role in striatal-associated behaviors and cellular functions. This study represents the identification of a new target to tackle striatal dysfunction associated with the D₂R, such as schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and drug addiction.

Reliability of supraspinal correlates to lower urinary tract stimulation in healthy participants - A fMRI study

Previous functional neuroimaging studies provided evidence for a specific supraspinal network involved in lower urinary tract (LUT) control. However, data on the reliability of blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signal changes during LUT task-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) across separate measurements are lacking. Proof of the latter is crucial to evaluate whether fMRI can be used to assess supraspinal responses to LUT treatments. Therefore, we prospectively assessed task-specific supraspinal responses from 20 healthy participants undergoing two fMRI measurements (test-retest) within 5-8 weeks. The fMRI measurements, conducted in a 3T magnetic resonance (MR) scanner, comprised a block design of repetitive bladder filling and drainage using an automated MR-compatible and MR-synchronized infusion-drainage device. Following transurethral catheterization and bladder pre-filling with body warm saline until participants perceived a persistent desire to void (START condition), fMRI was recorded during repetitive blocks (each 15 s) of INFUSION and WITHDRAWAL of 100 mL body warm saline into respectively from the bladder. BOLD signal changes were calculated for INFUSION minus START. In addition to whole brain analysis, we assessed BOLD signal changes within multiple 'a priori' region of interest (ROI), i.e. brain areas known to be involved in the LUT control from previous literature. To evaluate reliability of the fMRI results between visits, we applied different types of analyses: coefficient of variation (CV), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), Sørensen-Dice index, Bland-Altman method, and block-wise BOLD signal comparison. All participants completed the study without adverse events. The desire to void was rated significantly higher for INFUSION compared to START or WITHDRAWAL at both measurements without any effect of visit. At whole brain level, significant (p < 0.05, cluster corrected, k ≥ 41 voxels) BOLD signal changes were found for the contrast INFUSION compared to START in several brain areas. Overlap of activation maps from both measurements were observed in the orbitofrontal cortex, insula, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), and inferior parietal lobe. The two highest ICCs, based on a ROI's mean beta weight, were 0.55 (right insular cortex) and 0.47 (VLPFC). Spatial congruency (Sørensen-Dice index) of all voxels within each ROI between measurements was highest in the insular cortex (left 0.55, right 0.44). In addition, the mean beta weight of the right insula and right VLPFC demonstrated the lowest CV and narrowest Bland and Altman 95% limits of agreement. In conclusion, the right insula and right VLPFC were revealed as the two most reliable task-specific ROIs using our automated, MR-synchronized protocol. Achieving high reliability using a viscero-sensory/interoceptive task such as repetitive bladder filling remains challenging and further endeavour is highly warranted to better understand which factors influence fMRI outcomes and finally to assess LUT treatment effects on the supraspinal level.

Compensatory Relearning Following Stroke: Cellular and Plasticity Mechanisms in Rodents

von Monakow’s theory of diaschisis states the functional ‘standstill’ of intact brain regions that are remote from a damaged area, often implied in recovery of function. Accordingly, neural plasticity and activity patterns related to recovery are also occurring at the same regions. Recovery relies on plasticity in the periinfarct and homotopic contralesional regions and involves relearning to perform movements. Seeking evidence for a relearning mechanism following stroke, we found that rodents display many features that resemble classical learning and memory mechanisms. Compensatory relearning is likely to be accompanied by gradual shaping of these regions and pathways, with participating neurons progressively adapting cortico-striato-thalamic activity and synaptic strengths at different cortico-thalamic loops – adapting function relayed by the striatum. Motor cortex functional maps are progressively reinforced and shaped by these loops as the striatum searches for different functional actions. Several cortical and striatal cellular mechanisms that influence motor learning may also influence post-stroke compensatory relearning. Future research should focus on how different neuromodulatory systems could act before, during or after rehabilitation to improve stroke recovery.

Oxadiazon affects the expression and activity of aldehyde dehydrogenase and acylphosphatase in human striatal precursor cells: A possible role in neurotoxicity

Exposure to herbicides can induce long-term chronic adverse effects such as respiratory diseases, malignancies and neurodegenerative diseases. Oxadiazon, a pre-emergence or early post-emergence herbicide, despite its low acute toxicity, may induce liver cancer and may exert adverse effects on reproductive and on endocrine functions. Unlike other herbicides, there are no indications on neurotoxicity associated with long-term exposure to oxadiazon. Therefore, we have analyzed in primary neuronal precursor cells isolated from human striatal primordium the effects of non-cytotoxic doses of oxadiazon on neuronal cell differentiation and migration, and on the expression and activity of the mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) and of the acylphosphatase (ACYP). ALDH2 activity protects neurons against neurotoxicity induced by toxic aldehydes during oxidative stress and plays a role in neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. ACYP is involved in ion transport, cell differentiation, programmed cell death and cancer, and increased levels of ACYP have been revealed in fibroblasts from patients affected by Alzheimer's disease. In this study we demonstrated that non-cytotoxic doses of oxadiazon were able to inhibit neuronal striatal cell migration and FGF2- and BDNF-dependent differentiation towards neuronal phenotype, and to inhibit the expression and activity of ALDH2 and to increase the expression and activity of ACYP2. In addition, we have provided evidence that in human primary neuronal precursor striatal cells the inhibitory effects of oxadiazon on cell migration and differentiation towards neuronal phenotype were achieved through modulation of ACYP2. Taken together, our findings reveal for the first time that oxadiazon could exert neurotoxic effects by impairing differentiative capabilities of primary neuronal cells and indicate that ALDH2 and ACYP2 are relevant molecular targets for the neurotoxic effects of oxadiazon, suggesting a potential role of this herbicide in the onset of neurodegenerative diseases.

The Basal Ganglia: More than just a switching device

The basal ganglia consist of a variety of subcortical nuclei engaged in motor control and executive functions, such as motor learning, behavioral control, and emotion. The striatum, a major basal ganglia component, is particularly useful for cognitive planning of purposive motor acts owing to its structural features and the neuronal circuitry established with the cerebral cortex. Recent data indicate emergent functions played by the striatum. Indeed, cortico-striatal circuits carrying motor information are paralleled by circuits originating from associative and limbic territories, which are functionally integrated in the striatum. Functional integration between brain areas is achieved through patterns of coherent activity. Coherence belonging to cortico-basal ganglia circuits is also present in Parkinson's disease patients. Excessive synchronization occurring in this pathology is reduced by dopaminergic therapies. The mechanisms through which the dopaminergic effects may be addressed are the object of several ongoing investigations. Overall, the bulk of data reported in recent years has provided new vistas concerning basal ganglia role in the organization and control of movement and behavior, both in physiological and pathological conditions. In this review, basal ganglia functions involved in the organization of main movement categories and behaviors are critically discussed. Comparatively, the multiplicity of Parkinson's disease symptomatology is also revised.