Willing and able? Theory of mind, social motivation, and social competence in middle childhood and early adolescence

From mindreading to originality: Exploring the relationship between Theory of Mind and Creativity across the lifespan

In the previous psychoeducational literature, many theorists have argued that creativity and originality require the ability to make predictions and assumptions regarding other individuals' ideas. Thus, it has been widely hypothesized that social cognition and theory of mind (ToM) might be a fundamental component or even a prerequisite of creativity. Despite their common grounds, the empirical evidence examining the potential link between ToM and creative thinking throughout their development seems to be indirect, limited, and fragmented. In this respect, this scoping review aimed to collect and synthesize the existing knowledge about the relationship between ToM and creativity at different ages to identify significant literature gaps and generate updated research questions that might guide future research. The search process led to the inclusion, analysis, and collation of 6 relevant studies only, indicating that this research topic has been poorly investigated. Results demonstrated that ToM and creativity are strongly correlated even after partialling out significant mediators, such as age and intelligence. Such a strong association should be further investigated and explained.

The role of social cognition in mental health trajectories from childhood to adolescence

We investigated the association between an aspect of Theory of Mind in childhood, false-belief understanding, and trajectories of internalising (emotional and peer) and externalising (conduct and hyperactivity) problems in childhood and adolescence. The sample was 8408 children from the UK's Millennium Cohort Study, followed at ages 5, 7, 11, 14, and 17 years. Social cognitive abilities were measured at 5 and 7 years through a vignette version of the Sally-Anne task administered by an unfamiliar assessor in a socially demanding dyadic interaction. Internalising and externalising problems were measured via the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire at 7-17 years. Using latent growth modelling, and after controlling for sex, ethnicity, maternal education, verbal ability, and time-varying family income, we found that superior social cognitive abilities predicted a decrease in emotional problems over time. In sex-stratified analyses, they predicted decreasing conduct problem trajectories in females and lower levels of conduct problems at baseline in males.

Motor difficulties from childhood to midlife: A 40-year cohort study

BACKGROUND

There are few studies of the persistence of childhood motor difficulties (MD) into adulthood.

AIMS

To investigate the association of childhood MD with motor skills and body mass index (BMI) in midlife.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

We studied 324 adults aged 40 from a cohort born in 1971-1974. At age 9, they had undergone the Test of Motor Impairment, used to classify them into groups: childhood MD (cMD), borderline cMD (bcMD), or no cMD. At age 40, participants comprised 23 with cMD, 47 with bcMD, and 254 with no cMD. Participants completed motor tests of balance, manual dexterity, and visuomotor speed, followed by recording of their BMI.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

At age 40, the cMD group performed worse than the no-cMD group on all motor tests (p < .001-.008). The bcMD group had slower visuomotor speed than the no-cMD group (p = .025). The groups differed in BMI (p = .002). Having cMD was associated with obesity in midlife (p < .001). After adjusting for sex, childhood socioeconomic status, and BMI at age 9, both cMD and bcMD were associated with obesity in midlife (p = .015).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Childhood MD are associated with poor motor skills, overweight, and obesity in midlife. This emphasises the importance of early intervention and follow-up when a child exhibits MD.

WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS

This prospective longitudinal study presents novel evidence that individuals with a history of comprehensively and objectively assessed childhood motor difficulties (MD) have worse motor skills and a higher risk of obesity in midlife than do those with no childhood MD. There is a growing literature on adults with developmental coordination disorder or a history of MD. There is, however, a scarcity of longitudinal studies of childhood MD that continue beyond early adulthood, into midlife. In a systematic search, we could identify only one longitudinal study of objectively measured childhood MD with a reassessment of motor skills in those same participants in adulthood, and no study with a reassessment after age 20. Furthermore, longitudinal studies of the association of comprehensively and objectively assessed childhood MD with BMI in midlife have been lacking.

Children in ethnically diverse classrooms and those with cross-ethnic friendships excel at understanding others' minds

This study examined the link between classroom ethnic diversity, cross-ethnic friendships, and children's theory of mind. In total, 730 children in the United Kingdom (54.7% girls, 51.5% White) aged 8 to 13 years completed measures of theory of mind in 2019/2020. Controlling for verbal ability, executive function, peer social preference, and teacher-reported demographic characteristics, greater classroom ethnic diversity provided opportunities for cross-ethnic friendships, and children with cross-ethnic friendships performed better than peers without cross-ethnic friendships on theory of mind. These results extend accounts of intergroup contact by using direct assessments of children's theory of mind and advance social accounts of theory of mind by demonstrating how experiences outside the family are linked with theory of mind.

Measures of individual differences in adult theory of mind: A systematic review

Theory of mind (ToM), the ability to understand and reason about mental states, has been extensively studied in young children and clinical populations. A growing interest in examining ToM in adults has emerged over the past two decades, but the extent to which existing measures are suitable for studying adults, especially in detecting individual differences, remains understudied. In this systematic review of 273 studies, 75 measures used to investigate individual differences in adults' ToM were identified. Their sensitivity to individual differences, reliability, and validity were examined. Results suggest that ceiling effects were prevalent, and there was limited evidence to establish the reliability or validity of these measures due to the lack of reports of psychometric properties. Interrelations among measures were inconsistent. These findings highlight the need for future empirical and theoretical work to broaden the evidence base regarding psychometric properties of measures, to develop new measures, and to lay out more specific hypotheses about the relevance of ToM for different social outcomes.

Parenting links to parent-child interbrain synchrony: a real-time fNIRS hyperscanning study

Parent-child interaction is crucial for children's cognitive and affective development. While bio-synchrony models propose that parenting influences interbrain synchrony during interpersonal interaction, the brain-to-brain mechanisms underlying real-time parent-child interactions remain largely understudied. Using functional near-infrared spectroscopy, we investigated interbrain synchrony in 88 parent-child dyads (Mage children = 8.07, 42.0% girls) during a collaborative task (the Etch-a-Sketch, a joint drawing task). Our findings revealed increased interbrain synchrony in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and temporo-parietal areas during interactive, collaborative sessions compared to non-interactive, resting sessions. Linear regression analysis demonstrated that interbrain synchrony in the left temporoparietal junction was associated with enhanced dyadic collaboration, shared positive affect, parental autonomy support, and parental emotional warmth. These associations remained significant after controlling for demographic variables including child age, child gender, and parent gender. Additionally, differences between fathers and mothers were observed. These results highlight the significant association between brain-to-brain synchrony in parent-child dyads, the quality of the parent-child relationship, and supportive parenting behaviors. Interbrain synchrony may serve as a neurobiological marker of real-time parent-child interaction, potentially underscoring the pivotal role of supportive parenting in shaping these interbrain synchrony mechanisms.

Lowered social motivation is associated with adolescent attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and social anxiety symptoms

BACKGROUND

Difficulties in social skills are highly prevalent in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), however, the reasons for these social difficulties are poorly understood. This study aimed to understand social motivation in children (aged 5-8) and adolescents (aged 13-17) with and without ADHD, and the relationship between social anxiety and social motivation in youth with ADHD.

METHOD

204 parents of children and adolescents with and without ADHD completed online questionnaires on social motivation, social anxiety, and ADHD symptoms.

RESULTS

Adolescents with ADHD had significantly lower social motivation than typically developing adolescents, and children with ADHD. Higher social anxiety significantly predicted lowered social motivation in participants with ADHD.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate a unique pattern of social motivation in ADHD, specifically a reduction during adolescence, reflecting social intervention inefficacy. Additionally, these findings establish a link between social motivation and social anxiety, suggesting that they may act as barriers to social intervention.

Predictors of nursing students' intentions to participate in an internationalization-at-home program: The roles of expectancies for success and subjective task value

BACKGROUND

Internationalization-at-home programs are a unique opportunity for those who had been planning to study abroad to learn global clinical practices and cultures at home. However, the factors influencing the motivation of students to join such programs remain unexplored.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship among expectancies for success, subjective task value, and the intention to participate in an internationalization-at-home program, and to identify key factors predicting such an intention among undergraduate nursing students.

DESIGN

A descriptive correlational design with a predictive approach was adopted.

METHODS

A total of 522 undergraduate and postgraduate nursing students in a Hong Kong university participated in the study. Intention to participate in the program was assessed using the Comprehensive Relative Autonomy Index. Expectancies for success and subjective task value were assessed as potential predictors. A multiple linear regression analysis was adopted to examine the predictive effects.

RESULTS

The participants were aged 17-31 years (mean = 20.95, SD = 2.39). Those who reported having previously participated in the program (β = 0.10, p-value = .014), greater intercultural communication competence (β = 0.14, p-value = .003), greater perceived social competence (β = 0.11, p-value = .031), and a higher subjective value of the program (β = 0.28, p-value<.001) expressed a greater intention to join the program. Collectively, the three variables accounted for 14.7 % of the variances in intention to participate in the program.

CONCLUSIONS

Cultural self-efficacy, intercultural communication competence, perceived social competence, individual interest, foreign language learning motivation, and subjective value of the program were found to be key factors predicting the intention of nursing students to participate in internationalization-at-home. Future studies can provide interventions to address these factors and enhance the benefits of internationalization-at-home programs.

Socio-demographic and political predictors of Theory of Mind in adulthood

Individual differences in Theory of Mind (ToM)-the ability to understand the mental states of others-are theorised to be predicted by socio-demographic and political factors. However, inconsistent findings on the relationships between various socio-demographic predictors and ToM, as well as a paucity of research on political predictors of ToM, have left a gap in the literature. Using a recently validated self-report measure of ToM in a large sample (N = 4202) we investigated the unique contributions of age, sex, socio-economic status, and political beliefs to ToM in adults. Except for age, all variables were correlated with ToM, but when accounting for the variance of other predictors in statistical analyses, political beliefs was no longer associated with ToM. Dominance analysis revealed that participant sex was the most important predictor of ToM. These findings help to address theoretical discrepancies in the existing literature and inform future methods and directions in social cognition research.

Theory of Mind and Young Children's Behaviour: Aggressive, Victimised, Prosocial, and Solitary

Theory of mind (ToM) undergoes significant developments during childhood, particularly between the ages of four and seven years. A growing body of research has indicated that children's social understanding may be related to their social behaviour with peers, in line with Theory Theory which proposes that children's social cognition is influenced by and influences their peer interactions. The current study examined the relationship between ToM and behaviour among 193 children aged 4-7 years. Children carried out a battery of ToM tasks, and teaching staff reported on children's aggressive, prosocial, and solitary behaviour and victimisation experiences. Aggression was not directly related to ToM; prosocial behaviour was positively associated with ToM for girls but not boys. Solitary behaviour and victimisation were negatively related to ToM. When this was broken down by gender, there was only a significant association between solitary behaviour and ToM for boys. When controlling for the relationship between behaviours, the only significant predictor of ToM was solitary behaviour for boys. ToM was also a significant predictor of solitary behaviour for boys, demonstrating that there is a bidirectional relationship at play. The findings highlight the importance of looking across these four behaviour types and understanding the relationship between behaviour profiles and ToM for boys and girls separately.

The moderating role of spirituality and gender in Canadian and Iranian emerging adolescents’ theory of mind and prosocial behavior

Introduction

While research has found a link between ToM and prosociality in terms of caring and helping others which may also vary across cultures, the moderating role of spirituality and culture of this association in emerging adolescence has received little attention.

Methods

The current study empirically “examined” the role of spirituality and gender in relation to ToM and prosocial behavior in Canadian and Iranian emerging adolescents. A total of 300 (153 girls) emerging adolescents (M = 11.502, SD = 2.228) were recruited from Montreal, Canada and Karaj, Iran. A series of double moderation analysis and ANOVA was conducted.

Results and discussion

Results indicated the difference between direct and indirect influences of ToM and its interactions with culture, gender, and spirituality on prosocial behavior. This implies an emerging complex framework which suggests the dynamic nonlinear interactions between these factors. Implications for youth’s social-emotional understanding will be discussed.

Reading fiction and reading minds in early adolescence: A longitudinal study

Reading fiction is argued to have benefits for our understanding of others' thoughts, feelings and desires, referred to as 'theory of mind'(ToM). We aimed to test this assumption by examining whether children's reading experience is longitudinally associated with later ToM. We examined reading experience and ToM in 236 children between the ages of 11-13 years. Participants were asked to report on their time spent reading both fiction and non-fiction at ages 11 and 13, ToM was measured at age 13. Verbal ability, reading comprehension, and reading motivation were included as control variables in all analyses. Results showed that children's self-reported fiction, but not their non-fiction reading was associated with ToM. Further, the association was concurrent but not longitudinal: fiction reading and ToM at age 13 were associated but fiction reading at age 11 did not predict ToM at age 13. Our findings motivate further research on what types of reading materials might be beneficial, and the level of exposure to fiction that is needed for measurable benefits for later ToM.

Linking fine motor skills with theory of mind in school-age children

Motor skills have been linked to language and social development with implications for theory of mind. This study examined theory of mind (attribution of intentions task) in school-age children ( N = 62, mean age 8 years; 2 months, standard deviation [ SD] = 1;3) in relation to fine motor skills (grooved pegboard), receptive vocabulary (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test), receptive grammar (Test for the Reception of Grammar), reading comprehension (Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests), verbal short-term (nonword repetition), and visual-spatial working memory (one-shape array memory). All variables except verbal short-term memory correlated with accuracy on theory of mind. In regression models, fine motor skills accounted for variance in theory of mind after controlling for age, language, and working memory. The results add to research linking fine motor skills with faux pas understanding, indicating the potentially broad impact of motor skills on social cognition. Given the cross-sectional study design, longitudinal research is warranted to address causality.

Just listen to your mind: Consequences of theory of mind development for deaf or hard-of-hearing children

BACKGROUND

Previous research reveals relations between theory of mind (ToM) and cognitive outcomes, but mostly among typically developing children.

AIM

To study these relations in children with developmental difficulties, this longitudinal study investigated the cognitive consequences of ToM in deaf or hard-of-hearing (DHH) children.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

One hundred and thirty-four (X = 9.2 years) participants were assessed in three waves, i.e., one wave every ten months. The participants completed the ToM scale, language and literacy skills (LLS) tests, the academic self-concept in language (ASC-L) questionnaire, and the sensitivity to criticism measure.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

The results revealed that high levels of children's ToM ability predicted higher levels of LLS 20 months later. Mediators of this association were sensitivity to criticism and ASC-L. Controlling for LLS at T1, ASC-L at T2 mediated the relations between ToM and LLS at T3. Moreover, sensitivity to criticism predicted ASC-L, and sensitivity to criticism and ASC-L mediated the relation between ToM and LLS at T3. That is, children who were sensitive to criticism and held positive views of their academic self were also better skilled in ToM and in LLS.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our results can help improve the education of DHH students.

Development of the mentalizing network structures and theory of mind in extremely preterm youth

Adolescents born preterm (<37 weeks of gestation) are at elevated risk for deficits in social cognition and peer relationships. Theory of Mind (ToM) is a complex form of social cognition important for regulating social interactions. ToM and the underlying mentalizing network continue to develop across adolescence. The present study recruited 48 adolescents (12-17 years old) who were either born extremely preterm (EPT; <28 weeks of gestation) or full-term (FT) at birth. Cortical thickness, gray matter volume and surface area were measured in four regions of the mentalizing network: the temporoparietal junction, anterior temporal cortex, posterior superior temporal sulcus and frontal pole (mBA10). We also assessed the adolescents' performance on a ToM task. Findings revealed both group differences and group-by-age interaction effects in the gray matter indices within the temporal lobe regions of the mentalizing network. The EPT group also performed significantly worse than the FT group on the ToM task. The cortical structural measures that discriminated the EPT and FT groups were not related to ToM performance. These results highlight altered developmental changes in brain regions underlying mentalizing functions in EPT adolescents relative to FT controls.

Evaluating the efficacy of a school-based Finnish Gutsy Go programme in enhancing adolescents' positive mental health, experience of social inclusion, and social competence

Background: The Finnish Gutsy Go programme is a positive youth development intervention designed to enhance adolescents' psychosocial well-being by enabling eighth-grade students to develop and execute good deeds within the community.Objective: This study aimed to explore the effect of the Gutsy Go programme on adolescents' positive mental health, experience of social inclusion, and social competence using a quasi-experimental study design.Methods: Data were collected with electronic questionnaires at baseline (n = 236 programme participants and n = 303 controls) and follow-up two weeks after the programme (n = 126, 54.2% programme participants and n = 103, 34.1% controls). Analyses included paired samples t-tests and mixed ANOVA analyses.Results: A statistically significant intragroup change across time was detected in the level of cooperation skills among programme participants (t(127) = -2.460, p = 0.015) but not among controls (t(102) = 1.088, p = 0.279). Statistically significant main effects were found for the intervention group on the experience of social inclusion (F(1, 1) = 9.34, p = 0.003, ηp2 = 0.040), cooperation skills (F(1,1) = 5.28, p = 0.020, ηp2 = 0.020), and empathy (F(1,1) = 6.44, p = 0.010, ηp2 = 0.030) across time.Conclusion: The Gutsy Go programme could be beneficial in improving adolescents' experience of social inclusion, cooperation skills, and empathy. More studies are needed to address the effects of the programme more firmly.