Is post-feeding thermotaxis advantageous in elasmobranch fishes?

Upper thermal tolerance and population implications for the Magdalena River stingray Potamotrygon magdalenae

Knowledge of thermal tolerance limits provides important clues to the capacity of a species to withstand acute and chronic thermal changes. Climate models predict the increase and intensification of events such as heat waves, therefore understanding the upper thermal limits that a species can tolerate has become of utmost importance. We measured the upper thermal tolerance of the endemic Magdalena river stingray Potamotrygon magdalenae acclimated to experimental conditions, and then used critical thermal methodology to find the temperature at which an organism reaches a critical endpoint where locomotory activity becomes disorganized and the animal loses its ability to escape from conditions that will promptly lead to its death. We also describe the behavioral response of individuals to acute thermal stress and infer the possible consequences of temperature increases in the habitats of P. magdalenae populations. There were no significant differences between sexes in temperature tolerance or behavior. The critical thermal maximum (39°C) was 5.9°C above the maximum recorded temperature for the study area. Although P. magdalenae was tolerant to high temperature and currently is not living at its upper thermal limit, its survival in Guarinocito Pond will be threatened if temperatures continue to increase, considering the warming scenarios predicted for tropical regions due to climate change, even including short-term climate phenomena such as El Niño.

Ontogenetic Plasticity in Shoaling Behavior in a Forage Fish under Warming

Shoaling behavior is known to increase survival rates during attacks from predators, minimize foraging time, favor mating, and potentially increase locomotor efficiency. The onset of shoaling typically occurs during the larval phase, but it is unclear how it may improve across ontogenetic stages in forage fishes. Warming is known to increase metabolic rates during locomotion in solitary fish, and shoaling species may adjust their collective behavior to offset the elevated costs of swimming at higher temperatures. In this study, we quantified the effects of warming on shoaling performance across the ontogeny of a small forage fish, zebrafish (Danio rerio) at different speeds. Shoals of larval, juvenile, and adult zebrafish were acclimated at two temperatures (28°C and 32°C), and metabolic rates were quantified prior to and following nonexhaustive exercise at high speed. Shoals of five individuals were filmed in a flow tank to analyze the kinematics of collective movement. We found that zebrafish improve shoaling swimming performance from larvae to juveniles to adults. In particular, shoals become more cohesive, and both tail beat frequency (TBF) and head-to-tail amplitude decrease with ontogeny. Early life stages have higher thermal sensitivity in metabolic rates and TBF especially at high speeds, when compared to adults. Our study shows that shoaling behavior and thermal sensitivity improve as zebrafish shift from larval to juvenile to adult stages.

EcoPhysioMechanics: Integrating energetics and biomechanics to understand fish locomotion under climate change

Ecological physiologists and biomechanists have been broadly investigating swimming performance in a diversity of fishes, however the connection between form, function and energetics of locomotion has been rarely evaluated in the same system and under climate change scenarios. In this perspective I argue that working within the framework of 'EcoPhysioMechanics', i.e., integrating energetics and biomechanics tools, to measure locomotor performance and behavior under different abiotic factors, improves our understanding of the mechanisms, limits and costs of movement. To demonstrate how ecophysiomechanics can be applied to locomotor studies, I outline how linking biomechanics and physiology allows us to understand how fishes may modulate their movement to achieve high speeds or reduce the costs of locomotion. I also discuss how the framework is necessary to quantify swimming capacity under climate change scenarios. Finally, I discuss current dearth of integrative studies and gaps in empirical datasets that are necessary to understand fish swimming under changing environments.

High resolution acoustic telemetry reveals swim speeds and inferred field metabolic rates in juvenile white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias)

White sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) are the largest shark species to display regional endothermy. This capability likely facilitates exploitation of resources beyond thermal tolerance thresholds of potential sympatric competitors as well as sustained elevated swim speeds, but results in increased metabolic costs of adults, which has been documented in different studies. Little, however, is known of the metabolic requirements in free-swimming juveniles of the species, due to their large size at birth and challenges in measuring their oxygen consumption rates in captivity. We used trilateration of positional data from high resolution acoustic-telemetry to derive swim speeds from speed-over-ground calculations for eighteen free-swimming individual juvenile white sharks, and subsequently estimate associated mass-specific oxygen consumption rates as a proxy for field routine metabolic rates. Resulting estimates of mass-specific field routine metabolic rates (368 mg O₂ kg⁻¹ h⁻¹ ± 27 mg O₂ kg⁻¹ h⁻¹ [mean ± S.D.]) are markedly lower than those reported in sub-adult and adult white sharks by previous studies. We argue that median cruising speeds while aggregating at nearshore nursery habitats (0.6 m s^-1 [mean ± S.E = 0.59 ± 0.001], 0.3 TL s^-1) are likely a feature of behavioral strategies designed to optimize bioenergetic efficiency, by modulating activity rates in response to environmental temperature profiles to buffer heat loss and maintain homeostasis. Such behavioral strategies more closely resemble those exhibited in ectotherm sharks, than mature conspecifics.

Diel patterns in swimming behavior of a vertically migrating deepwater shark, the bluntnose sixgill (Hexanchus griseus)

Diel vertical migration is a widespread behavioral phenomenon where organisms migrate through the water column and may modify behavior relative to changing environmental conditions based on physiological tolerances. Here, we combined a novel suite of biologging technologies to examine the thermal physiology (intramuscular temperature), fine-scale swimming behavior and activity (overall dynamic body acceleration as a proxy for energy expenditure) of bluntnose sixgill sharks (Hexanchus griseus) in response to environmental changes (depth, water temperature, dissolved oxygen) experienced during diel vertical migrations. In the subtropical waters off Hawai‘i, sixgill sharks undertook pronounced diel vertical migrations and spent considerable amounts of time in cold (5–7°C), low oxygen conditions (10–25% saturation) during their deeper daytime distribution. Further, sixgill sharks spent the majority of their deeper daytime distribution with intramuscular temperatures warmer than ambient water temperatures, thereby providing them with a significant thermal advantage over non-vertically migrating and smaller-sized prey. Sixgill sharks exhibited relatively high rates of activity during both shallow (night) and deep (day) phases and contrary to our predictions, did not reduce activity levels during their deeper daytime distribution while experiencing low temperature and dissolved oxygen levels. This demonstrates an ability to tolerate the low oxygen conditions occurring within the local oxygen minimum zone. The novel combination of biologging technologies used here enabled innovative in situ deep-sea natural experiments and provided significant insight into the behavioral and physiological ecology of an ecologically important deepwater species.

Ocean acidification and warming affect skeletal mineralization in a marine fish

Ocean acidification and warming are known to alter, and in many cases decrease, calcification rates of shell and reef building marine invertebrates. However, to date, there are no datasets on the combined effect of ocean pH and temperature on skeletal mineralization of marine vertebrates, such as fishes. Here, the embryos of an oviparous marine fish, the little skate ( Leucoraja erinacea), were developmentally acclimatized to current and increased temperature and CO₂ conditions as expected by the year 2100 (15 and 20°C, approx. 400 and 1100 µatm, respectively), in a fully crossed experimental design. Using micro-computed tomography, hydroxyapatite density was estimated in the mineralized portion of the cartilage in jaws, crura, vertebrae, denticles and pectoral fins of juvenile skates. Mineralization increased as a consequence of high CO₂ in the cartilage of crura and jaws, while temperature decreased mineralization in the pectoral fins. Mineralization affects stiffness and strength of skeletal elements linearly, with implications for feeding and locomotion performance and efficiency. This study is, to my knowledge, the first to quantify a significant change in mineralization in the skeleton of a fish and shows that changes in temperature and pH of the oceans have complex effects on fish skeletal morphology.

Higher temperatures increase developmental rate & reduce body size at hatching in the small-eyed skate Raja microocellata: implications for exploitation of an elasmobranch in warming seas

Effects of temperature on development of Raja microocellata was tested by maintaining embryos in controlled conditions representative of those predicted under current climate scenarios. There was a positive relationship between size of neonates & developmental rate: temperatures 14.5-16.5°C produced skates 3.5-7%, respectively, smaller than those raised at 12.5°C. Developmental rates were also 12-23% faster, with neonates hatching 3-7 weeks earlier.

Quantifying habitat selection and variability in habitat suitability for juvenile white sharks

While adult white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) are apex predators with a circumglobal distribution, juvenile white sharks (JWS) feed primarily on bottom dwelling fishes and tend to be coastally associated. Despite the assumedly easier access to juveniles compared to large, migratory adults, limited information is available on the movements, environments, and distributions of individuals during this life stage. To quantify movement and understand their distribution in the southern California Bight, JWS were captured and fitted with dorsal fin-mounted satellite transmitters (SPOT tags; n = 18). Nine individuals crossed the U.S. border into Baja California, Mexico. Individuals used shallow habitats (134.96 ± 191.1 m) close to shore (7.16 ± 5.65 km). A generalized linear model with a binomial distribution was used to predict the presence of individuals based on several environmental predictors from these areas. Juveniles were found to select shallow habitats (< 1000 m deep) close to land (< 30 km of the shoreline) in waters ranging from 14 to 24°C. Southern California was found to be suitable eight months of the year, while coastal habitats in Baja California were suitable year-round. The model predicted seasonal movement with sharks moving from southern California to Baja California during winter. Additionally, habitat distribution changed inter-annually with sharks having a more northerly distribution during years with a higher Pacific Decadal Oscillation index, suggesting sharks may forego their annual fall migrations to Baja California, Mexico, during El Niño years. Model predictions aligned with fishery-dependent catch data, with a greater number of sharks being captured during periods and/or areas of increased habitat suitability. Thus, habitat models could be useful for predicting the presence of JWS in other areas, and can be used as a tool for potentially reducing fishery interactions during seasons and locations where there is increased susceptibility of incidental catch.

Nitrogen handling in the elasmobranch gut: a role for microbial urease

Ureotelic elasmobranchs require nitrogen for both protein growth and urea-based osmoregulation, and therefore are probably nitrogen-limited in nature. Mechanisms exist for retaining and/or scavenging nitrogen in the gills, kidney, rectal gland and gut, but as yet, the latter are not well characterized. Intestinal sac preparations of the Pacific spiny dogfish shark (Squalus acanthias suckleyi) incubated in vitro strongly reabsorbed urea from the lumen after feeding, but mucosal fluid ammonia concentrations increased with incubation time. Phloretin (0.25 mmol l^-1, which blocked urea reabsorption) greatly increased the rate of ammonia accumulation in the lumen. A sensitive [¹⁴C]urea-based assay was developed to examine the potential role of microbial urease in this ammonia production. Urease activity was detected in chyme/intestinal fluid and intestinal epithelial tissue of both fed and fasted sharks. Urease was not present in gall-bladder bile. Urease activities were highly variable among animals, but generally greater in chyme than in epithelia, and greater in fed than in fasted sharks. Comparable urease activities were found in chyme and epithelia of the Pacific spotted ratfish (Hydrolagus colliei), a ureotelic holocephalan, but were much lower in ammonotelic teleosts. Urease activity in dogfish chyme was inhibited by acetohydroxamic acid (1 mmol l^-1) and by boiling. Treatment of dogfish gut sac preparations with acetohydroxamic acid blocked ammonia production, changing net ammonia accumulation into net ammonia absorption. We propose that microbial urease plays an important role in nitrogen handling in the elasmobranch intestine, allowing some urea-N to be converted to ammonia, which is then reabsorbed for amino acid synthesis or reconversion to urea.

Seagrass digestion by a notorious 'carnivore'

What an animal consumes and what an animal digests and assimilates for energetic demands are not always synonymous. Sharks, uniformly accepted as carnivores, have guts that are presumed to be well suited for a high-protein diet. However, the bonnethead shark (Sphyrna tiburo), which is abundant in critical seagrass habitats, has been previously shown to consume copious amounts of seagrass (up to 62.1% of gut content mass), although it is unknown if they can digest and assimilate seagrass nutrients. To determine if bonnetheads digest seagrass nutrients, captive sharks were fed a ¹³C-labelled seagrass diet. Digestibility analyses, digestive enzyme assays and stable isotope analyses were used to determine the bonnethead shark's capacity for digesting and assimilating seagrass material. Compound-specific stable isotope analysis showed that sharks assimilated seagrass carbon (13.6 ± 6.77‰ δ¹³C mean ± s.d. for all sharks and all amino acid types analysed) with 50 ± 2% digestibility of seagrass organic matter. Additionally, cellulose-component-degrading enzyme activities were detected in shark hindguts. We show that a coastal shark is digesting seagrass with at least moderate efficiency, which has ecological implications due to the stabilizing role of omnivory and nutrient transport within fragile seagrass ecosystems.

Thermal tolerance of the invasive red-bellied pacu and the risk of establishment in the United States

Indigenous red-bellied pacu, Piaractus brachypomus, populations are in decline due to overfishing. Once ignored by aquaculturists because of their perceived low economic value, renewed aquaculture efforts in Central and South America aim to relieve fishing pressures on natural pacu populations. In the southern United States pacu aquaculture for the aquarium trade has raised concerns that accidental release could lead to establishment of overwintering populations outside captivity-a threat accentuated by the average 6 °C increase in shallow-water temperatures predicted by the end of the century. In the present study, Critical and Chronic Thermal Methodology was used to quantify red-bellied pacu thermal tolerance niche requirements. The data suggest that red-belllied pacu are a thermophilic species capable of tolerating low and high chronic temperatures of 16.5 °C and 35 °C, respectively. Critical thermal minimum and maximum temperatures of fish acclimated near their chronic limits are 10.3 and 44.4 °C. Red-bellied pacu aquaculture in the United States is concentrated in subtropical Florida regions that encourage rapid growth and reproduction, but carry an increased risk of establishing reproducing populations in local freshwater systems. The thermal niche data show that the risk of bioinvasion can be reduced or eliminated by adopting an approach whereby aquaculture potential is integrated with environmental temperature constraints.

High postural costs and anaerobic metabolism during swimming support the hypothesis of a U-shaped metabolism-speed curve in fishes

Swimming performance is considered a key trait determining the ability of fish to survive. Hydrodynamic theory predicts that the energetic costs required for fishes to swim should vary with speed according to a U-shaped curve, with an expected energetic minimum at intermediate cruising speeds and increasing expenditure at low and high speeds. However, to date no complete datasets have shown an energetic minimum for swimming fish at intermediate speeds rather than low speeds. To address this knowledge gap, we used a negatively buoyant fish, the clearnose skate Raja eglanteria, and took two approaches: a classic critical swimming speed protocol and a single-speed exercise and recovery procedure. We found an anaerobic component at each velocity tested. The two approaches showed U-shaped, though significantly different, speed-metabolic relationships. These results suggest that (i) postural costs, especially at low speeds, may result in J- or U-shaped metabolism-speed curves; (ii) anaerobic metabolism is involved at all swimming speeds in the clearnose skate; and (iii) critical swimming protocols might misrepresent the true costs of locomotion across speeds, at least in negatively buoyant fish.

Intraspecific variation in physiological performance of a benthic elasmobranch challenged by ocean acidification and warming

Elucidating the combined effects of increasing temperature and ocean acidification on performance of fishes is central to our understanding of how species will respond to global climate change. Measuring the metabolic costs associated with intense and short activities, such as those required to escape predators, is key to quantifying changes in performance and estimating the potential effects of environmental stressors on survival. In this study, juvenile little skate Leucoraja erinacea from two neighboring locations (Gulf of Maine, or northern location, and Georges Bank, or southern location) were developmentally acclimatized and reared at current and projected temperatures (15, 18 or 20°C) and acidification conditions (pH 8.1 or 7.7), and their escape performance was tested by employing a chasing protocol. The results from this study suggest countergradient variation in growth between skates from the two locations, while the optimum for escape performance was at a lower temperature in individuals from the northern latitudes, which could be related to adaptation to the local thermal environment. Aerobic performance and scope declined in skates from the northern latitudes under simulated ocean warming and acidification conditions. Overall, the southern skates showed lower sensitivity to these climatic stressors. This study demonstrates that even mobile organisms from neighboring locations can exhibit substantial differences in energetic costs of exercise and that skates from the northern part of the geographic range may be more sensitive to the directional increase in temperature and acidification expected by the end of the century.

Progressive hypoxia decouples activity and aerobic performance of skate embryos

Although fish population size is strongly affected by survival during embryonic stages, our understanding of physiological responses to environmental stressors is based primarily on studies of post-hatch fishes. Embryonic responses to acute exposure to changes in abiotic conditions, including increase in hypoxia, could be particularly important in species exhibiting long developmental time, as embryos are unable to select a different environment behaviourally. Given that oxygen is key to metabolic processes in fishes and aquatic hypoxia is becoming more severe and frequent worldwide, organisms are expected to reduce their aerobic performance. Here, we examined the metabolic and behavioural responses of embryos of a benthic elasmobranch fish, the little skate (Leucoraja erinacea), to acute progressive hypoxia, by measuring oxygen consumption and movement (tail-beat) rates inside the egg case. Oxygen consumption rates were not significantly affected by ambient oxygen levels until reaching 45% air saturation (critical oxygen saturation, S crit). Below S crit, oxygen consumption rates declined rapidly, revealing an oxygen conformity response. Surprisingly, we observed a decoupling of aerobic performance and activity, as tail-beat rates increased, rather than matching the declining metabolic rates, at air saturation levels of 55% and below. These results suggest a significantly divergent response at the physiological and behavioural levels. While skate embryos depressed their metabolic rates in response to progressive hypoxia, they increased water circulation inside the egg case, presumably to restore normoxic conditions, until activity ceased abruptly around 9.8% air saturation.

Vertical Movements and Patterns in Diving Behavior of Whale Sharks as Revealed by Pop-Up Satellite Tags in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico

The whale shark (Rhincodon typus) is a wide-ranging, filter-feeding species typically observed at or near the surface. This shark's sub-surface habits and behaviors have only begun to be revealed in recent years through the use of archival and satellite tagging technology. We attached pop-up satellite archival transmitting tags to 35 whale sharks in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico off the Yucatan Peninsula from 2003-2012 and three tags to whale sharks in the northeastern Gulf off Florida in 2010, to examine these sharks' long-term movement patterns and gain insight into the underlying factors influencing their vertical habitat selection. Archived data were received from 31 tags deployed on sharks of both sexes with total lengths of 5.5-9 m. Nine of these tags were physically recovered facilitating a detailed long-term view into the sharks' vertical movements. Whale sharks feeding inshore on fish eggs off the northeast Yucatan Peninsula demonstrated reverse diel vertical migration, with extended periods of surface swimming beginning at sunrise followed by an abrupt change in the mid-afternoon to regular vertical oscillations, a pattern that continued overnight. When in oceanic waters, sharks spent about 95% of their time within epipelagic depths (<200 m) but regularly undertook very deep ("extreme") dives (>500 m) that largely occurred during daytime or twilight hours (max. depth recorded 1,928 m), had V-shaped depth-time profiles, and comprised more rapid descents (0.68 m sec-1) than ascents (0.50 m sec-1). Nearly half of these extreme dives had descent profiles with brief but conspicuous changes in vertical direction at a mean depth of 475 m. We hypothesize these stutter steps represent foraging events within the deep scattering layer, however, the extreme dives may have additional functions. Overall, our results demonstrate complex and dynamic patterns of habitat utilization for R. typus that appear to be in response to changing biotic and abiotic conditions influencing the distribution and abundance of their prey.

Drivers of Daily Routines in an Ectothermic Marine Predator: Hunt Warm, Rest Warmer?

Animal daily routines represent a compromise between maximizing foraging success and optimizing physiological performance, while minimizing the risk of predation. For ectothermic predators, ambient temperature may also influence daily routines through its effects on physiological performance. Temperatures can fluctuate significantly over the diel cycle and ectotherms may synchronize behaviour to match thermal regimes in order to optimize fitness. We used bio-logging to quantify activity and body temperature of blacktip reef sharks (Carcharhinus melanopterus) at a tropical atoll. Behavioural observations were used to concurrently measure bite rates in herbivorous reef fishes, as an index of activity for potential diurnal prey. Sharks showed early evening peaks in activity, particularly during ebbing high tides, while body temperatures peaked several hours prior to the period of maximal activity. Herbivores also displayed peaks in activity several hours earlier than the peaks in shark activity. Sharks appeared to be least active while their body temperatures were highest and most active while temperatures were cooling, although we hypothesize that due to thermal inertia they were still warmer than their smaller prey during this period. Sharks may be most active during early evening periods as they have a sensory advantage under low light conditions and/or a thermal advantage over cooler prey. Sharks swam into shallow water during daytime low tide periods potentially to warm up and increase rates of digestion before the nocturnal activity period, which may be a strategy to maximize ingestion rates. “Hunt warm, rest warmer” may help explain the early evening activity seen in other ectothermic predators.

Hypoxia effects on gill surface area and blood oxygen-carrying capacity of the Atlantic stingray, Dasyatis sabina

Atlantic stingrays, Dasyatis sabina, are common residents of shallow-water seagrass habitats that experience natural cycles of severe hypoxia during summer months. We hypothesized that stingrays exposed to hypoxic episodes would improve their hypoxia tolerance by increasing branchial surface area and altering blood oxygen-carrying capacity. To this end, we compared critical oxygen minimum, gill morphology, and hemoglobin/hematocrit levels in a control group of Atlantic stingrays held at continuous oxygen saturations of 80-90% (≥5.5 mg/l), to treatment groups exposed to a 7-h hypoxic interval at 55% (~4.0 mg/l), or 30% oxygen saturation (~2.0 mg/l). Stingrays in hypoxic treatment groups significantly improved their hypoxia tolerance. Critical oxygen minimum values fell from 0.7 ± 0.11 mg/l in control fish to 0.4 ± 0.05 and 0.4 ± 0.06 mg/l in the 55 and 30% saturation treatment groups, respectively. Mass-specific gill surface area between control fish and the 30% saturation treatment group increased by 1.7-fold, from 85 to 142 mm(2)/g. Although stingrays did not show an increase in hematocrit or hemoglobin levels, production of more efficient hemoglobin isoforms could not be ruled out. An increase in hypoxia tolerance allows Atlantic stingrays to forage for longer times and across a wide range of hypoxic habitats that are less accessible to predators and competitors.

Metabolic and locomotor responses of juvenile paddlefish Polyodon spathula to hypoxia and temperature

Hypoxia is an increasing problem in the natural habitats that the paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) has historically inhabited, and a potential problem in managed culture conditions. However, the effects of hypoxia on paddlefish are not well understood. In order to understand the effects of hypoxia on juvenile paddlefish, acute hypoxia tolerance, aerobic metabolic rates and swimming capabilities were measured under normoxic (PO2 = 140-155 mm Hg) and hypoxic (PO2 = 62-70 mm Hg) conditions at 18 °C and 26 °C. The results showed that paddlefish acclimated to 18 °C and 26 °C had routine metabolic rates of 211 mg/kg/h and 294 mg/kg/h, respectively, with a corresponding Q10 of 1.5. At 18 °C and 26 °C, paddlefish had a critical partial pressure of oxygen (PO2crit) of 74 mm Hg and 89 mm Hg, respectively. Paddlefish had a lethal oxygen threshold of 31.0mm Hg and 37.0mm Hg at 18 °C and 26 °C, respectively. Further, paddlefish exhibited a reduction in swimming capability when exposed to hypoxia with a 24% and 41% decrease in Ucrit at 18 °C and 26 °C, respectively. Therefore, paddlefish are relatively sensitive to hypoxia, and at temperatures from 18 to 26 °C require a dissolved oxygen concentration ≥ 4.7 mg/L to maintain basal aerobic metabolism and >2.0mg/L to survive under acute hypoxia.

Microhabitat selection by marine mesoconsumers in a thermally heterogeneous habitat: behavioral thermoregulation or avoiding predation risk?

Habitat selection decisions by consumers has the potential to shape ecosystems. Understanding the factors that influence habitat selection is therefore critical to understanding ecosystem function. This is especially true of mesoconsumers because they provide the link between upper and lower tropic levels. We examined the factors influencing microhabitat selection of marine mesoconsumers – juvenile giant shovelnose rays (Glaucostegus typus), reticulate whiprays (Himantura uarnak), and pink whiprays (H. fai) – in a coastal ecosystem with intact predator and prey populations and marked spatial and temporal thermal heterogeneity. Using a combination of belt transects and data on water temperature, tidal height, prey abundance, predator abundance and ray behavior, we found that giant shovelnose rays and reticulate whiprays were most often found resting in nearshore microhabitats, especially at low tidal heights during the warm season. Microhabitat selection did not match predictions derived from distributions of prey. Although at a course scale, ray distributions appeared to match predictions of behavioral thermoregulation theory, fine-scale examination revealed a mismatch. The selection of the shallow nearshore microhabitat at low tidal heights during periods of high predator abundance (warm season) suggests that this microhabitat may serve as a refuge, although it may come with metabolic costs due to higher temperatures. The results of this study highlight the importance of predators in the habitat selection decisions of mesoconsumers and that within thermal gradients, factors, such as predation risk, must be considered in addition to behavioral thermoregulation to explain habitat selection decisions. Furthermore, increasing water temperatures predicted by climate change may result in complex trade-offs that might have important implications for ecosystem dynamics.

An elasmobranch maternity ward: female round stingrays Urobatis halleri use warm, restored estuarine habitat during gestation

The habitat use and movements of the round stingray Urobatis halleri were compared between shallow restored and natural habitats of the Anaheim Bay Estuary (CA, U.S.A.) in relation to water temperature. Restored habitat remained significantly warmer than natural habitat from spring through to autumn. Strong sexual segregation occurred in the restored habitat with mature female U. halleri forming large unisex aggregations in summer, during months of peak seasonal water temperatures, and males only present during spring. Most mature females collected from restored habitat during months of high abundance were determined to be pregnant using non-invasive field ultrasonography. Tagged females typically spent <14 days in the restored habitat, using the habitat less as seasonal water temperatures decreased. Females tended to emigrate from the estuary by mid-August, coinciding with the time of year for parturition. The elevated water temperatures of the restored habitat may confer an energetic cost to male U. halleri, but females (particularly pregnant females) may derive a thermal reproductive benefit by using warm, shallow habitats for short periods of time during months of peak water temperatures. These findings have management implications for the design of coastal habitat restoration projects and marine protected areas that incorporate thermal environments preferred by aggregating female elasmobranchs.

Diel temperature patterns of juvenile lemon sharks Negaprion brevirostris, in a shallow-water nursery

The relatively complex pattern of temperature selection exhibited by juvenile lemon sharks Negaprion brevirostris in the North Sound differed markedly from many previously described responses of fish preferenda. Thermal data demonstrated that juvenile N. brevirostris did not attempt to behaviourally maintain a constant eccritic temperature. Rather, juveniles selected progressively warmer temperatures throughout the day until reaching the highest temperatures available, and then moved to cooler temperatures during late evening and early morning hours. It is possible that by exploiting habitat thermal heterogeneity juvenile N. brevirostris prolong activities such as feeding or digestion well into the cooler parts of the evening. The complex pattern of temperature occupation by juvenile N. brevirostris within the thermally heterogeneous North Sound nursery is probably linked to key daily activities such as prey capture, predator avoidance and digestive efficiency.

An analytical and hypothesis-driven approach to elasmobranch movement studies

The study of elasmobranch movements has increased steadily since the early 1970s. A great deal is now known about the horizontal and vertical movements of many elasmobranch species over multiple spatial and temporal scales. These studies illustrate that many species share certain behaviours such as diel shifts in habitat (both horizontal and vertical), continuous yo-yo bounce diving and in many cases, seasonal migrations. Hypothesis-driven studies explaining these behaviours or utilizing an eco-physiological predictive framework are, however, relatively rare. In this review, the descriptive and hypothesis-driven studies of elasmobranch movements are discussed, in addition to some of the analytical tools that can be used to generate or test predictions. There are many tools and analytical techniques available which are not currently being utilized for most studies of elasmobranch movements. With the constant improvement in technology and statistical techniques, the development of hypothesis-driven studies of elasmobranch movements should continue to increase.

Effect of rapid temperature change on resting routine metabolic rates of two benthic elasmobranchs

In this study, flow-through respirometry was used to test the effect of acute temperature change on resting routine metabolic rates of two benthic elasmobranchs, Atlantic stingrays, Dasyatis sabina (n = 7) and whitespotted bamboo sharks, Chiloscyllium plagiosum (n = 7) kept under fluctuating temperature regime of 24-27 and 23-25°C, respectively. Atlantic stingrays and whitespotted bamboo sharks showed a temperature sensitivity (Q(10)) of 2.10 (21-31°C) and 2.08 (20-28°C), respectively. Not surprisingly, oxygen consumption (MO(2)) increased in both species as temperature was raised. Acute increases in oxygen uptake may be useful during activities such as foraging, and some elasmobranchs may alter physiological processes by taking advantage of thermal variability in the environment. However, further investigation of different physiological processes is needed to better understand how temperature variation may affect behavioural choices of fishes.