GM-CSF, IL-1 alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 gene expression and cytokine production in human duodenal fibroblasts stimulated with lipopolysaccharide, IL-1 alpha and TNF-alpha

Tissue fibroblasts are versatile immune regulators: An evaluation of their impact on the aging process

Fibroblasts are abundant stromal cells which not only control the integrity of extracellular matrix (ECM) but also act as immune regulators. It is known that the structural cells within tissues can establish an organ-specific immunity expressing many immune-related genes and closely interact with immune cells. In fact, fibroblasts can modify their immune properties to display both pro-inflammatory and immunosuppressive activities in a context-dependent manner. After acute insults, fibroblasts promote tissue inflammation although they concurrently recruit immunosuppressive cells to enhance the resolution of inflammation. In chronic pathological states, tissue fibroblasts, especially senescent fibroblasts, can display many pro-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties and stimulate the activities of different immunosuppressive cells. In return, immunosuppressive cells, such as M2 macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), evoke an excessive conversion of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts, thus aggravating the severity of tissue fibrosis. Single-cell transcriptome studies on fibroblasts isolated from aged tissues have confirmed that tissue fibroblasts express many genes coding for cytokines, chemokines, and complement factors, whereas they lose some fibrogenic properties. The versatile immune properties of fibroblasts and their close cooperation with immune cells indicate that tissue fibroblasts have a crucial role in the aging process and age-related diseases.

The Role of the Microbiome in the Etiopathogenesis of Colon Cancer

Studies in preclinical models support that the gut microbiota play a critical role in the development and progression of colorectal cancer (CRC). Specific microbial species and their corresponding virulence factors or associated small molecules can contribute to CRC development and progression either via direct effects on the neoplastic transformation of epithelial cells or through interactions with the host immune system. Induction of DNA damage, activation of Wnt/β-catenin and NF-κB proinflammatory pathways, and alteration of the nutrient's availability and the metabolic activity of cancer cells are the main mechanisms by which the microbiota contribute to CRC. Within the tumor microenvironment, the gut microbiota alter the recruitment, activation, and function of various immune cells, such as T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells. Additionally, the microbiota shape the function and composition of cancer-associated fibroblasts and extracellular matrix components, fashioning an immunosuppressive and pro-tumorigenic niche for CRC. Understanding the complex interplay between gut microbiota and tumorigenesis can provide therapeutic opportunities for the prevention and treatment of CRC.

A Novel Multi-Component Formulation Reduces Inflammation In Vitro and Clinically Lessens the Symptoms of Chronic Eczematous Skin

Long-term treatments for inflammatory skin diseases like atopic dermatitis or eczema can cause adverse effects. Super Protein Multifunction (SPM) was investigated as a potential treatment for managing skin inflammation by monitoring the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines induced using LPS and poly(I:C)/TNFα in HaCaT keratinocytes and Hs27 fibroblasts as measured via RT-PCR. SPM solution was also assessed for its effect on cytokine release, measured using ELISA, in a UVB-irradiated 3D human skin model. To evaluate the efficiency of SPM, 20 patients with mild eczematous skin were randomized to receive SPM or vehicle twice a day for three weeks in a double-blind controlled trial. In vitro studies showed SPM inhibited inflammation-induced IL-1β, IL-6, IL-33, IL-1α, TSLP, and TNFα expression or release. In the clinical study, the SPM group showed significant improvements in the IGA, PA, and DLQI scores compared to the vehicle group. Neither group showed significant differences in VAS (pruritus). Histological analysis showed reduced stratum corneum thickness and inflammatory cell infiltration. The results suggest that SPM may reduce inflammation in individuals with chronic eczematous skin.

Cell surface ATP synthase-released H+ and ATP play key roles in cocoa butter intake-mediated regulation of gut immunity through releases of cytokines in rat

Proper food intake is important for maintaining good health in humans. Chocolate is known to exert anti-inflammatory effects; however, the mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of cocoa butter intake on gut immunity in rats and rabbits. Cocoa butter intake increased the lymph flow, cell density, and IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 levels in mesenteric lymph. Clodronate, a macrophage depletion compound, significantly enhanced the release of all cytokines. The immunoreactivities of macrophage markers CD68 and F4/80 in the jejunal villi were significantly decreased with clodronate. Piceatannol, a selective cell surface ATP synthase inhibitor significantly reduced the cocoa butter intake-mediated releases of IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10. The immunoreactivities of cell surface ATP synthase were observed in rat jejunal villi. Shear stress stimulation on the myofibroblast cells isolated from rat jejunum released ATP and carbon dioxide depended with H+ release. In rabbit in vivo experiments, cocoa butter intake increased the concentrations of ATP and H+ in the portal vein. The in vitro experiments with isolated cells of rat jejunal lamina propria the pH of 3.0 and 5.0 in the medium released significantly IL-1β and IL-6. ATP selectively released IL-10. These findings suggest that cocoa butter intake regulates the gut immunity through the release and transport of IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 into mesenteric lymph vessels in a negative feedback system. In addition, the H+ and ATP released from cell surface ATP synthase in jejunal villi play key roles in the cocoa butter intake-mediated regulation of gut immunity.

Gut microbiota: sculptors of the intestinal stem cell niche in health and inflammatory bowel disease

Intestinal epithelium represents a dynamic and diverse cellular system that continuously interacts with gut commensals and external cues. Intestinal stem cells, which lie at the heart of epithelial renewal and turnover, proliferate to maintain a steady stem cell population and differentiate to form functional epithelial cell types. This rather sophisticated assembly-line is maintained by an elaborate micro-environment, sculpted by a myriad of host and gut microbiota-derived signals, forming an intestinal stem cell niche. This complex, yet crucial signaling niche undergoes dynamic changes during homeostasis and chronic intestinal inflammation. Inflammatory bowel disease refers to a chronic inflammatory response toward pathogenic or commensal microbiota, in a genetically susceptible host. Compositional and functional alterations in gut microbiota are pathognomonic of IBD.The present review highlights the modulatory role of gut microbiota on the intestinal stem cell niche during homeostasis and inflammatory bowel disease. We discuss the mechanisms of direct action of gut commensals (through microbiota-derived or microbiota-influenced metabolites) on ISCs, followed by their effects via other epithelial and immune cell types.

Beyond Immunity: Underappreciated Functions of Intestinal Macrophages

The gastrointestinal tract hosts the largest compartment of macrophages in the body, where they serve as mediators of host defense and immunity. Seeded in the complex tissue-environment of the gut, an array of both hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cells forms their immediate neighborhood. Emerging data demonstrate that the functional diversity of intestinal macrophages reaches beyond classical immunity and includes underappreciated non-immune functions. In this review, we discuss recent advances in research on intestinal macrophage heterogeneity, with a particular focus on how non-immune functions of macrophages impact tissue homeostasis and function. We delve into the strategic localization of distinct gut macrophage populations, describe the potential factors that regulate their identity and functional heterogeneity within these locations, and provide open questions that we hope will inspire research dedicated to elucidating a holistic view on macrophage-tissue cell interactions in the body's largest mucosal organ.

Protective effect of neurotensin receptor-1 agonist PD 149163 against lipopolysaccharide-induced gut toxicity in mice

The interaction between neuroendocrine and immune components of the gut maintains the organism's physical and psychological health. Its disruption may reflect in disease conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and mental illness. The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) disrupts the endocrine-immune homeostasis resulting in gut toxicity. The Neurotensin receptor-1 (NTR-1) agonist PD 149163 (PD) acts as an atypical antipsychotic drug in psychiatric illness, but its role in modulating gut pathophysiology remains unknown. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the protective effect of PD against LPS-induced gut toxicity. Swiss albino female mice (12 weeks) were divided into six groups (n = 6/group): (I) Control, (II) LPS (1 mg/kg, for 5 days), (III) LPS (1 mg/kg, for 5 days)+PD low (100 µg/kg, for 21 days), (IV) LPS (1 mg/kg, for 5 days)+PD high (300 µg/kg, for 21 days), (V) PD low (100 µg/kg, for 21 days), and (VI) PD high (300 µg/kg, for 21 days). Drugs were given intraperitoneal in the morning. PD administration prevented the LPS-induced gut inflammation observed in damage of epithelial barrier, disruption of goblet cells, and condensation of lamina propria (LP). The LPS-induced oxidative stress characterized by decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and increased lipid hydroperoxide (LOOH) (p < 0.001 for both), and enhanced interleukine-6 (IL-6) & tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) (p < 0.001 for both) as well as immunointensity of NT (p < 0.01) and NTR-1 (p < 0.05) were reversed and normalized to control after PD treatment. Thus, the anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and cell proliferation properties of PD modulate the gut toxicity in LPS-challenged mice.

The Production and Function of Endogenous Interleukin-10 in Intestinal Epithelial Cells and Gut Homeostasis

The healthy gut is achieved and maintained through a balanced relationship between the mucosal immune system, microbial communities resident in the lumen, and the intestinal epithelium. The intestinal epithelium plays an exceptionally important role in harmonizing the interaction between the host immunity and the luminal residents, as this selectively permeable barrier separates but also allows interchange between the 2 environments. Interleukin (IL)-10 has been well established to play an important role in maintaining gut homeostasis by imparting diverse effects on a variety of cell types in this relationship. In the intestine, the source and the target of IL-10 include leukocytes and epithelial cells. Given that both the epithelium and IL-10 are essential players in supporting homeostasis, we discuss the relationship between these 2 factors, focusing on epithelial sources of IL-10 and the effects of IL-10 on the intestinal epithelium. Insight into this relationship reveals an important aspect of the innate immune function of intestinal epithelial cells.

Synbiotic Supplementation Improves Obesity Index and Metabolic Biomarkers in Thai Obese Adults: A Randomized Clinical Trial

The cluster of metabolic disorders includes obesity, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and glucose intolerance, increasing the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. Evolving proofs suggest an essential role of microbiota in human health and disease, including digestion, energy and glucose metabolism, immunomodulation, and brain function. The frequency of overweight is increasing, and the main causes for this are highly processed foods and less active lifestyles. Research is underway to unravel the probable relationship between obesity and intestinal microbiota. Here, we propose a method to understand and elucidate the synergistic function of prebiotics and probiotics in treating obesity. The biomarkers of obesity, such as cholesterol, gut permeability, oxidative stress, bacterial toxins, cytokines, and short-chain fatty acids, were analyzed in Thai obese individuals after being supplemented with a synbiotic preparation containing Lactobacillus paracasei, Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium breve, inulin, and fructooligosaccharide. The results reveal that the supplementation of synbiotics significantly altered the obesity-associated biomarkers in an appositive way. Further studies are warranted to use synbiotics as an adjuvant therapy for the management of obesity-related health issues.

Pervasive inflammatory activation in patients with deficiency in very-long-chain acyl-coA dehydrogenase (VLCADD)

OBJECTIVES

Very-long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (VLCADD) is a disorder of fatty acid oxidation. Symptoms are managed by dietary supplementation with medium-chain fatty acids that bypass the metabolic block. However, patients remain vulnerable to hospitalisations because of rhabdomyolysis, suggesting pathologic processes other than energy deficit. Since rhabdomyolysis is a self-destructive process that can signal inflammatory/immune cascades, we tested the hypothesis that inflammation is a physiologic dimension of VLCADD.

METHODS

All subjects (n = 18) underwent informed consent/assent. Plasma cytokine and cytometry analyses were performed. A prospective case analysis was carried out on a patient with recurrent hospitalisation. Health data were extracted from patient medical records.

RESULTS

Patients showed systemic upregulation of nine inflammatory mediators during symptomatic and asymptomatic periods. There was also overall abundance of immune cells with high intracellular expression of IFNγ, IL-6, MIP-1β (CCL4) and TNFα, and the transcription factors p65-NFκB and STAT1 linked to inflammatory pathways. A case analysis of a patient exhibited already elevated plasma cytokine levels during diagnosis in early infancy, evolving into sustained high systemic levels during recurrent rhabdomyolysis-related hospitalisations. There were corresponding activated leukocytes, with higher intracellular stores of inflammatory molecules in monocytes compared to T cells. Exposure of monocytes to long-chain free fatty acids recapitulated the cytokine signature of patients.

CONCLUSION

Pervasive plasma cytokine upregulation and pre-activated immune cells indicate chronic inflammatory state in VLCADD. Thus, there is rationale for practical implementation of clinical assessment of inflammation and/or translational testing, or adoption, of anti-inflammatory intervention(s) for personalised disease management.

Cellular metabolism and IL-6 concentrations during stimulated inflammation in primary fibroblasts from small and large dog breeds as they age

The immune system undergoes marked changes during aging characterized by a state of chronic, low-grade inflammation termed 'inflammaging'. We explore this phenomenon in domestic dogs, which are the most morphologically and physiologically diverse group of mammals, with the widest range in body sizes for a single species. Additionally, smaller dogs tend to live significantly longer than larger dogs across all breeds. Body size is intricately linked to mass-specific metabolism and aging rates, which suggests that dogs are exemplary for studies in inflammaging. Dermal fibroblast cells play an important role in skin inflammation, making them a good model for inflammatory patterns across dog breed, body sizes and ages. Here, we examined aerobic and glycolytic cellular metabolism, and IL-6 concentrations in primary fibroblast cells isolated from small and large dog breeds, that were either recently born puppies or old dogs after death. We found no differences in cellular metabolism when isolated fibroblasts were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Escherichia coli to stimulate an inflammatory phenotype. Unlike responses observed in mice and humans, there was a less drastic amplification of IL-6 concentration after LPS treatment in the geriatric population of dogs compared with recently born dogs. In young dogs, we also found evidence that untreated fibroblasts from large breeds had significantly lower IL-6 concentrations than observed for smaller breeds. This implies that the patterns of inflammaging in dogs may be distinct and different from other mammals commonly studied.

Stromal Cells in the Pathogenesis of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Up till now, research on inflammatory bowel disease [IBD] has mainly been focused on the immune cells present in the gastrointestinal tract. However, recent insights indicate that stromal cells also play an important and significant role in IBD pathogenesis. Stromal cells in the intestines regulate both intestinal epithelial and immune cell homeostasis. Different subsets of stromal cells have been found to play a role in other inflammatory diseases [e.g. rheumatoid arthritis], and these various stromal subsets now appear to carry out also specific functions in the inflamed gut in IBD. Novel potential therapies for IBD utilize, as well as target, these pathogenic stromal cells. Injection of mesenchymal stromal cells [MSCs] into fistula tracts of Crohn's disease patients is already approved and used in clinical settings. In this review we discuss the current knowledge of the role of stromal cells in IBD pathogenesis. We further outline recent attempts to modify the stromal compartment in IBD with agents that target or replace the pathogenic stroma.

Bad Neighborhood: Fibrotic Stroma as a New Player in Melanoma Resistance to Targeted Therapies

Current treatments for metastatic cutaneous melanoma include immunotherapies and drugs targeting key molecules of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, which is often activated by BRAF driver mutations. Overall responses from patients with metastatic BRAF mutant melanoma are better with therapies combining BRAF and mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) inhibitors. However, most patients that initially respond to therapies develop drug resistance within months. Acquired resistance to targeted therapies can be due to additional genetic alterations in melanoma cells and to non-genetic events frequently associated with transcriptional reprogramming and a dedifferentiated cell state. In this second scenario, it is possible to identify pro-fibrotic responses induced by targeted therapies that contribute to the alteration of the melanoma tumor microenvironment. A close interrelationship between chronic fibrosis and cancer has been established for several malignancies including breast and pancreatic cancers. In this context, the contribution of fibrosis to drug adaptation and therapy resistance in melanoma is rapidly emerging. In this review, we summarize recent evidence underlining the hallmarks of fibrotic diseases in drug-exposed and resistant melanoma, including increased remodeling of the extracellular matrix, enhanced actin cytoskeleton plasticity, high sensitivity to mechanical cues, and the establishment of an inflammatory microenvironment. We also discuss several potential therapeutic options for manipulating this fibrotic-like response to combat drug-resistant and invasive melanoma.

Exercise training, circulating cytokine levels and immune function in cancer survivors: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Anti-cancer therapies lead to chronic non-resolving inflammation and reduced immune function. One potential therapy is exercise training, but the effectiveness of these interventions to improve immune-related outcomes, the gaps in the literature, and recommendations to progress the field need to be determined.

OBJECTIVES

(1) to conduct separate meta-analyses in cancer survivors to determine the effects of exercise training on pro- and anti-inflammatory markers, and immune cell proportions and function; and (2) to perform subgroup analyses to determine whether exercise modality, cancer type, and specific markers help to explain heterogeneity in each meta-analysis.

DATA SOURCES

Electronic databases (PubMed/MEDLINE, EMBASE, CENTRAL, and CINAHL) from inception to March 2018. The reference lists of eligible articles and relevant reviews were also checked.

STUDY SELECTION

Inclusion criteria were adult cancer survivors from randomized controlled trials performing structured exercise intervention (aerobic, resistance or combined training or Tai Chi/yoga) compared to usual care control group and included pro-inflammatory, anti-inflammatory, and/or immune cell outcomes.

APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS

A total of 5349 potentially eligible articles were identified, of which 26 articles (27 trials) met the inclusion criteria. Effect sizes were calculated as standardized mean differences (SMD), where <0.2 was defined as trivial, 0.2-0.3 as small, 0.4-0.8 as moderate, and >0.8 as a large effect.

RESULTS

Exercise training decreased pro-inflammatory markers (SMD: -0.2, 95% CI: -0.4, -0.1, p < 0.001). Sub-group analysis for the pro-inflammatory markers indicated that combined aerobic and resistance training had the greatest effect (SMD: -0.3, 95% CI: -0.5, -1.9, p < 0.001), that prostate (SMD: -0.5, 95% CI: -0.8, 0.1, p = 0.004) and breast cancer populations were most responsive (SMD: -0.2, 95% CI: -0.3, -0.1, p = 0.001), and that C-reactive protein (SMD: -0.5, 95% CI: -0.9, -0.06, p = 0.025) and tumor necrosis factor (SMD: -0.3, 95% CI: -0.5, -0.06, p = 0.004) were the most sensitive to change. Exercise training tended to decrease anti-inflammatory markers (p = 0.072) but had no effect on natural killer or natural killer T cell proportions or cytotoxic activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Exercise training reduces pro-inflammatory markers in cancer survivors, with the strongest evidence for combined training and for prostate and breast cancer survivors. Further research is warranted to determine if these changes are clinically relevant or are associated with improvements in symptoms. To strengthen future research, focusing on novel immune populations that include functional parameters and standardized reporting of key immune outcomes is recommended.

Comparison of olive leaf, olive oil, palm oil, and omega-3 oil in acute kidney injury induced by sepsis in rats

Background

Hypotension, increased production of reactive oxygen species, and inflammation are all observed in experimental models of sepsis induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS).

Purpose

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of an ethanolic extract of Brazilian olive leaf (Ex), Brazilian olive oil (Olv), Ex + Olv (ExOlv), and palm oil (Pal) in comparison to the effects of omega-3 fish oil (Omg) in a rat model of sepsis-induced acute kidney injury.

Materials

Wistar rats were divided into seven groups (seven per group), which were either untreated (control) or treated with LPS, LPS + Ex, LPS + ExOlv, LPS + Olv, LPS + Omg, or LPS + Pal.

Results

Lower values of creatinine clearance and blood pressure were observed in the LPS-treated group, and these values were not affected by Ex, Olv, ExOlv, Pal, or Omg treatment. Mortality rates were significantly lower in rats exposed to LPS when they were also treated with Ex, ExOlv, Olv, Pal, or Omg. These treatments also decreased oxidative stress and inflammation (Tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1 beta) and increased interleukin-10 levels and cell proliferation, which were associated with decreased apoptosis in kidney tissue.

Conclusion

Ex and Pal treatments were beneficial in septic rats, since they increased survival rate and did not aggravate inflammation. However, the most effective treatments for septic rats were Olv in comparison to Omg. These natural food substances could enable the development of effective therapeutic interventions to sepsis.

Cooperativity between stromal cytokines drives the invasive migration of human breast cancer cells

The cross-talk between cancer cells and the stromal microenvironment plays a key role in regulating cancer invasion. Here, we employed an ex vivo invasion model system for exploring the regulation of breast cancer cells infiltration into a variety of stromal fibroblast monolayers. Our results revealed considerable variability in the stromal induction of invasiveness, with some lines promoting and others blocking invasion. It was shown that conditioned medium (CM), derived from invasion-promoting fibroblasts, can induce epithelial-mesenchymal transition-like process in the cancer cells, and trigger their infiltration into a monolayer of invasion-blocking fibroblasts. To identify the specific invasion-promoting molecules, we analysed the cytokines in stimulatory CM, screened a library of purified cytokines for invasion-promoting activity and tested the effect of specific inhibitors of selected cytokine receptors on the CM-induced invasion. Taken together, these experiments indicated that the invasiveness of BT-474 is induced by the combined action of IL1 and IL6 and that IL1 can induce IL6 secretion by invasion-blocking fibroblasts, thereby triggering cancer cell invasion into the stroma. This unexpected observation suggests that stromal regulation of cancer invasion may involve not only cross-talk between stromal and cancer cells, but also cooperation between different stromal subpopulations. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Forces in cancer: interdisciplinary approaches in tumour mechanobiology'.

A Survey on the Role of Interleukin-10 in Breast Cancer: A Narrative

Interleukin (IL)-10, a multifunctional immune-regulatory cytokine with both immunosuppressive and anti-angiogenic functions, is produced by immune cells including macrophages, T lymphocytes, and natural killer cells. Among other effects, IL-10 promotes tumor cell proliferation and metastasis via immunosuppression. Interleukin-10-mediated immunosuppression is aided by synthesis of tumor necrosis factor, IL-1, IL-12, and chemokines, and down regulation of the surface co-stimulatory molecules CD80 and CD86 on tumors. Interleukin-10 also promotes IL-6 expression and synthesis, which causes cell proliferation via B cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) upregulation and changes the proliferation/apoptosis equivalence toward neoplastic cell proliferation. Moreover, IL-10 inhibits tumorigenesis via down-regulation of VEGF, IL-1b, TNF-α, IL-6, and MMP-9. Interleukin-10 also inhibits nuclear factor-KB (NF-KB) translocation. Interleukin-10 has been reported to have both tumor-promoting and -inhibiting properties. It seems that IL-10 agonists and antagonists may have therapeutic effects via different mechanisms. Moreover, IL-10 gene polymorphisms may determine breast cancer susceptibility.

The Heterocellular Emergence of Colorectal Cancer

Tissues contain multiple different cell types and can be considered to be heterocellular systems. Signaling between different cells allows tissues to achieve phenotypes that no cell type can achieve in isolation. Such emergent tissue-level phenotypes can be said to 'supervene upon' heterocellular signaling. It is proposed here that cancer is also an emergent phenotype that supervenes upon heterocellular signaling. Using colorectal cancer (CRC) as an example, I review how heterotypic cells differentially communicate to support emergent malignancy. Studying tumors as integrated heterocellular systems - rather than as solitary expansions of mutated cells - may reveal novel ways to treat cancer.

Clinical chorioamnionitis at term IV: the maternal plasma cytokine profile

INTRODUCTION

Fever is a major criterion for clinical chorioamnionitis; yet, many patients with intrapartum fever do not have demonstrable intra-amniotic infection. Some cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), can induce a fever. The objective of this study was to determine whether maternal plasma concentrations of cytokines could be of value in the identification of patients with the diagnosis of clinical chorioamnionitis at term who have microbial-associated intra-amniotic inflammation.

METHODS

A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted, including patients with clinical chorioamnionitis at term (n=41; cases) and women in spontaneous labor at term without clinical chorioamnionitis (n=77; controls). Women with clinical chorioamnionitis were classified into three groups according to the results of amniotic fluid culture, broad-range polymerase chain reaction coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (PCR/ESI-MS), and amniotic fluid IL-6 concentration: 1) no intra-amniotic inflammation; 2) intra-amniotic inflammation without detectable microorganisms; or 3) microbial-associated intra-amniotic inflammation. The maternal plasma concentrations of 29 cytokines were determined with sensitive and specific V-PLEX immunoassays. Nonparametric statistical methods were used for analysis, adjusting for a false discovery rate of 5%.

RESULTS

1) The maternal plasma concentrations of pyrogenic cytokines (IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α) were significantly higher in patients with clinical chorioamnionitis at term than in those with spontaneous term labor without clinical chorioamnionitis; 2) the maternal plasma concentrations of cytokines were not significantly different among the three subgroups of patients with clinical chorioamnionitis (intra-amniotic inflammation with and without detectable bacteria and those without intra-amniotic inflammation); and 3) among women with the diagnosis of clinical chorioamnionitis, but without evidence of intra-amniotic inflammation, the maternal plasma concentrations of pyrogenic cytokines were significantly higher than in patients with spontaneous labor at term. These observations suggest that a fever can be mediated by increased circulating concentrations of these cytokines, despite the absence of a local intra-amniotic inflammatory response.

CONCLUSIONS

1) The maternal plasma concentrations of pyrogenic cytokines (e.g. IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α) are higher in patients with intra-partum fever and the diagnosis of clinical chorioamnionitis at term than in those in spontaneous labor at term without a fever; and 2) maternal plasma cytokine concentrations have limited value in the identification of patients with bacteria in the amniotic cavity. Accurate assessment of the presence of intra-amniotic infection requires amniotic fluid analysis.

Evidence of perturbations of the cytokine network in preterm labor

OBJECTIVE

Intraamniotic inflammation/infection is the only mechanism of disease with persuasive evidence of causality for spontaneous preterm labor/delivery. Previous studies about the behavior of cytokines in preterm labor have been largely based on the analysis of the behavior of each protein independently. Emerging evidence indicates that the study of biologic networks can provide insight into the pathobiology of disease and improve biomarker discovery. The goal of this study was to characterize the inflammatory-related protein network in the amniotic fluid of patients with preterm labor.

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study was conducted that included women with singleton pregnancies who had spontaneous preterm labor and intact membranes (n = 135). These patients were classified according to the results of amniotic fluid culture, broad-range polymerase chain reaction coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, and amniotic fluid concentration of interleukin (IL)-6 into the following groups: (1) those without intraamniotic inflammation (n = 85), (2) those with microbial-associated intraamniotic inflammation (n = 15), and (3) those with intraamniotic inflammation without detectable bacteria (n = 35). Amniotic fluid concentrations of 33 inflammatory-related proteins were determined with the use of a multiplex bead array assay.

RESULTS

Patients with preterm labor and intact membranes who had microbial-associated intraamniotic inflammation had a higher amniotic fluid inflammatory-related protein concentration correlation than those without intraamniotic inflammation (113 perturbed correlations). IL-1β, IL-6, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α, and IL-1α were the most connected nodes (highest degree) in this differential correlation network (degrees of 20, 16, 12, and 12, respectively). Patients with sterile intraamniotic inflammation had correlation patterns of inflammatory-related proteins, both increased and decreased, when compared to those without intraamniotic inflammation (50 perturbed correlations). IL-1α, MIP-1α, and IL-1β were the most connected nodes in this differential correlation network (degrees of 12, 10, and 7, respectively). There were more coordinated inflammatory-related protein concentrations in the amniotic fluid of women with microbial-associated intraamniotic inflammation than in those with sterile intraamniotic inflammation (60 perturbed correlations), with IL-4 and IL-33 having the largest number of perturbed correlations (degrees of 15 and 13, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

We report for the first time an analysis of the inflammatory-related protein network in spontaneous preterm labor. Patients with preterm labor and microbial-associated intraamniotic inflammation had more coordinated amniotic fluid inflammatory-related proteins than either those with sterile intraamniotic inflammation or those without intraamniotic inflammation. The correlations were also stronger in patients with sterile intraamniotic inflammation than in those without intraamniotic inflammation. The findings herein could be of value in the development of biomarkers of preterm labor.

Investigating NF-κB signaling in lung fibroblasts in 2D and 3D culture systems

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory respiratory diseases are amongst major global health challenges. Lung fibroblasts have been shown to play a key role in lung inflammatory responses. However, their exact role in initiation and maintenance of lung diseases has remained elusive partly due to the limited availability of physiologically relevant in vitro models. Therefore, developing new tools that enable investigating the molecular pathways (e.g. nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activation) that underpin inflammatory responses in fibroblasts could be a valuable resource for scientists working in this area of research.

RESULTS

In order to investigate NF-κB activation in response to pro-inflammatory stimuli in real-time, we first developed two detection systems based on nuclear localization of NF-κB by immunostaining and luciferase reporter assay system. Furthermore using electrospun porous scaffolds, with similar geometry to human lung extracellular matrix, we developed 3D cultures of lung fibroblasts allowing comparing NF-κB activation in response to pro-inflammatory stimuli (i.e. TNF-α) in 2D and 3D. Our data clearly show that the magnitude of NF-κB activation in 2D cultures is substantially higher than 3D cultures. However, unlike 2D cultures, cells in the 3D model remained responsive to TNF-α at higher concentrations. The more subdued and wider dynamic range of NF-κB responses in 3D culture system was associated with a different expression pattern for TNF receptor I in 3D versus 2D cultures collectively reflecting a more in vivo like TNF receptor I expression and NF-κB activation pattern in the 3D system.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that lung fibroblasts are actively involved in the pathogenesis of lung inflammation by activation of NF-κB signaling pathway. The 3D culture detection system provides a sensitive and biologically relevant tool for investigating different pro-inflammatory events involving lung fibroblasts.

IKKβ acts as a tumor suppressor in cancer-associated fibroblasts during intestinal tumorigenesis

Pallangyo et al. report that fibroblast-specific IKKβ deletion in Col1a2Cre-ERT2 mice promotes AOM/DSS-induced intestinal tumorigenesis, suggesting a tumor suppressor role for this kinase. In contrast, a companion study by Koliaraki et al. based on IKKβ deletion in ColVI-expressing intestinal mesenchymal cells suggests a role for IKKβ in promoting intestinal tumorigenesis. The two studies raise the awareness that in the context of tumorigenesis, IKKβ/NF-κB may have distinct functions in different fibroblast subpopulations.

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) comprise one of the most important cell types in the tumor microenvironment. A proinflammatory NF-κB gene signature in CAFs has been suggested to promote tumorigenesis in models of pancreatic and mammary skin cancer. Using an autochthonous model of colitis-associated cancer (CAC) and sporadic cancer, we now provide evidence for a tumor-suppressive function of IKKβ/NF-κB in CAFs. Fibroblast-restricted deletion of Ikkβ stimulates intestinal epithelial cell proliferation, suppresses tumor cell death, enhances accumulation of CD4⁺Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells, and induces angiogenesis, ultimately promoting colonic tumor growth. In Ikkβ-deficient fibroblasts, transcription of negative regulators of TGFβ signaling, including Smad7 and Smurf1, is impaired, causing up-regulation of a TGFβ gene signature and elevated hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) secretion. Overexpression of Smad7 in Ikkβ-deficient fibroblasts prevents HGF secretion, and pharmacological inhibition of Met during the CAC model confirms that enhanced tumor promotion is dependent on HGF–Met signaling in mucosa of Ikkβ-mutant animals. Collectively, these results highlight an unexpected tumor suppressive function of IKKβ/NF-κB in CAFs linked to HGF release and raise potential concerns about the use of IKK inhibitors in colorectal cancer patients.

A potential mode of action for Anakinra in patients with arthrofibrosis following total knee arthroplasty

Arthrofibrosis is a fibroproliferative disease characterised by excessive deposition of extracellular matrix components intra-articularly leading to pain and restricted range of movement. Although frequently observed following total knee arthroplasty (TKA) no therapeutic options exist. A pilot study demonstrated that intra-articular injection of Anakinra, an IL-1R antagonist, improved range of movement and pain in patients with arthrofibrosis however the mechanism of action is unknown. We hypothesise that IL-1α/β will drive an inflammatory phenotype in fibroblasts isolated from the knee, therefore identifying a potential mechanism of action for Anakinra in arthrofibrosis following TKA. Fibroblasts isolated from synovial membranes and infra-patellar fat pad of patients undergoing TKA express high levels of IL-1R1. Stimulation with IL-1α/β induced a pro-inflammatory phenotype characterised by increased secretion of GMCSF, IL-6 and IL-8. No significant difference in the inflammatory response was observed between fibroblasts isolated from synovial membrane or infra-patellar fat pad. IL-1α/β treatments induced a pro-inflammatory phenotype in fibroblasts from both synovial membrane and infra-patellar fat pad and therefore Anakinra can likely have an inhibitory effect on fibroblasts present in both tissues in vivo. It is also likely that fibroblast responses in the tissues are controlled by IL-1α/β availability and not their ability to respond to it.

A novel regulation of PD-1 ligands on mesenchymal stromal cells through MMP-mediated proteolytic cleavage

Whether fibroblasts regulate immune response is a crucial issue in the modulation of inflammatory responses. Herein, we demonstrate that foreskin fibroblasts (FFs) potently inhibit CD3⁺ T cell proliferation through a mechanism involving early apoptosis of activated T cells. Using blocking antibodies, we demonstrate that the inhibition of T cell proliferation occurs through cell-to-cell interactions implicating PD-1 receptor expressed on T cells and its ligands, PD-L1 and PD-L2, on fibroblasts. Dual PD-1 ligand neutralization is required to abrogate (i) binding of the PD-1-Fc fusion protein, (ii) early apoptosis of T cells, and (iii) inhibition of T cell proliferation. Of utmost importance, we provide the first evidence that PD-1 ligand expression is regulated through proteolytic cleavage by endogenous matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) without transcriptional alteration during culture-time. Using (i) different purified enzymatic activities, (ii) MMP-specific inhibitors, and (iii) recombinant human MMP-9 and MMP-13, we demonstrated that in contrast to CD80/CD86, PD-L1 was selectively cleaved by MMP-13, while PD-L2 was sensitive to broader MMP activities. Their cleavage by exogenous MMP-9 and MMP-13 with loss of PD-1 binding domain resulted in the reversion of apoptotic signals on mitogen-activated CD3⁺ T cells. We suggest that MMP-dependent cleavage of PD-1 ligands on fibroblasts may limit their immunosuppressive capacity and thus contribute to the exacerbation of inflammation in tissues. In contrast, carcinoma-associated fibroblasts appear PD-1 ligand-depleted through MMP activity that may impair physical deletion of exhausted defective memory T cells through apoptosis and facilitate their regulatory functions. These observations should be considered when using the powerful PD-1/PD-L1 blocking immunotherapies.

Effect of Penicillium mycotoxins on the cytokine gene expression, reactive oxygen species production, and phagocytosis of bovine macrophage (BoMacs) function

Bovine macrophages (BoMacs) were exposed to the following Penicillium mycotoxins (PM): citrinin (CIT), ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin (PAT), mycophenolic acid (MPA) and penicillic acid (PA). PM exposure at the concentration that inhibits proliferation by 25% (IC25) differentially for 24h altered the gene expression of various cytokines. OTA significantly induced IL-1α expression (p<0.05), while the expression of IL-6 was suppressed (p<0.01). MPA significantly induced the expression of IL-1α (p<0.05) and reduced the expression of IL-12α (p<0.01) and IL-10 (p<0.01). PAT significantly suppressed the expression of IL-23 (p<0.01), IL-10 (p<0.05) and TGF-β (p<0.05). Some PMs also affected reactive oxygen species (ROS) and phagocytosis of Mycobacterium avium ssp. Paratuberculosis (MAP) at higher concentrations. PAT and PA for example, significantly decreased the percent phagocytosis of MAP at 5.0 (p<0.01) and 15.6 μM (p<0.01), respectively, but only PA significantly suppressed PAM-3-stimulated ROS production at 62.5 (p<0.05) and 250.0 μM (p<0.01). OTA significantly increased the percent phagocytosis of MAP at 6.3 (p<0.05) and 12.5 μM (p<0.01). These findings suggest that exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of PMs can affect macrophage function, which could affect immunoregulation and innate disease resistance to pathogens.

Histamine Promotes the Release of Interleukin-6 via the H1R/p38 and NF-κB Pathways in Nasal Fibroblasts

Purpose

Based on the close relationship between histamine and interleukin 6 (IL-6), we hypothesized that histamine may regulate the production of cytokines, such as IL-6, during allergic inflammation. Here, we examined the role of histamine in IL-6 production and histamine receptor activity in nasal fibroblasts, along with the mechanisms underlying these effects.

Methods

Experiments were performed using nasal fibroblasts from 8 normal patients. RT-PCR was used to identify the major histamine receptors expressed in nasal fibroblasts. Fibroblasts were then treated with histamine with or without histamine-receptor antagonists, and monitored for IL-6 production using an ELISA. Four potential downstream signaling molecules, p38, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and NF-κB, were evaluated by Western blot, and a luciferase reporter assay.

Results

Elevated expression was seen for all histamine receptors, with IL-6 protein levels increasing significantly following histamine stimulation. Among the histamine-receptor specific antagonists, only the H1R antagonist significantly decreased IL-6 production in histamine-stimulated nasal fibroblasts. Histamine increased the expression level of phosphorylated p38 (pp38), pERK, and pJNK, as well as NF-κB induction. The H1R antagonist actively suppressed pp38 and NF-κB expression in histamine-induced nasal fibroblasts, but not pERK and pJNK. The p38 inhibitor strongly attenuated IL-6 production in histamine-stimulated nasal fibroblasts.

Conclusions

The data presented here suggest that antihistamines may be involved in the regulation of cytokines, such as IL-6, due to the role of histamine as an inflammatory mediator in nasal fibroblasts.

Inflammatory biomarkers in serum in subjects with and without work related neck/shoulder complaints

Background

Although it has recently been recognised that inflammation is important in the development of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), the exact pathophysiological pathways are unknown.

Methods

We investigated serum concentrations of inflammatory cytokines in 35 female supermarket cashiers with repetitive work tasks and work related neck/shoulder complaints, compared with those from 25 women without MSDs (6 supermarket cashiers and 19 middle-school teachers or faculty staff). None of the subjects were pregnant or lactating, and showed no signs of rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, cancer, diabetes, coronary artery disease or inadequately controlled hypertension. Serum levels of IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, TNF-α, GM-CSF, CTGF and CRP were analysed.

Results

The women with pain related to MSD had higher serum concentrations of MIP-1β (median, 25th-75th percentile: 90.0 pg/mL, 62.5-110 vs. 73.1 pg/mL, 54.6-88.3; p = 0.018), IL-12 (0.26 pg/mL, 0.26-0.26 vs. 0.26 pg/mL, 0.26-0.26; p = 0.047) and CRP (0.5 mg/L, 0.5-1.6 vs. 0.5 mg/L, 0.5-0.5; p = 0.003), than control subjects. Levels of MIP-1α, MIP-1β and CRP were correlated with the reported intensity of neck/shoulder pain (r = 0.29, p = 0.03 for MIP-1α; r = 0.29, p = 0.02 for MIP-1β and r = 0.43, p = 0.001 for CRP). No statistically significant differences in serum levels were found for the remaining cytokines.

Conclusions

Otherwise healthy females with ongoing work-related neck/shoulder pain showed higher serum concentrations of MIP-1β, IL-12 and CRP than controls, and the levels of MIP-1α, MIP-1β and CRP were correlated to pain intensity. These results support previous findings that inflammatory processes play a part in work related MSDs.

R-spondin 2 signalling mediates susceptibility to fatal infectious diarrhoea

Citrobacter rodentium is a natural mouse pathogen widely used as a model for enteropathogenic and enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli infections in humans. While C. rodentium causes self-limiting colitis in most inbred mouse strains, it induces fatal diarrhea in susceptible strains. The physiological pathways as well as the genetic determinants leading to susceptibility have remained largely uncharacterized. Here we use a forward genetic approach to identify the R-spondin2 gene (Rspo2) as a major determinant of susceptibility to C. rodentium infection. Robust induction of Rspo2 expression during infection in susceptible mouse strains causes a potent Wnt-mediated proliferative response of colonic crypt cells, leading to the generation of an immature and poorly differentiated colonic epithelium with deficiencies in ion-transport components. Our data demonstrate a previously unknown role of R spondins and Wnt signaling in susceptibility to infectious diarrhea and identify Rspo2 as a key molecular link between infection and intestinal homeostasis.

The peripheral myeloid expansion driven by murine cancer progression is reversed by radiation therapy of the tumor

Expansion of myeloid-lineage leukocytes in tumor-bearing mice has been proposed as a cause of systemic immunosuppression. We demonstrate that radiation therapy of tumors leads to a decline in myeloid cell numbers in the blood and a decrease in spleen size. The frequency of myeloid cells does not decline to the level seen in tumor-free mice: we demonstrate that metastatic disease can prevent myeloid cell numbers from returning to baseline, and that tumor recurrence from residual disease correlates with re-expansion of myeloid lineage cells. Radiation therapy results in increased proliferation of T cells in the spleen and while T cell responses to foreign antigens are not altered by tumor burden or myeloid cell expansion, responses to tumor-associated antigens are increased after radiation therapy. These data demonstrate that myeloid cell numbers are directly linked to primary tumor burden, that this population contracts following radiation therapy, and that radiation therapy may open a therapeutic window for immunotherapy of residual disease.

An assessment of mast cells and myofibroblasts in denture-induced fibrous hyperplasia

OBJECTIVES

The pathogenesis of denture-induced fibrous hyperplasias has not been examined in detail to explain how tissue injury results in fibrous hyperplasia of the oral mucosa.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We examined the presence of mast cells and myofibroblasts in 33 denture-induced fibrous hyperplasias (DIFH) compared with 10 healthy gingival tissues. The parameters examined included mast cell numbers, tissue distribution, degranulation, and cell subtypes using immunohistochemistry. The presence of myofibroblasts and their likely origin was also examined by double immunofluorescense staining. Furthermore, we investigated the synthesis of osteopontin and TGF-β, considered to be involved in the transformation of a fibroblast to a myofibroblast.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that the mast cell numbers are significantly increased in the DIFH compared with non-disease controls. The mast cell localization in lesions was higher in the superficial areas with inflammatory cell infiltration compared with the deep fibrotic area (P < 0.01). The number of tryptase-positive mast cells was significantly higher compared with chymase-positive ones. The TGF-β- or osteopontin-positive cell infiltration into the lesion was found in high numbers. The presence of myofibroblasts was identified in 14 of 33 cases (42%), and some of these cells showed apoptosis when assessed by the TUNEL assay. On the survey of the origin of myofibroblasts, results showed αSMA and vimentin positivity indicating these transformed from fibroblasts.

CONCLUSION

These results are the first to show that mast cells and myofibroblasts can be detected in DIFH, indicating important roles of these cells in the pathogenesis of this lesion.

Extracellular matrix proteins and displacement of cultured fibroblasts from duodenal biopsies in celiac patients and controls

BACKGROUND

Celiac disease (CD) is mainly characterised by villous atrophy and mucosal architectural rearrangement. The fibroblasts (FBs) are the most abundant mesenchymal cell type in the intestinal mucosa and are responsible for both the architectural arrangement of the villi and the formation of the extracellular matrix (ECM). This study aimed at the evaluation of both the intracellular distribution of different proteins involved in ECM and FBs characterisation, and the cellular displacement of primary FBs obtained from duodenal endoscopic biopsies of healthy subjects and celiac patients.

METHODS

Primary healthy and celiac duodenal FBs were evaluated by means of immuno-fluorescence assay for collagen type I and IV, fibronectin, actin, alpha-Smooth Muscle Actin (alpha-SMA), Fibroblast Surface Protein (FSP) and transglutaminase type 2 (TG2). The geometric indexes of the fluorescence signals were investigated by image analysis software (Image J, NIH). Both morphology and kinetic were evaluated during a 72 hours time course movie. TG2 medium activity was evaluated by means of ELISA.

RESULTS

All the cells examined were immunopositive for FSP, alpha-SMA, actin, collagen I, collagen IV and TG2. CD cells showed a signet collagen-I and collagen-IV pattern, as compared to the controls being characterised by a spindle geometry. Moreover, the collagen signals in CD FBs showed a significantly higher circularity index (major orthogonal diameter ratio) than the controls (p<0.0001), whereas the perimeter and area ratio were significantly lower (p<0.0001). The TG2 signal had a decreased area (p<0.05), but a two-fold increased medium activity. The time course highlighted a reduction of the displacement of CD FBs.

CONCLUSIONS

The isolated primary CD FBs showed a different collagen and TG2 pattern of distribution associated with a different cellular displacement. The reasons for such CD cell peculiar characteristics are yet unknown but they might represent a factor in the progression of the intestinal damage.

Intestinal stromal cells in mucosal immunity and homeostasis

A growing body of evidence suggests that non-hematopoietic stromal cells of the intestine have multiple roles in immune responses and inflammation at this mucosal site. Despite this, many still consider gut stromal cells as passive structural entities, with past research focused heavily on their roles in fibrosis, tumor progression, and wound healing, rather than their contributions to immune function. In this review, we discuss our current knowledge of stromal cells in intestinal immunity, highlighting the many immunological axes in which stromal cells have a functional role. We also consider emerging data that broaden the potential scope of their contribution to immunity in the gut and argue that these so-called "non-immune" cells are reclassified in light of their diverse contributions to intestinal innate immunity and the maintenance of mucosal homeostasis.

Intestinal myofibroblasts produce nitric oxide in response to combinatorial cytokine stimulation

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients display elevated levels of intraluminal nitric oxide (NO). NO can react with other molecules to form toxic compounds, which has led to the idea that NO may be an important mediator of IBD. However, the cellular source of NO and how its production is regulated in the intestine are unclear. In this study we aimed to determine if intestinal myofibroblasts produce NO in response to the IBD-associated cytokines IL-1β, TNFα, and IFNγ. Intestinal myofibroblasts were isolated from mice and found to express inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) mRNA, but not endothelial NOS or neuronal NOS. Individual treatment of myofibroblasts with IL-1β, TNFα, or IFNγ had no effect on NO production, but stimulation with combinations of these cytokines synergistically increased iNOS mRNA and protein expression. Treatment with TNFα or IFNγ increased cell surface expression of IFNγRI or TNFRII, respectively, suggesting that these cytokines act in concert to prime NO production by myofibroblasts. Impairment of NF-κB activity with a small molecule inhibitor was sufficient to prevent increased expression of IFNγRI or TNFRII, and inhibition of Akt, JAK/STAT, or NF-κB blocked nearly all NO production induced by combinatorial cytokine treatment. These data indicate that intestinal myofibroblasts require stimulation by multiple cytokines to produce NO and that these cytokines act through a novel pathway involving reciprocal cytokine receptor regulation and signaling by Akt, JAK/STAT, and NF-κB.

Roles of substance P and ATP in the subepithelial fibroblasts of rat intestinal villi

The ingestion of food and water induces chemical and mechanical signals that trigger peristaltic reflexes and also villous movement in the gut. In the intestinal villi, subepithelial fibroblasts under the epithelium form contractile cellular networks and closely contact to the varicosities of substance P and nonsubstance P afferent neurons. Subepithelial fibroblasts of the duodenal villi possess purinergic receptor P2Y1 and tachykinin receptor NK1. ATP and substance P induce increase in intracellular Ca(2+) and cell contraction in subepithelial fibroblasts. They are highly mechanosensitive and release ATP by mechanical stimuli. Released ATP spreads to form an ATP "cloud" with nearly 1μM concentration and activates the surroundings via P2Y1 and afferent neurons via P2X receptors. These findings suggest that villous subepithelial fibroblasts and afferent neurons interact via ATP and substance P. This mutual interaction may play important roles in the signal transduction of mechano reflex pathways including a coordinate villous movement and also in the maturation of the structure and function of the intestinal villi.

Red wine polyphenolics reduce the expression of inflammation markers in human colon-derived CCD-18Co myofibroblast cells: potential role of microRNA-126

Chronic intestinal inflammation is an established risk factor for colon cancer. Polyphenolic compounds from fruit and vegetables have been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties in several cell lines and tissues. However, their anti-inflammatory mechanisms, involving microRNAs in the regulation of inflammation, have not been extensively investigated. The goal of this research was to assess the chemopreventive potential of polyphenolics extracted from red wine made with Lenoir grapes (Vitis aestivalis hybrid) in human colon-derived CCD-18Co myofibroblasts cells, and to assess the potential involvement of microRNA-126 (miR-126) in the underlying mechanisms. The results show that the polyphenolic red wine extract (WE) decreased mRNA expression of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory mediators NF-kB, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and PECAM-1 by 1.95-, 1.98-, 1.52-, and 1.84-fold respectively, in a dose dependent manner (0-100 μg of gallic acid equivalent (GAE) mL(-1)) down to 0.80-, 0.79-, 0.66-, and 0.68-fold in DMSO-treated control cells not challenged with LPS, respectively. Correspondingly, miR-126, which has a target region within the 3'-UTR of VCAM-1 mRNA, was increased 2.79-fold by the WE at 100 μg GAE mL(-1). The potential role of miR-126 was confirmed by transfecting cells with a specific miR-126-antagomir, as-miR-126. Transfection with as-miR-126 down-regulated miR-126 to 0.71-fold in the control cells and up-regulated mRNA levels of NF-kB, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and PECAM-1 to 1.80-, 1.49-, 2.30-, and 1.95-fold of controls, respectively. WE at 100 μg GAE mL(-1) partially reversed the effects of the as-miR-126 to 1.02-, 1.01-, 1.04-, and 1.05-fold, for mRNA levels of NF-kB, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and PECAM-1 respectively. This indicates the potential role of miR-126 in the anti-inflammatory properties of polyphenolics from red wine in CCD-18Co myofibroblasts cells.

Human foetal intestinal fibroblasts are hyper-responsive to lipopolysaccharide stimulation

BACKGROUND

Intestinal myofibroblasts contribute to immune regulation in adults with inflammatory bowel disease but have not been characterised in neonatal intestinal inflammatory diseases.

AIMS

To compare lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated interleukin-8 (IL-8) production between human foetal and mature intestinal myofibroblasts in vitro.

METHODS

Foetal, neonatal and adult cells were stimulated with increasing concentrations of E. coli LPS. In LPS stimulated foetal myofibroblasts, Toll-like receptor 4 mRNA expression was assessed by real-time PCR whilst Toll-like receptor 4 receptor activity was determined using anti-Toll-like receptor 4 antibody. Mitogen activated protein kinase pathway activity was assessed using chemical inhibitors and Western blotting. IL-8 production was measured by quantitative ELISA.

RESULTS

IL-8 production by LPS stimulated foetal myofibroblasts occurred in a dose dependent manner. Toll-like receptor 4 expression was constitutive and Toll-like receptor 4 receptor blockade reduced IL-8 production by 42% (P=0.0262). C-Jun N-terminal kinase, p38 and NF-κB inhibitors significantly attenuated LPS stimulated IL-8 production by 42%, 33% and 2%, respectively. Mitogen activated protein kinase activity was confirmed by the presence of phosphorylated proteins on Western blots.

CONCLUSION

These data demonstrate increased IL-8 production by foetal myofibroblasts that is partially mediated by Toll-like receptor 4, mitogen activated protein kinase and NF-κB cell signalling pathways. Intestinal myofibroblasts cells may contribute to the dysregulated inflammatory response in the immature intestine and may form targets that lead to new therapies to prevent neonatal intestinal inflammatory bowel diseases.

Caco-2 cell line as a model to evaluate mucoprotective proprieties

Physical protection of mucosa surface and reduction of inflammatory processes are currently considered the main strategies in the treatment and prevention of mucosal diseases. However, the majority of models used to verify the activity of new mucoprotective agents are based on limiting instrumental assessment or the sacrifice of experimental animals. In this study, for the first time, some in vitro experimental methods using Caco-2 cell line are proposed as predicting in vivo behaviour and action of mucoprotective agents. To this purpose, hyaluronic acid and natural polysaccharides for their bioadhesive activity, hydrocortisone and natural polyphenols as anti-inflammatory agents have been chosen. The obtained results demonstrated that the techniques (Con A/o-pd assay and Franz cell system) of mucoadhesive evaluation on Caco-2 cells are useful to compare the activity of each experimental sample and to assess the adhesion time to the mucosal cell surface. Moreover, the reduction of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) expression in Caco-2 cells can be considered directly correlated to the mucosal anti-inflammatory effect induced by the hydrocortisone and natural polyphenols. In conclusion, the study supported the use of Caco-2 cell as a model to compare and investigate the effect of different active substances on the mucosa and its diseases.

Role of interleukin-10 in breast cancer

Cytokines are low molecular weight regulatory proteins or glycoprotein that modulates the intensity and duration of immune response by stimulating or inhibiting the activation, proliferation, and/or differentiation of target cells. Different cytokines are known to have diverse role in breast cancer initiation and progression. Interleukin-10 (IL-10), a pleiotropic anti-inflammatory cytokine, induces immunosuppression and assists in escape from tumor immune surveillance. Like several other cytokines, IL-10 also can exert dual proliferative and inhibitory effect on breast tumor cells indicating a complex role of IL-10 in breast cancer initiation and progression. In this review, we tried to put together a comprehensive current view on significance of IL-10 in promotion, inhibition, and importance as prognosticator in breast cancer based on in vitro, in vivo, and clinical evidences. For literature collection, we conducted PubMed search with keywords "IL-10" and "breast cancer".

Inflammatory markers and gait speed decline in older adults

BACKGROUND

Increased inflammatory activity and gait speed decline are common with aging, but the association between the two is not well established. The objective of this study was to determine the influence of inflammatory markers, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha, on gait speed performance and decline in older adults.

METHODS

We conducted cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of 333 adults aged 70 and older (61% women) with gait and biomarker assessments identified from participants in the Einstein Aging Study, a community-based aging study. Gait velocity measured at baseline and annual follow-up visits (median follow-up 2.3 years) was the main outcome.

RESULTS

At baseline, higher interleukin-6 levels were associated with slower gait velocity (estimate -4.90 cm/s, p = .008). Adjusted for age, gender, education, and medical illnesses, a one-unit increase in baseline log IL-6 levels was associated with a 0.98 cm/s faster gait speed decline per year (p = .002). The results remained significant after adjustments for additional potential confounders such as physical activity levels, body mass index, and medications. Participants in the highest IL-6 quartile had a 1.75 cm/s/year faster decline in gait velocity compared with those in the lowest quartile (p = .002). Tumor necrosis factor alpha was not associated with gait velocity at cross-section or with gait speed decline.

CONCLUSIONS

IL-6 levels are associated with gait performance in community residing seniors and predicts risk of gait speed decline in aging.

Intestinal mesenchymal cells

The non-white blood cell mesenchymal elements of the intestinal lamina propria are the myofibroblasts, fibroblasts, pericytes, stromal stem cells, muscularis mucosae, and the smooth muscle of the villus core associated with the lymphatic lacteal. We review the functional anatomy of these mesenchymal cells, what is known about their origin in the embryo and their replacement in adults, their putative role in intestinal mucosal morphogenesis, and the intestinal stem cell niche, and we consider new information about myofibroblasts as nonprofessional immune cells. Although our knowledge of the function of mesenchymal cells in intestinal disease is rudimentary, we briefly consider here their roles in cancer and intestinal inflammation.

Mesenchymal cells of the intestinal lamina propria

The mesenchymal elements of the intestinal lamina propria reviewed here are the myofibroblasts, fibroblasts, mural cells (pericytes) of the vasculature, bone marrow-derived stromal stem cells, smooth muscle of the muscularis mucosae, and smooth muscle surrounding the lymphatic lacteals. These cells share similar marker molecules, origins, and coordinated biological functions previously ascribed solely to subepithelial myofibroblasts. We review the functional anatomy of intestinal mesenchymal cells and describe what is known about their origin in the embryo and their replacement in adults. As part of their putative role in intestinal mucosal morphogenesis, we consider the intestinal stem cell niche. Lastly, we review emerging information about myofibroblasts as nonprofessional immune cells that may be important as an alarm system for the gut and as a participant in peripheral immune tolerance.

Oxytocin attenuates atherosclerosis and adipose tissue inflammation in socially isolated ApoE-/- mice

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of exogenous oxytocin (OT) administration on inflammation and atherosclerosis in socially isolated apoE(-/-) mice. Hyperlipidemic animals housed in isolated or stressful social environments display more extensive atherosclerosis than those in an affiliative social environment. The neurohypophyseal peptide OT may be involved in both affiliative social behavior and cardiovascular homeostasis, suggesting a role in mediating the benefits of positive social interactions on atherosclerosis.

METHODS

A total of 43, 12-week-old, apoE(-/-) mice were surgically implanted with osmotic minipumps containing OT (n = 23) or vehicle (n = 20). Blood samples were taken at baseline and after 6 weeks and 12 weeks of treatment. After 12 weeks of treatment, animals were killed, and samples of adipose tissue were dissected from a subset of OT-treated (n = 12) and vehicle-treated (n = 12) animals and incubated in culture media for 6 hours. Media samples were analyzed for interleukin (IL)-6 concentration corrected by sample dry weight. Aortas were dissected, formalin-fixed, and stained with oil-red O for en face quantification of lesion area. t tests were used to compare group means on measures of percent lesion area and IL-6 concentrations.

RESULTS

There were no group differences in plasma lipids. Adipose tissue samples taken from OT-treated animals secreted significantly less IL-6 over 6 hours (p < .01). OT-treated animals displayed significantly less atherosclerosis in the thoracic aorta (p < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that peripheral OT administration can inhibit atherosclerotic lesion development and adipose tissue inflammation, suggesting a potential role for this neuropeptide in mediating the benefits of stable group housing on atherosclerosis.

Fibroblastic reticular cell infection by hemorrhagic fever viruses

Viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) often cause high mortality with high infectivity, multiorgan failure, shock and hemorrhagic diathesis. Fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) within secondary lymphoid organs provide a supporting scaffold to T-lymphocyte areas. These cells regulate the movement of various immune cells and soluble molecules that promote T-lymphocyte homeostasis. We previously reported Ebola virus infection of FRCs, but ascribed little significance to this finding. Here, we studied infection of FRCs by Ebola, Marburg and Lassa viruses. We demonstrate that FRCs, or the extracellular ‘conduit’ of the fibroblastic reticulum of nonhuman primates, are targets of Ebola, Marburg and Lassa viruses. Furthermore, we observed that FRC damage correlates temporally and spatially with lymphocyte damage and that FRCs serve as nidi of fibrin deposition. In addition, we show that nonhuman primate FRCs express p75 NGF receptor and tissue transglutaminase. Our data suggest that viral infection of FRCs may be crucial to the immunological dysfunction and coagulopathy characteristic of VHFs. We further propose that p75 NGF receptor and tissue transglutaminase may be involved in FRC-associated dysfunction during the course of infection.

Transplanted abdominal granulation tissue induced bone formation--an in vivo study in sheep

Many wounds to both soft and hard tissues heal via the formation of a granulation tissue bed. This bed is supportive of neoangiogenesis and releases proangiogenic, migratory, and proliferative growth factors and cytokines. In this study granulation tissue was grown on an intraperitoneal implant (4 mm diameter, 20 mm length) in a sheep. After 2 weeks, this implant was removed and transplanted into a femoral bone defect (4 mm diameter, 20 mm length). The sheep were sacrificed after 3 months, and the implant site examined using micro-CT and histology. A bone plaque formed adjacent to the implant, only in the presence of the peritoneal granulation tissue. This suggests that the formation of granulation tissue is a relatively conserved response at various locations in the body and its transplantation from one location to another can be used to induce tissue healing. This technique may prove useful as a method of improving physiological response to biomaterials.

p38 MAPK and NF-κB on IL-6 Release in Human Gingival Fibroblasts

The induction of interleukin-6 (IL-6) using a proinflammatory cytokine (IL-1beta) was studied in human gingival fibroblasts (HGFs) in relation to p38 MAPK and NF-kappaB transcription factor. When added to HGFs, IL-1beta had a stimulatory effect on the production of IL-6, and this effect was significantly reduced by SB203580, a specific p38 MAPK inhibitor. In addition, the stimulation of IL-6 release also was reduced by the addition of pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate or NF-kappaB SN50, which has been reported as potent NF-kappaB inhibitor. Both the NF-kappaB inhibitors in the presence of SB203580 had more inhibitory effect on IL-6 release. IL-13 stimulated NF-kappaB binding affinity as well as p38 MAP kinase activation, leading to the release of IL-6. However, a specific inhibitor of p38 MAPK, SB203580, had no effect on the NF-kappaB activation, and both the NF-kappaB inhibitors failed to reduce the p38 MAPK activation in the IL-1beta-stimulated HGFs. These results strongly suggest that both p38 MAPK and NF-kappaB are required in IL-1beta-induced IL-6 synthesis and that these two IL-1beta-activated pathways can be primarily dissociated.