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Abstract
The CD8+ T cell noncytotoxic antiviral response (CNAR) was discovered during studies of asymptomatic HIV-infected subjects more than 30 years ago. In contrast to CD8+ T cell cytotoxic lymphocyte (CTL) activity, CNAR suppresses HIV replication without target cell killing. This activity has characteristics of innate immunity: it acts on all retroviruses and thus is neither epitope specific nor HLA restricted. The HIV-associated CNAR does not affect other virus families. It is mediated, at least in part, by a CD8+ T cell antiviral factor (CAF) that blocks HIV transcription. A variety of assays used to measure CNAR/CAF and the effects on other retrovirus infections are described. Notably, CD8+ T cell noncytotoxic antiviral responses have now been observed with other virus families but are mediated by different cytokines. Characterizing the protein structure of CAF has been challenging despite many biologic, immunologic, and molecular studies. It represents a low-abundance protein that may be identified by future next-generation sequencing approaches. Since CNAR/CAF is a natural noncytotoxic activity, it could provide promising strategies for HIV/AIDS therapy, cure, and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maelig G Morvan
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Fernando C Teque
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | | | - Jay A Levy
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
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Killian MS, Teque F, Sudhagoni R. Analysis of the CD8 + T cell anti-HIV activity in heterologous cell co-cultures reveals the benefit of multiple HLA class I matches. Immunogenetics 2017; 70:99-113. [PMID: 28735348 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-017-1021-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 07/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
CD8+ T lymphocytes can reduce the production of human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) by CD4+ T cells by cytotoxic and non-cytotoxic mechanisms. To investigate the involvement of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I compatibility in anti-HIV responses, we co-cultured primary CD8+ T cells, isolated from the peripheral blood of HIV-1-infected individuals, with panels of autologous and heterologous acutely HIV-1-infected primary CD4+ T cells. Altogether, CD8+ T cell anti-HIV activity was evaluated in more than 200 co-cultures. Marked heterogeneity in HIV-1 replication levels was observed among the co-cultures sharing a common CD8+ T cell source. The co-cultures that exhibited greater than 50% reduction in HIV production were found to have significantly increased numbers of matching HLA class I alleles (Yates chi-square = 54.21; p < 0.001). With CD8+ T cells from HIV controllers and asymptomatic viremic individuals, matching HLA-B and/or HLA-C alleles were more predictive of strong anti-HIV activity than matching HLA-A alleles. Overall, HLA class I genotype matches were more closely associated with CD8+ T cell anti-HIV activity than supertype pairings. Antibodies against HLA class I and CD3 reduced the CD8+ T cell anti-HIV activity. Stimulated CD8+ T cells exhibited increased anti-HIV activity and reduced dependency on HLA compatibility. These findings provide evidence that the maximal suppression of HIV replication by CD8+ T cells requires the recognition of multiple epitopes. These studies provide insight for HIV vaccine development, and the analytic approach can be useful for the functional characterization of HLA class I alleles and tentative HLA class I supertypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Scott Killian
- Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark St, Vermillion, SD, 57069, USA. .,Department of Public Health, School of Health Sciences, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD, 57069, USA.
| | - Fernando Teque
- Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Ramu Sudhagoni
- Department of Public Health, School of Health Sciences, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD, 57069, USA
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3
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Blazek D, Teque F, Mackewicz C, Peterlin M, Levy JA. The CD8+ cell non-cytotoxic antiviral response affects RNA polymerase II-mediated human immunodeficiency virus transcription in infected CD4+ cells. J Gen Virol 2015; 97:220-224. [PMID: 26499373 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A CD8+ cell non-cytotoxic antiviral response (CNAR), mediated by a CD8+ cell antiviral factor (CAF), is associated with a long-term healthy state in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. CNAR/CAF reduces viral transcription without a known effect on specific viral sequences in the HIV genome. In studies to define the mechanism involved in the block in viral transcription, we now report that transcription from the HIV-LTR reporter is reduced in infected CD4+ cells upon treatment with CAF. In agreement with this observation, the amount of RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) on the HIV promoter and other viral regions was strongly diminished in HIV-infected CD4+ cells co-cultivated with CNAR-expressing CD8+ cells. These results demonstrate further that CNAR/CAF has a specific role in regulating HIV transcription and a step during the preinitiation complex assembly appears to be sensitive to CNAR/CAF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalibor Blazek
- Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Ave, Room S1280, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,CEITEC-Masaryk University, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Fernando Teque
- Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Ave, Room S1280, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Carl Mackewicz
- Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Ave, Room S1280, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.,Amgen, Thousand Oaks, CA, USA
| | - Matija Peterlin
- Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Ave, Room S1280, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Jay A Levy
- Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Ave, Room S1280, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
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Discovery of another anti-HIV protein in the search for the CD8+ cell anti-HIV Factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:7888-9. [PMID: 26085138 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1509324112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Dispelling myths and focusing on notable concepts in HIV pathogenesis. Trends Mol Med 2015; 21:341-53. [PMID: 25883070 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2015.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2014] [Revised: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Since the discovery of HIV over three decades ago, major efforts have been made to control and perhaps eliminate HIV infection worldwide. During these studies, certain myths or misconceptions about this infectious disease have been emphasized and other potentially beneficial concepts have received less attention. A true long-term solution to HIV infection merits an appreciation of alternative ideas and findings that could be beneficial in the ultimate control of HIV/AIDS. Here, I discuss six issues and call for more attention to the science of HIV and well-designed clinical trials.
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Nevirapine inhibits the anti-HIV activity of CD8+ cells. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2013; 63:184-8. [PMID: 23392464 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0b013e318289822d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) significantly reduced the CD8 cell noncytotoxic anti-HIV response in 12 HIV-1-infected subjects (P < 0.0001). In separate experiments, CD8(+) cells from long-term survivors were cocultured with HIV-infected CD4(+) cells using varying concentrations of anti-HIV drugs. The antiviral function of CD8(+) cells from 4 of the 14 LTSs was reduced with exposure to 10 μM of nevirapine (P < 0.05). The antiviral activity of CD8(+) cells from 2 LTSs was inhibited by 5 μM of zidovudine. These studies indicate that nevirapine and probably zidovudine can inhibit the anti-HIV activity of CD8(+) cells and thus could influence the effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy.
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LOU JIE, MA ZHIEN, LOU MEIZHI, SHAO YIMING. HIV-1 POPULATION DYNAMICS IN VIVO: IMPLICATIONS FOR PATHOGENESIS, EFFECT OF CYTOKINE AND THERAPY STRATEGY. J BIOL SYST 2011. [DOI: 10.1142/s0218339004001142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we present a dynamical model to study the spread of HIV-1 in vivo. Our goal is to better understand the interaction between HIV-1 and the human immune system. Making use of the Hill function, we describe two kinds of processions occurring in the immune response: the activation interactions or inhibitory interactions occurring between different components in the immune response, and the autocatalytic maintenance of the CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells populations. We also consider the impact of the cytokine interleukin-2 (IL-2) and the CD8 antiviral factor (CAF) on HIV-1 infection. Through numerical simulations we get several results. First, we find that the effects of IL-2 and CAF in the treatment for the infected are limiting. Namely, the curative effect will not always increase along with the dose of IL-2 or CAF or both. The increasing trend will stagnate at a certain dose that we used. Second, we find some possible reasons for the collapse of the lymph system in HIV-1 infection — the loss of these restraining functions, and/or the genetic variability of the virus due to immune escape that enhances the virulence, which then bring the collapse of the immune system. In some conditions the system will produce a Hopf bifurcation. We also simulate the theoretical warrant of the feasibility of the combined chemotherapy strategies for the HIV-1 infected patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- JIE LOU
- Department of Mathematics, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China
- Department of Research on Virology and Immunology, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - ZHIEN MA
- Department of Mathematics, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, China
| | - MEIZHI LOU
- Police College of Henan, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - YIMING SHAO
- Department of Research on Virology and Immunology, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Beijing, 100050, China
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Elevated CD8 counts during HAART are associated with HIV virologic treatment failure. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2011; 57:396-403. [PMID: 21602694 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0b013e318221c62a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate whether elevated CD8 counts are associated with increased risk of virologic treatment failure in HIV-infected individuals. DESIGN Retrospective cohort study. METHODS US Military HIV Natural History Study participants who initiated highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in 1996-2008 had 6- and 12-month post-HAART HIV RNA <400 copies per milliliter, ≥ 2 subsequent HIV viral loads and a baseline CD8 count were eligible (n = 817). Baseline was 12 months after the start of HAART, virologic failure (VF) was defined as confirmed HIV RNA ≥ 400 copies per milliliter, and CD8 counts ≥ 1200 cells per cubic millimeter were considered elevated. Cox models were used to examine the effect of baseline and time-updated CD8 counts on VF. RESULTS There were 216 failures for a rate of 5.6 per 100 person-years [95% confidence interval (CI): 4.9 to 6.4]. Among those initiating HAART in 2000-2008, the participants with elevated baseline CD8 counts had significantly greater risk of VF compared with those with baseline CD8 counts ≤ 600 cells per cubic millimeter [hazard ratio (HR) = 2.68, 95% CI: 1.13 to 6.35]. The participants with elevated CD8 counts at >20% of previous 6-month follow-up visits had a greater risk of failure at the current visit than those who did not (HR = 1.53, 95% CI: 1.14 to 2.06). Those with CD8 counts that increased after the start of HAART had a greater risk of failure than those with CD8 counts that decreased or remained the same (HR = 1.59, 95% CI: 1.19 to 2.13). CONCLUSIONS Initial or serial elevated CD8 counts while on HAART or an increase in CD8 counts from HAART initiation may be early warnings for future treatment failure.
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Natural suppression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication is mediated by transitional memory CD8+ T cells. J Virol 2010; 85:1696-705. [PMID: 21147929 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01120-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV replication is suppressed in vitro by a CD8(+) cell noncytotoxic antiviral response (CNAR). This activity directly correlates with an asymptomatic clinical state. The objective of this study was to identify the phenotype of CD8(+) cell subsets having strong CNAR activity. CD8(+) cell subset frequencies and CNAR levels were measured for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-uninfected individuals and three groups of HIV type 1 (HIV-1)-infected individuals: asymptomatic individuals with low-level viremia (vHIV), antiretroviral-drug-treated subjects with undetectable virus levels (TxHIV), and therapy-naïve aviremic elite controllers (EC). CD8(+) cells from the vHIV individuals exhibited the highest HIV-suppressing activity and had elevated frequencies of CD45RA(-) CD27(+) and PD-1(+) (CD279(+)) cells. Functional assessments of CD8(+) cells sorted into distinct subsets established that maximal CNAR activity was mediated by CD45RA(-) CCR7(-) CD27(+) and PD-1(+) CD8(+) cells. T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire profiles of CD8(+) cell subsets having strong CNAR activity exhibited increased perturbations in comparison to those of inactive subsets. Together, these studies suggest that CNAR is driven by HIV replication and that this antiviral activity is associated with oligoclonally expanded activated CD8(+) cells expressing PD-1 and having a transitional memory cell phenotype. The findings better describe the identity of CD8(+) cells showing CNAR and should facilitate the evaluation of this important immune response in studies of HIV pathogenesis, resistance to infection, and vaccine development.
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Secretion of MIP-1β and MIP-1α by CD8(+) T-lymphocytes correlates with HIV-1 inhibition independent of coreceptor usage. Cell Immunol 2010; 266:154-64. [PMID: 21030011 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2010.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2010] [Accepted: 09/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
CD8(+) T-lymphocytes can utilize noncytolytic mechanisms to suppress HIV-1 replication through the secretion of soluble factors. The secretion of MIP-1β, MIP-1α, IP-10, MIG, IL-1α, and interferon gamma correlated most strongly with soluble noncytolytic suppression (p<0.0001). Since the noncytolytic response is impaired by histone hyperacetylation, we examined the ability of histone hyperacetylation to alter the expression of immune-related genes. MIP-1α and IP-10 were also among the genes that were down-regulated by histone hyperacetylation. We define a multifactorial cytokine profile of CD8(+) T-lymphocytes capable of mediating noncytolytic suppression of CXCR4-tropic HIV-1 replication.
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CD8+ Cell Anti-HIV Activity Rapidly Increases Upon Discontinuation of Early Antiretroviral Therapy. J Clin Immunol 2009; 29:311-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s10875-009-9275-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2008] [Accepted: 01/06/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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12
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Persistently HIV-1 seronegative Nairobi sex workers are susceptible to in vitro infection. Can J Infect Dis 2007; 11:259-63. [PMID: 18159299 DOI: 10.1155/2000/390310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/1999] [Accepted: 11/10/1999] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate whether resistance to HIV-1 infection in a subset of highly exposed sex workers correlates with resistance at the cellular level. DESIGN In vitro evaluation of susceptibility to infection by Kenyan HIV-1 isolates and cellular production of potential mediators of resistance. SETTING Samples were collected in a primary care clinic in Nairobi. PATIENTS Thirteen individuals from a cohort of sex workers with a similar risk of acquiring HIV infection and six unexposed controls. INTERVENTIONS Subjects were provided with appropriate primary care and counselling on the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases. RESULTS No inherent cellular resistance to infection was identified. CD8⁺ cells from a subset of subjects strongly inhibited viral replication. CONCLUSIONS Lack of infection in this cohort was not attributable to factors inherent to CD4⁺ cells. Resistance to HIV infection is likely to be multifactorial, and products of CD8⁺ cells and unique features of mucosal sites probably contribute to this state.
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Dioszeghy V, Benlhassan-Chahour K, Delache B, Dereuddre-Bosquet N, Aubenque C, Gras G, Le Grand R, Vaslin B. Changes in soluble factor-mediated CD8+ cell-derived antiviral activity in cynomolgus macaques infected with simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac251: relationship to biological markers of progression. J Virol 2007; 80:236-45. [PMID: 16352548 PMCID: PMC1317544 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.80.1.236-245.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cross-sectional studies have shown that the capacity of CD8+ cells from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) SIVmac-infected macaques to suppress the replication of human and simian immunodeficiency viruses in vitro depends on the clinical stage of disease, but little is known about changes in this antiviral activity over time in individual HIV-infected patients or SIV-infected macaques. We assessed changes in the soluble factor-mediated noncytolytic antiviral activity of CD8+ cells over time in eight cynomolgus macaques infected with SIVmac251 to determine the pathophysiological role of this activity. CD8+ cell-associated antiviral activity increased rapidly in the first week after viral inoculation and remained detectable during the early phase of infection. The net increase in antiviral activity of CD8+ cells was correlated with plasma viral load throughout the 15 months of follow-up. CD8+ cells gradually lost their antiviral activity over time and acquired virus replication-enhancing capacity. Levels of antiviral activity correlated with CD4+ T-cell counts after viral set point. Concentrations of beta-chemokines and interleukin-16 in CD8+ cell supernatants were not correlated with this antiviral activity, and alpha-defensins were not detected. The soluble factor-mediated antiviral activity of CD8+ cells was neither cytolytic nor restricted to major histocompatibility complex. This longitudinal study strongly suggests that the increase in noncytolytic antiviral activity from baseline and the maintenance of this increase over time in cynomolgus macaques depend on both viral replication and CD4+ T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Dioszeghy
- CEA, Laboratoire d'Immunopathologie Expérimentale, Service de Neurovirologie, DSV/DRM, EPHE, IPSC, Université Paris XI UMRE01, 18, Route du Panorama, BP 6, 92 265 Fontenay aux Roses, France
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Martinez-Mariño B, Foster H, Hao Y, Levy JA. Differential gene expression in CD8(+) cells from HIV-1-infected subjects showing suppression of HIV replication. Virology 2007; 362:217-25. [PMID: 17240414 PMCID: PMC1987396 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2006] [Revised: 11/22/2006] [Accepted: 12/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
CD8(+) cells from healthy HIV-1-infected individuals suppress human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replication in infected cells by a non-cytotoxic mechanism. This activity is associated with the production of a soluble CD8(+) cell antiviral factor (CAF) that inhibits viral replication at the level of transcription. Strong CD8(+) cell non-cytotoxic anti-HIV responses (CNARs) correlate with an asymptomatic state and long-term survival of HIV-infected individuals. This antiviral activity is lost when the infected individual advances to disease. In attempts to define the gene(s) mediating CNAR we have evaluated differential gene expression between CD8(+) cells from infected subjects with high CNAR and CD8(+) cells from uninfected controls that lack this activity. The expression analysis, using the Affymetrix GeneChip Human Genome U133 Set, indicated that 18% of the genes were differentially expressed (DE) of which 9.2% were up-regulated. A total of 568 genes were up-regulated with a >2.0-fold difference in expression levels and a >50% concordance of difference call. Stringent selection criteria narrowed down the list to 52 up-regulated 'high confidence genes' (> or = 75% concordance). These genes function in a wide variety of cellular processes and include 13 associated with immunologic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hillary Foster
- Department of Medicine, Division Hematology/Oncology, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0128
| | - Yanling Hao
- National Center for AIDS Prevention and Control, Beijing, China
| | - Jay A. Levy
- Department of Medicine, Division Hematology/Oncology, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0128
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Beaudoin G, Diker B, Angel JB, Copeland KFT. Effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy and immune recovery on CD8+ T-cell-mediated inhibition of HIV-1 transcription. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2006; 43:393-400. [PMID: 16967042 DOI: 10.1097/01.qai.0000232916.35884.7b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY : To date, the relation between the CD8 antiviral factor (CAF) and clinical indicators of disease progression in HIV-1 infection (CD4 T-cell counts and viral load [VL]) is inconclusive. Particularly, the effect of antiretroviral therapy and immune recovery on CAF production remains unclear. Using a transient transfection assay and a reporter gene activated by the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR), we analyzed CAF production in CD8 T cells of HIV-1-positive individuals divided into 3 groups: patients on protease inhibitor (PI)-based therapy, patients on nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI)-based therapy, and patients receiving no therapy. We found that within the untreated group, CAF activity inversely correlated with VL and high CAF was associated with lower VLs over a period of 0.5 to 3 years. Furthermore, patients who were drug-naive demonstrated significantly higher CAF than untreated patients who had previously undergone antiretroviral therapy. CAF activity in treated patients was similar to CAF in drug-naive patients and higher than in off-treatment patients. There seemed to be a trend toward higher CAF in patients on NNRTI-based therapy compared with those on PI-based therapy. These results suggest that immune recovery after highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) contributes to the normalization of CAF levels in HIV-1-positive individuals. Furthermore, we have distinguished between CD8 T-cell-mediated suppression of HIV-1 replication and gene transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg Beaudoin
- Molecular Medicine Program, Ottawa Health Research Institute, 501 Smyth Road, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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Torres KJ, Gutiérrez F, Espinosa E, Mackewicz C, Regalado J, Reyes-Terán G. CD8+ cell noncytotoxic anti-HIV response: restoration by HAART in the late stage of infection. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2006; 22:144-52. [PMID: 16478396 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2006.22.144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is currently the best HIV infection management strategy. However, its effects on the CD8+ T cell noncytotoxic anti-HIV response (CNAR) are not well known. We investigated if HAART has different effects on CNAR in patients at the intermediate and late stages of HIV infection. Untreated healthy HIV-infected subjects with a mean CD4+ T cell count of 606 cells/microl were examined as a reference group. Plasma viral load, CD4+ T cell count, and CNAR activity were measured at baseline and regular intervals for at least 48 weeks following initiation of HAART. Baseline CNAR activity in all subjects correlated inversely with viral load and directly with CD4 T+ cell counts. The level of CNAR in the latestage group was significantly lower than in the intermediate-stage and the healthy reference group (p < 0.01). Following initiation of HAART, substantial increases in CD4+ T cell counts and decreases in viral loads were observed in both groups, indicating treatment success. CNAR activity was found to be increased significantly during HAART, but only in the late-stage group (p < 0.01). This increase in CD8+ cell function was seen within 4 weeks of treatment initiation and resulted in levels of CNAR activity almost equal to those observed in the healthy reference subjects. Our findings suggest a beneficial effect on CNAR in those individuals with reduced activity, typically in late-stage infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klintsy J Torres
- Departamento de Investigación en Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIENI), Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias (INER), México City, México
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Killian MS, Ng S, Mackewicz CE, Levy JA. A screening assay for detecting CD8+ cell non-cytotoxic anti-HIV responses. J Immunol Methods 2005; 304:137-50. [PMID: 16129447 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2005.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2005] [Revised: 07/07/2005] [Accepted: 07/11/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The rate of HIV-1 disease progression is influenced by several factors that include pathogen and host genetic variations and the quality of antiviral immune responses. The CD8+ cell non-cytotoxic antiviral response (CNAR) substantially suppresses HIV replication in CD4+ cells and is positively associated with an asymptomatic clinical state. Traditionally, the measurement of CNAR has required several culture procedures and costly reagents. Here we report the development and validation of a screening assay for detection of CNAR that accurately identifies individuals benefiting from this response. Use of the CNAR screening assay should facilitate the evaluation of this important immune parameter in studies of HIV pathogenesis, resistance to infection, and vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Scott Killian
- AIDS Research Institute and Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
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18
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Martinez-Mariño B, Ashlock BM, Shiboski S, Hecht FM, Levy JA. Effect of IL-2 therapy on CD8+ cell noncytotoxic anti-HIV response during primary HIV-1 infection. J Clin Immunol 2005; 24:135-44. [PMID: 15024180 DOI: 10.1023/b:joci.0000019778.96564.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Early treatment intervention during human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is a strategy aimed to preserve and/or enhance the developing anti-HIV immune responses. We report the effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) combined with intermittent subcutaneous doses of Interleukin 2 (IL-2) on CD8(+) cell noncytotoxic anti-HIV responses (CNAR), as well as on viral loads and CD4(+) cell/CD8(+) cell numbers in subjects with primary HIV-1 infection. Twenty-four patients received HAART, 24 received a combination of HAART plus IL-2, and 12 elected no-therapy. In comparison to HAART alone, IL-2 treatment led to significant increases in CD4(+) cell numbers through week 48 of the study. No effect was observed on viral loads or the CD8(+) cell population. The first cycle of IL-2 enhanced CNAR; later cycles showed no substantial effect. This study suggests that HAART combined with IL-2 could provide an immunologic benefit in the treatment of early HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Martinez-Mariño
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, USA
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Martinez-Mariño B, Shiboski S, Hecht FM, Kahn JO, Levy JA. Interleukin-2 therapy restores CD8 cell non-cytotoxic anti-HIV responses in primary infection subjects receiving HAART. AIDS 2004; 18:1991-9. [PMID: 15577620 DOI: 10.1097/00002030-200410210-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the effect of interleukin-2 (IL-2) therapy on immunologic and virologic responses in subjects with acute or recent HIV infection already receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). METHODS The effect of IL-2 therapy on immunologic and virologic responses was studied in 21 acutely infected individuals who had been receiving HAART for 48 weeks following acute or recent HIV infection. Nine subjects receiving no therapy served as controls. Viral loads, as well as CD4 and CD8 cell counts were monitored and the CD8 cell non-cytotoxic anti-HIV response (CNAR) was measured. RESULTS IL-2 therapy led to significant increases in CD4 cell numbers (P = 0.005) that were maintained for 6 months after discontinuation of the IL-2 treatment. No effect of IL-2 was observed on viral loads or the CD8 cell numbers as compared to subjects receiving HAART alone. CNAR activity was restored among subjects receiving HAART and IL-2 whereas CNAR declined among those receiving HAART alone and in untreated infected subjects. The percentage of HAART subjects with CD8 cells showing at least 50% suppression of HIV replication increased significantly following IL-2 therapy (P = 0.02) and persisted for 6 months. CONCLUSIONS In primary HIV infection administering IL-2 concomitant with HAART following 1 year of treatment with HAART gives a significant increase in CD4 cells and a previously unrecognized beneficial effect on the CD8 cell non-cytotoxic anti-HIV response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Martinez-Mariño
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-1270, USA
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20
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Phadke AP, Choi IS, Li Z, Weaver E, Collisson EW. The role of inducer cells in mediating in vitro suppression of feline immunodeficiency virus replication. Virology 2004; 320:63-74. [PMID: 15003863 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2003.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2003] [Revised: 10/23/2003] [Accepted: 11/03/2003] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
CD8+ T-cell-mediated suppression of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) replication has been described by several groups, although the mechanisms of activation and conditions for viral suppression vary with the methodologies. We have previously reported that CD8+ T-cell-mediated suppression of FIV replication required inducer cell stimulation of the effector cells. The focus of the present study was to examine the essential role of inducer cells required for the induction of this soluble anti-FIV activity. Both FIV-PPR-infected T cells and feline skin fibroblasts (FSF) infected with an alphavirus vector expressing FIV capsid or the irrelevant antigen lacZ, stimulated autologous or heterologous effector cells to produce supernatants that suppressed FIV replication. Thus, induction of this suppression of FIV replication did not strictly require autologous inducer cells and did not require the presence of FIV antigen. Anti-viral activity correlated with the presence of CD8+ T cells. Suppression was maximal when the inducer cells and the effector cells were in contact with each other, because separation of the inducer and effector cells by a 0.45-microm membrane reduced FIV suppression by approximately 50%. These findings emphasize the importance for membrane antigen interactions and cytokines in the optimal induction of effector cell synthesis of the soluble anti-FIV activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anagha P Phadke
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4467, USA
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21
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Abstract
Efforts to control HIV infection have led to the development of several antiretroviral drugs that can limit virus replication, however, these therapies do not offer a long-term solution to the infection. We can learn a great deal from HIV-infected individuals who have lived for more than ten years and remain healthy without receiving antiviral drugs. These long-term survivors or long-term non-progressors have an immune system that can control HIV infection. A major component of this immune response is innate immunity, particularly the CD8(+) cell antiviral non-cytotoxic response (CNAR), mediated by a novel CD8(+) cell antiviral factor (CAF). The characteristics of CNAR and CAF will be described and progress made toward identifying CAF will be reviewed. These studies have uncovered several potentially important natural anti-HIV factors and their relationship to the originally described CAF is considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay A Levy
- University of California, San Francisco, Department of Medicine, 513 Parnassus, S1280, Box 1270, San Francisco, CA 94143-1270, USA.
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22
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Castelli J, Thomas EK, Gilliet M, Liu YJ, Levy JA. Mature dendritic cells can enhance CD8+ cell noncytotoxic anti-HIV responses: the role of IL-15. Blood 2003; 103:2699-704. [PMID: 14684414 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2003-06-1913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The CD8+ cell noncytotoxic anti-HIV response (CNAR) is associated with a long-term healthy clinical state in HIV-infected individuals. Over time CNAR is reduced concomitant with progression to disease. In studies to evaluate whether the interaction between CD8+ cells and dendritic cells (DCs) could increase CNAR, CD8+ cells from individuals who showed a decrease in this antiviral activity were cocultured with monocyte-derived dendritic cells matured with CD40 ligand. After coculture with these mature DCs, the CD8+ cells showed an increase in CNAR greater than that observed with CD8+ cells costimulated with CD3/CD28 antibodies. This antiviral response appeared to be mediated primarily by production of interleukin-15 (IL-15) by the mature DCs. Purified IL-15 also enhanced CNAR, whereas IL-12 showed no substantial effect. These studies provide another potential approach by which the immune system in HIV infection could be restored by cytokine therapy, particularly IL-15 administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- JoAnn Castelli
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of California, San Francisco 94143-1270, USA
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23
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay A Levy
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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24
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Diaz LS, Stone MR, Mackewicz CE, Levy JA. Differential gene expression in CD8+ cells exhibiting noncytotoxic anti-HIV activity. Virology 2003; 311:400-9. [PMID: 12842629 DOI: 10.1016/s0042-6822(03)00177-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Suppressive subtractive hybridization with polymerase chain reaction was used to identify the gene(s) associated with the CD8+ cell noncytotoxic anti-HIV response. The differences in gene expression profiles of CD8+ cells from a pair of discordant HIV-positive identical twins were studied. Forty-nine genes were identified as expressed at higher levels in the CD8+ cells from the infected twin that inhibited viral replication. The differential expression of these genes was then evaluated using Q-PCR to determine if this gene expression pattern is evident in CD8+ cells from other HIV-positive subjects showing this antiviral activity. Three genes, including one unknown, were found to have significantly increased expression in antiviral CD8+ cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leyla S Diaz
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-1270, USA
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25
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Mackewicz CE, Craik CS, Levy JA. The CD8+ cell noncytotoxic anti-HIV response can be blocked by protease inhibitors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:3433-8. [PMID: 12624186 PMCID: PMC152310 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0630379100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2002] [Accepted: 01/21/2003] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
CD8+ cells from healthy HIV-infected individuals can suppress HIV replication in infected CD4(+) cells without killing the cells. This CD8+ cell noncytotoxic antiviral response (CNAR), observed by coculture of CD8+ cells with infected CD4+ cells, is associated with secretion of a CD8+ cell antiviral factor (CAF). In attempts to identify CAF, we discovered that certain protease inhibitors, particularly leupeptin, can block, by up to 95%, the anti-HIV activity in CD8+ cell culture fluids as well as inhibit CNAR. The effect is dose-dependent and is observed in up to 70% of the CAF and CNAR assays by using fluids and cells from several different subjects. Pretreatment of CD8+ cells with leupeptin reduces CNAR, further supporting an inhibitory effect on a CD8+ cell product. This inhibitory activity of protease inhibitors does not affect cell growth, expression of activation antigens, or viability of either CD8+ cells or the infected CD4+ cells. The results suggest that a part of the CD8+ cell noncytotoxic response involves the activity of a protease or a protein that interacts with protease inhibitors. Proteolysis of a CD8+ cell product(s) may be involved. This observation offers a promising approach for identifying the mechanism of CNARCAF activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl E Mackewicz
- Department of Medicine, University of California School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA 94143-1270, USA
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26
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Sindhu STAK, Ahmad R, Morisset R, Ahmad A, Menezes J. Peripheral blood cytotoxic gammadelta T lymphocytes from patients with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection and AIDS lyse uninfected CD4+ T cells, and their cytocidal potential correlates with viral load. J Virol 2003; 77:1848-55. [PMID: 12525619 PMCID: PMC140951 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.3.1848-1855.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2002] [Accepted: 11/06/2002] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Progression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection in humans is marked by declining CD4+-T-cell counts and increasing virus load (VL). Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) play an important role in the lysis of HIV-infected cells, especially during the early phase of asymptomatic infection. CTL responses in the later phase of disease progression may not be as effective since progressors with lower CD4+-T-cell counts have consistently higher VL despite having elevated CTL counts. We hypothesized that, apart from antiviral effects, some CTL might also contribute to AIDS pathogenesis by depleting CD4+ T cells and that this CTL activity may correlate with the VL in AIDS patients. Therefore, a cross-sectional study of 31 HIV-1-infected patients at various clinical stages was carried out. Purified CTL from these donors as well as HIV-seronegative controls were used as effectors against different human cell targets by using standard 51Cr release cytolytic assays. A direct correlation between VL and CTL-mediated, major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-unrestricted lysis of primary CD4+-T-cell, CEM.NKR, and K562 targets was observed. CD4+-T-cell counts and duration of infection also correlated with MHC-unrestricted cytolytic activity. Our data clearly show that gammadelta CTL are abnormally expanded in the peripheral blood of HIV-infected patients and that the Vdelta1 subset of gammadelta T cells is the main effector population responsible for this type of cytolysis. The present data suggest that gammadelta CTL can contribute to the depletion of bystander CD4+ T cells in HIV-infected patients as a parallel mechanism to HIV-associated immunopathogenesis and hence expedite AIDS progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sardar T A K Sindhu
- Laboratory of Immunovirology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Ste. Justine Hospital Research Center and Hotel-Dieu Hospital, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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27
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Castelli JC, Deeks SG, Shiboski S, Levy JA. Relationship of CD8(+) T cell noncytotoxic anti-HIV response to CD4(+) T cell number in untreated asymptomatic HIV-infected individuals. Blood 2002; 99:4225-7. [PMID: 12010831 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2001-11-0078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
During chronic HIV infection, asymptomatic individuals demonstrate a strong CD8(+) cell noncytotoxic antiviral response (CNAR). With the onset of symptoms or reduction in CD4(+) cell counts, CNAR decreases. Presently, it is recommended that infected individuals receive antiretroviral therapy if CD4(+) cell counts fall below 350 cells/microL. To determine whether CNAR lends support to this recommendation for initiation of antiretroviral treatment, we examined CNAR in 20 healthy, untreated, HIV-infected men exhibiting a range of CD4(+) cell numbers. Our results indicate that the asymptomatic untreated HIV-infected individuals with less than 300 CD4(+) cells/microL had a significantly lower CNAR than those with higher CD4(+) cell counts. These data on CNAR in untreated, healthy, HIV-infected individuals support the current recommendation for when to initiate antiretroviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- JoAnn C Castelli
- Department of Medicine and Department of Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco 94143-1270, USA
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28
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Locher CP, Witt SA, Levy JA. The nuclear factor kappa B and Spl binding sites do not appear to be involved in virus suppression by CD8 T lymphocytes. AIDS 2001; 15:2455-7. [PMID: 11774833 DOI: 10.1097/00002030-200112070-00016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
CD8 T lymphocytes suppress primate lentivirus replication in a non-cytotoxic manner. This antiviral activity, mediated by a CD8 cell antiviral factor (CAF), involves an arrest in viral transcription. Present studies indicate that the CD8 T cell non-cytotoxic antiviral activity and CAF inhibit the replication of an SIV mutant virus lacking the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) and Spl binding domains. The results strongly suggest that the NF-B and Spl binding sites are not involved in virus suppression by CD8 T lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- C P Locher
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-1270, USA
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29
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Abstract
The innate immune system is the first line of defense against invading pathogens and is particularly important in warding off bacterial and viral infections presenting at the mucosal cell surface. From this primitive immune response, the more sophisticated adaptive immune system was derived. Despite nearly two decades of research directed at inducing adaptive immune responses to HIV, no successful immunological therapy or vaccine has been developed. On the basis of recent observations, it is suggested that instead emphasis should now be placed on the alternative arm of the immune system, the innate immune response. Novel approaches should be developed to elicit this rapidly responding immune activity in HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Levy
- Dept of Medicine, University of California, 513 Parnassus, San Francisco, CA 94143-1270, USA.
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30
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Braun J, Beretta A. A cell line-based bioassay of non beta-chemokine-related HIV suppressive activity. AIDS 2000; 14:2940-1. [PMID: 11153676 DOI: 10.1097/00002030-200012220-00017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J Braun
- INSERM U445, H pital Cochin, Paris, France
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31
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Cocchi F, DeVico AL, Yarchoan R, Redfield R, Cleghorn F, Blattner WA, Garzino-Demo A, Colombini-Hatch S, Margolis D, Gallo RC. Higher macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1alpha and MIP-1beta levels from CD8+ T cells are associated with asymptomatic HIV-1 infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97:13812-7. [PMID: 11095721 PMCID: PMC17658 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.240469997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To test the hypothesis that beta-chemokine levels may be relevant to the control of HIV in vivo, we compared RANTES, MIP-1alpha, and MIP-1beta production from purified CD8(+) T cells from 81 HIV-infected subjects and from 28 uninfected donors. Asymptomatic HIV(+) subjects produced significantly higher levels of MIP-1alpha and MIP-1beta, but not RANTES, than uninfected donors or patients that progressed to AIDS. In contrast, beta chemokines in plasma were either nondetectable or showed no correlation with clinical status. The high beta-chemokine-mediated anti-HIV activity was against the macrophage tropic isolate HIV-1(BAL), with no demonstrable effect on the replication of the T-cell tropic HIV-1(IIIB). These findings suggest that constitutive beta-chemokine production may play an important role in the outcome of HIV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Cocchi
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute, University of Maryland, 725 West Lombard Street, Baltimore, MD 21201-1192, USA.
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32
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Le Borgne S, Février M, Callebaut C, Lee SP, Rivière Y. CD8(+)-Cell antiviral factor activity is not restricted to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-specific T cells and can block HIV replication after initiation of reverse transcription. J Virol 2000; 74:4456-64. [PMID: 10775581 PMCID: PMC111966 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.74.10.4456-4464.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
CD8(+) lymphocytes from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients can suppress in vitro HIV replication in CD4(+) T cells by a noncytolytic mechanism involving secreted CD8(+)-cell antiviral factor(s) (CAF). Using an HIV Nef-specific cytotoxic-T-lymphocyte (CTL) line and autologous CD4(+) T cells infected with a nef-deleted HIV-1 virus, we demonstrated that, after a priming antigenic stimulation, this suppression does not require the presence of the specific antigen during the effector phase. Furthermore, using an Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-specific CTL line from an HIV-seronegative donor, we demonstrated that the ability to inhibit HIV replication in a noncytolytic manner is not restricted to HIV-specific effector cells; indeed, EBV-specific CTL were as efficient as HIV-specific effectors in suppressing R5 or X4 HIV-1 strain replication in vitro. This HIV-suppressive activity mediated by a soluble factor(s) present in the culture supernatant was detectable for up to 14 days following stimulation of EBV-specific CD8(+) cells with the cognate epitope peptide. Following acute infection of CEM cells with an X4 strain of HIV-1, EBV-specific CTL line supernatant containing HIV-suppressive activity did not block virus entry but was shown to interfere with virus replication after the first template switching of reverse transcription. Our results suggest that the noncytolytic control of HIV replication by EBV-specific CD8(+) T lymphocytes corresponded to a CAF-like activity and thus demonstrate that CAF production may not be restricted to CTL induced during HIV disease. Moreover, CAF acts after reverse transcription at least for X4 isolate replication inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Le Borgne
- Département des Rétrovirus, URA CNRS 1930, Institut Pasteur, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
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33
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Mackewicz CE, Garovoy MR, Levy JA. HLA compatibility requirements for CD8(+)-T-cell-mediated suppression of human immunodeficiency virus replication. J Virol 1998; 72:10165-70. [PMID: 9811757 PMCID: PMC110558 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.72.12.10165-10170.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
CD8(+) T cells from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals can suppress HIV replication in cultured CD4(+) cells by a noncytotoxic mechanism. Efficient suppression of HIV replication (>90% reduction) does not require HLA class I or class II histocompatibility between the effector CD8(+) T cells and the infected target CD4(+) T cells. However, maximal control of HIV production occurs when the CD8(+) effector cells and CD4(+) target cells are syngeneic. In some cases, more than 20-fold fewer syngeneic CD8(+) T cells were required to achieve the same degree of HIV inhibition as HLA-mismatched CD8(+) T cells. The increased antiviral activity seen in the syngeneic setting did not map exclusively to either the HLA class I or class II locus. These findings suggest that genetic compatibility (potentially, but not necessarily, at the HLA class I and class II loci) regulates CD8(+) T-cell noncytotoxic antiviral activity against infected CD4(+) T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- C E Mackewicz
- Department of Medicine, Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143-1270, USA
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34
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Lacey SF, Weinhold KJ, Chen CH, McDanal C, Oei C, Greenberg ML. Herpesvirus saimiri transformation of HIV type 1 suppressive CD8+ lymphocytes from an HIV type 1-infected asymptomatic individual. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1998; 14:521-31. [PMID: 9566555 DOI: 10.1089/aid.1998.14.521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
CD8+ T lymphocytes from HIV+ individuals can potently suppress HIV-1 replication in a noncytolytic manner. This suppression appears to be multifactorial and the molecules contributing have not been fully elucidated. As an approach to this question we used herpesvirus saimiri (HVS) to transform CD8+ T lymphocytes from an HIV+ asymptomatic donor to a continuously growing, activation-independent, IL-2-dependent phenotype. The transformed cell population, termed CD8(HVS), had an activated phenotype, contained HVS sequences, did not shed infectious HVS virus, and was polyclonal. The CD8(HVS) cells, despite the absence of detectable CTL activity, potently suppressed HIV-1 production by both autologous and heterologous CD4+ cells from infected donors. The CD8(HVS) cells in coculture also suppressed virus production from PBMCs acutely infected with syncytium-inducing (SI) strains or NSI primary isolates of HIV-1. The supernatants from the CD8(HVS) cells and their concentrates derived from these supernatants were suppressive to NSI primary isolates of HIV-1 but not to SI strains. Fractionation of these concentrates showed that the suppressive activity was associated with low molecular mass (6500- to 19,300-Da) protein species. Western blotting and ELISA indicated that the CC chemokines MIP-1alpha, MIP-1beta, and RANTES were present in these fractions. Antibody-blocking studies with antibodies to the CC chemokines indicated that a significant portion of the soluble HIV-suppressive activity was due to these molecules. However, these experiments also suggested the inhibitory activity of the CD8(HVS) cells in coculture is not due exclusively to the CC chemokines. The HVS-transformed cells provide a useful tool for the study of noncytolytic CD8+ T lymphocyte-mediated suppression of HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- S F Lacey
- Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
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35
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Kootstra NA, Miedema F, Schuitemaker H. Analysis of CD8+ T lymphocyte-mediated nonlytic suppression of autologous and heterologous primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1997; 13:685-93. [PMID: 9168237 DOI: 10.1089/aid.1997.13.685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Nonlytic CD8+ T lymphocyte antiviral factor (CAF) activity has been described as having an important role in the clinical course of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. Testing of CAF activity against autologous viruses isolated at approximately the same time points showed that CD8+ T lymphocytes from long-term survivors indeed possessed high CAF activity. However, in four of six progressors to AIDS, we observed the same amount of CAF activity in the face of increasing cellular HIV-1 load. In the other two progressors, CAF activity seemed preserved over time whereas the susceptibility of the virus isolate obtained late in infection seemed to be diminished. In a heterologous system, CAF activity of CD8+ T lymphocytes from 13 HIV-1-positive individuals did not correlate with CD4+ T lymphocyte counts. In two of three patients, syncytium-inducing (SI) HIV-1 variants, which are associated with a progressive clinical course, appeared to have a somewhat reduced susceptibility to CAF activity as compared to their coexisting non-SI HIV-1 variants. In a large donor group, suppression of SI isolates (as compared to non-SI isolates) mediated by heterologous CD8+ T lymphocytes was reduced. CD8+ T lymphocytes from five of six HIV-1-positive individuals suppressed HIV-1 replication in macrophages. CD8+ T lymphocytes from noninfected donors, even from cord blood, already had high CAF activity, suggesting that induction of this activity is neither virus nor HIV-1 specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- N A Kootstra
- Department of Clinical Viro-Immunology, The Netherlands Red Cross Blood Transfusion Service, University of Amsterdam
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36
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Copeland KF, Leith JG, McKay PJ, Kelleher L, Smaill FM, Rosenthal KL. CD8+ T cell-mediated suppression of HIV long terminal repeat-driven gene expression is not associated with improved clinical status. AIDS 1997; 11:581-6. [PMID: 9108939 DOI: 10.1097/00002030-199705000-00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine the associations between the suppression of HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR)-mediated gene expression by CD8+ T-cell supernatants and clinical correlates of well-being, including CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell counts, beta-chemokine production and clinical stage of disease. METHODS Culture supernatants of activated CD8+ T cells derived from a panel of HIV-1-infected subjects were assessed for their ability to suppress HIV-1 LTR-mediated chloramphenicol acetyl transferase (CAT) expression. The percentage suppression of gene expression was correlated with CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell counts and clinical stage of infection. Some individuals within this group were followed at 2-3 month intervals over time to assess the consistency of the suppression. Selected CD8+ T-cell culture supernatants of diverse suppressive ability were screened for the levels of the beta-chemokines macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1 alpha, MIP-1 beta and RANTES. RESULTS The ability of CD8+ T cells of HIV-1 infected subjects to suppress HIV-1 LTR-mediated gene expression did not show a dependence upon high CD4+ T-cell counts or on the clinical stage or duration of infection. The ability to suppress gene expression did show a relationship with higher CD8+ T-cell counts and correlated with the levels of beta-chemokines in the culture supernatants. In contrast, strong suppression was mediated by CD8+ T-cell supernatants from some subjects with very low CD8+ T-cell counts and relatively low chemokine levels. CONCLUSIONS Although the suppression of gene expression by CD8+ T-cell culture supernatants showed statistical correlation with beta-chemokine levels and with higher CD8+ T-cell count, no correlation could be found with correlates of clinical well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- K F Copeland
- Molecular Virology and Immunology Programme, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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Phillips AN, Mocroft A, Sabin CA, Cozzi Lepri A. Cross-sectional studies in AIDS pathogenesis: how far can they mislead us? JOURNAL OF ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROMES AND HUMAN RETROVIROLOGY : OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL RETROVIROLOGY ASSOCIATION 1997; 14:153-7. [PMID: 9052724 DOI: 10.1097/00042560-199702010-00008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
When investigating variables thought to be of potential importance to AIDS pathogenesis, it is common practice to initially carry out a cross-sectional study comparing those with symptomatic disease/low CD4 counts with those with no symptoms/high CD4 counts. While it is widely appreciated that such studies have weaknesses compared with those involving patient follow-up, the particular biases likely to arise in the context of HIV infection have not been formally evaluated. In an attempt to do this, data on HIV progression for 50,000 notional patients who became infected in the years between 1976 (assumed to be the start of the epidemic) and 2010 were simulated under various scenarios. In Scenario 1, we considered a variable called X, which was specified to be associated with more rapid progression of HIV infection. In Scenario 2, we considered a variable Y, which was specified not to be associated with more rapid progression but which tended to change in value as a result of HIV-induced immunosuppression. Variable Z, in Scenario 3, was specified to be associated with more rapid progression and to change in value when severe immunosuppression developed. Cross-sectional analyses evaluating the association between variables X, Y, and Z and the CD4 count/presence of AIDS were performed for data as of 1980, 1985, 1995, 2000, 2005, and 2010 to assess the extent to which the true role of the three variables could be ascertained. For Scenario 1, cross-sectional analyses performed on these data later in the epidemic falsely suggested that variable X was not related to HIV progression. Variable Y in Scenario 2 falsely appeared to be related to HIV progression, due to the inability of the cross-sectional design to distinguish the fact that changes in variable Y were as a result of immunosuppression and not a possible cause of it. In Scenario 3, variable Z showed a relationship with the presence of AIDS for which the typical interpretation would lead to the suggestion that its effect is in the reverse direction to that which was, in fact, the case. In conclusion, as the HIV epidemic progresses, cross-sectional studies will increasingly tend to give misleading results. Most importantly, it is incorrect to conclude that variables found to have no association with HIV disease stage in such studies are not of potential importance to pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- A N Phillips
- HIV Research Unit, Department of Primary Care and Population Sciences, Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine, London, England
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Copeland KF, Leith JG, McKay PJ, Rosenthal KL. CD8+ T cell supernatants of HIV type 1-infected individuals have opposite effects on long terminal repeat-mediated transcription in T cells and monocytes. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1997; 13:71-7. [PMID: 8989429 DOI: 10.1089/aid.1997.13.71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
CD8+ T lymphocytes of HIV-1-infected individuals can efficiently suppress HIV-1 replication in CD4+ T lymphocytes via soluble factors. We compared the effect of CD8+ T cell-derived supernatants on HIV-1 LTR-driven gene expression in T cells and monocytic cell lines. Our results demonstrate that CD8+ T cell supernatants that suppressed HIV-1 LTR-driven gene expression in Jurkat T cells significantly enhanced expression in Tat-activated U38 monocytic cells in the presence and absence of mitogenic stimulation. Examination of a panel of CD8+ T cell-derived supernatants form HIV-infected individuals demonstrated that the extent of enhancement of transcription in U38 cells was mirrored in most cases by a similar level of suppression of transcription in Jurkat T cells. In latently infected U1 cells treated with TNF-alpha, culture with CD8+ T cell supernatants markedly enhanced virus production. In addition, the percentage increase in the enhancement of HIV-1 LTR-driven CAT expression by CD8+ T cell supernatants correlated strongly (r = 0.911) with the level of p24 detected. The level of LTR-mediated gene expression in U38 cells was not influenced by rhMIP-1 alpha rhMIP-1 beta, or rhRANTES over a wide range of chemokine concentration. Treatment of CD8+ T cell supernatant with a combination of antibodies to these chemokines resulted in a further augmentation of LTR-mediated CAT expression in U38 cells. Taken together, these results demonstrate that CD8+ T cell suppressive factors may have opposite effects on HIV-1 LTR-driven gene expression and replication dependent on target cell type and further suggest that the beta-chemokines do not influence HIV-1 LTR-mediated gene expression in monocytic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- K F Copeland
- Department of Pathology, McMaster University Health Sciences Centre, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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Greenberg ML, Lacey SF, Chen CH, Bolognesi DP, Weinhold KJ. Noncytolytic CD8 T cell-mediated suppression of HIV replication. SPRINGER SEMINARS IN IMMUNOPATHOLOGY 1997; 18:355-69. [PMID: 9089954 DOI: 10.1007/bf00813503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M L Greenberg
- Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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D'Souza MP, Harden VA. Chemokines and HIV-1 second receptors. Confluence of two fields generates optimism in AIDS research. Nat Med 1996; 2:1293-300. [PMID: 8946819 DOI: 10.1038/nm1296-1293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M P D'Souza
- Pathogenesis and Basic Research Branch, Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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Cocchi F, DeVico AL, Garzino-Demo A, Cara A, Gallo RC, Lusso P. The V3 domain of the HIV-1 gp120 envelope glycoprotein is critical for chemokine-mediated blockade of infection. Nat Med 1996; 2:1244-7. [PMID: 8898753 DOI: 10.1038/nm1196-1244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 421] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The ability of CD8 T cells derived from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients to produce soluble HIV-suppressive factor(s) (HIV-SF) has been suggested as an important mechanism of control of HIV infection in vivo. The C-C chemokines RANTES, MIP-1 alpha and MIP-1 beta were recently identified as the major components of the HIV-SF produced by both immortalized and primary patient CD8 T cells. Whereas they potently inhibit infection by primary and macrophage-tropic HIV-1 isolates, T-cell line-adapted viral strains tend to be insensitive to their suppressive effects. Consistent with this discrepancy, two distinct chemokine receptors, namely, CXCR4 (ref. 7) and CCR5 (ref. 8), were recently identified as potential co-receptors for T-cell line-adapted and macrophage-tropic HIV-1 isolates, respectively. Here, we demonstrate that the third hypervariable domain of the gp 120 envelope glycoprotein is a critical determinant of the susceptibility of HIV-1 to chemokines. Moreover, we show that RANTES, MIP-1 alpha and MIP-1 beta block the entry of HIV-1 into cells and that their antiviral activity is independent of pertussis toxin-sensitive signal transduction pathways mediated by chemokine receptors. The ability of the chemokines to block the early steps of HIV infection could be exploited to develop novel therapeutic approaches for AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Cocchi
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute & School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, USA
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Levy JA, Mackewicz CE, Barker E. Controlling HIV pathogenesis: the role of the noncytotoxic anti-HIV response of CD8+ T cells. IMMUNOLOGY TODAY 1996; 17:217-24. [PMID: 8991383 DOI: 10.1016/0167-5699(96)10011-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 331] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Noncytotoxic CD8+ T cells may play a critical role in preventing progression to disease following human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. This antiviral response, mediated by a novel CD8+ T-cell antiviral factor (CAF), occurs soon after infection and is maintained in asymptomatic individuals. Here, Jay Levy and colleagues propose that this antiviral activity represents a natural cellular immune reaction that controls HIV production and protects the host from potential harmful effects of cytotoxic T lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Levy
- Cancer Research Institute, University of California San Francisco 94143-0128, USA.
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Copeland KF, McKay PJ, Rosenthal KL. Suppression of the human immunodeficiency virus long terminal repeat by CD8+ T cells is dependent on the NFAT-1 element. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996; 12:143-8. [PMID: 8834464 DOI: 10.1089/aid.1996.12.143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
CD8+ T lymphocytes of HIV-1 infected individuals produce a soluble factor that efficiently suppresses HIV-1 replication at the transcriptional level. We show here that the response of the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) to mitogenic or Tat-mediated activation is sensitive to the suppressive action of a Herpesvirus saimiri (HVS)-transformed CD8+ T cell clone from an HIV-infected individual and supernatants from CD8+ T cells of HIV-1-infected asymptomatic subjects (CD4+ > 350/microliters). Mutagenesis of NF kappa B or Sp-1 elements within the LTR resulted in no change in the ability of CD8+ T cell supernatants to inhibit Tat- or mitogen-mediated LTR transcription. However, the response to HIV-1 Tat by a LTR in which the interleukin (IL)-2 homology NFAT-1 region was mutated resulted in almost complete elimination of suppression by CD8+ T cells. This was not observed when the NFAT-1 mutant LTR was activated by mitogen. We have previously shown that gene expression directed by the HIV-1 NF kappa B elements is inhibited by CD8+ cell-derived supernatants (Copeland et al., AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses, 1995;11:1321-1326). Taken together, these observations suggest that mitogenic activation, mediated primarily through the NF kappa B enhancer, is susceptible to CD8-mediated inhibition, however, inhibition of Tat-mediated activation may rely upon a different pathway that is NFAT-1 dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- K F Copeland
- Department of Pathology, McMaster University Health Sciences Centre, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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Kinter AL, Bende SM, Hardy EC, Jackson R, Fauci AS. Interleukin 2 induces CD8+ T cell-mediated suppression of human immunodeficiency virus replication in CD4+ T cells and this effect overrides its ability to stimulate virus expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1995; 92:10985-9. [PMID: 7479922 PMCID: PMC40555 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.92.24.10985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The nonlytic suppression of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) production from infected CD4+ T cells by CD8+ lymphocytes from HIV-infected individuals is one of the most potent host-mediated antiviral activities observed in vitro. We demonstrate that the pleiotropic cytokine interleukin 2 (IL-2), but not IL-12, is a potent inducer of the CD8+ HIV suppressor phenomenon. IL-2 induces HIV expression in peripheral blood or lymph node mononuclear cells from HIV-infected individuals in the absence of CD8+ T cells. However, IL-2 induces CD8+ T cells to suppress HIV expression when added back to these cultures, and this effect dramatically supersedes the ability to IL-2 to induce HIV expression. Five to 25 times fewer CD8+ cells were required to obtain comparable levels of inhibition of viral production if they were activated in the presence of IL-2 as compared with IL-12 or no exogenous cytokine. Furthermore, IL-2 appeared either to induce a qualitative increase in HIV suppressor cell activity or to increase the relative frequency of suppressor cells in the activated (CD25+) CD8+ populations. Analyses of proviral levels in peripheral blood mononuclear cells suggest that CD8+ T cell-mediated lysis of in vivo infected cells is not induced by IL-2. These results have implications for our understanding of the effects of impaired IL-2 production during HIV disease as well as the overall effects of IL-2-based immunotherapy on HIV replication in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Kinter
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Copeland KF, McKay PJ, Rosenthal KL. Suppression of activation of the human immunodeficiency virus long terminal repeat by CD8+ T cells is not lentivirus specific. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1995; 11:1321-6. [PMID: 8573388 DOI: 10.1089/aid.1995.11.1321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
CD8+ T lymphocytes of HIV-1-infected individuals can efficiently suppress HIV-1 replication in CD4+ T lymphocytes. To elucidate the molecular events underlying this suppression, we have used the HIV-1 LTR directing the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase gene (CAT) in transient transfection assays using human Jurkat T cells. In addition to supernatants of patient CD8+ T lymphocytes (CD4+ > 350/microliters), supernatant of a T cell clone derived by Herpesvirus saimiri (HVS)-mediated transformation of CD8+ T lymphocytes of a patient demonstrating inhibition of virus replication were examined. Similar levels of inhibition of LTR-mediated gene expression in response to Tat or mitogenic activation with phorbol ester and calcium ionophore were observed by supernatants of both sources. The inhibitory effect of CD8+ T lymphocytes was not exclusive to lentiviral LTRs since transcription of both the HTLV-I LTR and RSV LTR in response to mitogen was effectively inhibited. In examination of the influence of CD8+ T cell-derived supernatant on NF kappa B-mediated activation, a dimer of the HIV-1 NF kappa B elements directing CAT was markedly inhibited by supernatants of both patient CD8+ lymphocytes and the HVS-derived CD8+ clone. Thus the inhibitory nature of CD8+ T lymphocytes appears not to be specific to lentiviral promoters and may mediate an inhibitory effect via the NF kappa B element.
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Affiliation(s)
- K F Copeland
- Department of Pathology, McMaster University Health Sciences Centre, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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Clarke JR, Robinson DS, Coker RJ, Miller RF, Mitchell DM. AIDS and the lung: update 1995. 4. Role of the human immunodeficiency virus within the lung. Thorax 1995; 50:567-76. [PMID: 7597675 PMCID: PMC1021233 DOI: 10.1136/thx.50.5.567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J R Clarke
- Department of Virology, St Mary's Hospital, London
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