Circadian hydrocortisone infusions in patients with adrenal insufficiency and congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Novel agents to treat adrenal insufficiency: findings of preclinical and early clinical trials

INTRODUCTION

Adrenal insufficiency currently affects over 300/million population, with higher morbidity and mortality compared to the general population. Current glucocorticoid replacement therapy is limited by a lack of reliable biomarkers to guide dosing, inter-patient variation in metabolism and narrow therapeutic window. Increased morbidity and mortality may relate to unappreciated under- or over-exposure to glucocorticoids and impaired cortisol circadian rhythm. New agents are required to emulate physiological cortisol secretion and individualize glucocorticoid dosing.

AREAS COVERED

History of glucocorticoid therapy, current limitations, and novel chronotherapeutic glucocorticoid delivery mechanisms. Literature search incorporated searches of PubMed and Embase utilizing terms such as adrenal insufficiency, Chronocort, Plenadren, continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion (CHSI), and glucocorticoid receptor modulator.

EXPERT OPINION

Glucocorticoid chronotherapy is necessary to optimize glucocorticoid exposure and minimize complications. Current oral chronotherapeutics provide improved dosing functionality, but are modifiable only in specific increments and cannot accommodate ultradian cortisol variation. Current data show improvement in quality of life but not morbidity or mortality outcomes. CHSI has significant potential for individualized glucocorticoid dosing, but would require a suitable biomarker of glucocorticoid adequacy to be implementable. Avenues for future research include determining a glucocorticoid sufficiency biomarker, development of interstitial or systemic cortisol monitoring, or development of glucocorticoid receptor modulators.

Patients with Hypocortisolism Treated with Continuous Subcutaneous Hydrocortisone Infusion (CSHI): An Option for Poorly Controlled Patients

OBJECTIVE

Despite appropriate oral glucocorticoid replacement therapy, patients with hypocortisolism often suffer from impaired health and frequent hospitalizations. Continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion (CSHI) has been developed as an attempt to improve the health status of these patients. The objective of this study was to compare the effects of CSHI to conventional oral treatment on hospitalizations, glucocorticoid doses, and subjective health status. Patients. Nine Danish patients (males: 4 and females: 5) with adrenal insufficiency (AI) were included, with a median age of 48 years, due to Addison (n = 4), congenital adrenal hyperplasia (n = 1), steroid induced secondary adrenal insufficiency (n = 2), morphine induced secondary adrenal insufficiency (n = 1), and Sheehan's syndrome (n = 1). Only patients with severe symptoms of cortisol deficit on oral treatment were selected for CSHI. Their usual oral hydrocortisone doses varied from 25-80 mg per day. The duration of follow-up depended on when the treatment was changed. The first patient started CSHI in 2009 and the last in 2021.

DESIGN

A retrospective case series comparing hospitalizations and glucocorticoid doses before and after treatment with CSHI. In addition, patients were retrospectively interviewed about their health-related quality of life (HRQoL) after the change of treatment modality.

RESULTS

Patients significantly reduced their daily dose of glucocorticoids by 16.1 mg (p = 0.02) after changing to CSHI. The number of hospital admission due to adrenal crisis decreased by 1.3 per year on CSHI, which was a 50% reduction (p = 0.04). All patients found it easier to handle an adrenal crisis with CSHI, and almost all patients found it easier to overcome everyday activities and had fewer symptoms of cortisol deficit such as abdominal pain and nausea (7-8 out of 9 patients).

CONCLUSIONS

The change of treatment from conventional oral hydrocortisone to CSHI resulted in a reduced daily dose of glucocorticoids and a reduced number of hospitalizations. Patients reported regain of energy, achievement of better disease control, and better handling of adrenal crisis.

Chronotherapy based on modified-release hydrocortisone to restore the physiological cortisol diurnal rhythm

In this inspirational note, we describe the development of an endocrine chronotherapy to restore the physiological rhythm of the essential adrenal stress hormone, cortisol. The challenges included demonstrating the circadian rhythm of the drug target, creating a drug formulation that replicated that rhythm and then proving benefit in clinical trials. The physiological cortisol circadian rhythm is well defined with cortisol levels high on waking and low on going to sleep. We experimented with different formulation technologies including modified-release tablets and multi-particulates to replicate the cortisol rhythm where absent through disease. We describe the development of Efmody^®, a modified-release formulation of hydrocortisone, which replicates the cortisol diurnal rhythm and improves the disease control of congenital adrenal hyperplasia, the commonest hereditary form of adrenal insufficiency. This program shows it is possible, through modified-release technology, to treat chronic endocrine diseases with physiological replacement to preserve health for life.

Novel treatments for congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Patients with classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD) need life-long medical treatment to replace the lacking glucocorticoids and potentially lacking mineralocorticoids and to lower elevated adrenal androgens. Long-term complications are common, including gonadal dysfunction, infertility, and cardiovascular and metabolic co-morbidity with reduced quality of life. These complications can be attributed to the exposure of supraphysiological dosages of glucocorticoids and the longstanding exposure to elevated adrenal androgens. Development of novel therapies is necessary to address the chronic glucocorticoid overexposure, lack of circadian rhythm in glucocorticoid replacement, and inefficient glucocorticoid delivery with concomitant periods of hyperandrogenism. In this review we aim to give an overview about the current treatment regimens and its limitations and describe novel therapies especially evaluated for 21OHD patients.

Mini-review: pump therapy in endocrinology & metabolism beyond diabetes

The first pump developed by Dr. Kadish and his team in 1963 aimed to "continue subcutaneous insulin infusion". The number of patients using insulin pumps has increased since the 1980s. This historical perspective has labeled pump therapy in endocrinology and metabolism synonymous with insulin pumps. However, certain other hormonal disorders might also benefit from this kind of treatment. Pump therapy is currently the best approach to achieve physiological mimicry. Furthermore, it may help in overcoming pharmacokinetic issues or allergies. Until now, hormone replacement via pumps has been a salvage method for complex cases at the expense of increased costs. However, it is believed that applications of pump treatment will widen in the future owing to the rapidly evolving technology. In this mini review, data on pump use for patients with adrenal insufficiency, hypogonadism, hypoparathyroidism, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and congenital hyperinsulinism have been briefly summarized. The study has aimed at covering all the relevant clinical studies and important case reports/series. METHODS: A systematic literature search has been conducted on PubMed database seeking articles published until May 2021 using a combination of the following Medical Subject Headings terms and keywords: pump "OR" continue infusion "AND" (adrenal insufficiency "OR" Addison "OR" hydrocortisone "OR" hypoparathyroidism "OR teriparatide" "OR" somatostatin "OR" hypogonadism "OR" hypoglycemia "OR" endocrinology "OR" hormone replacement). In addition, the reference publications in the identified articles have also been reviewed.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia-Current Insights in Pathophysiology, Diagnostics, and Management

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a group of autosomal recessive disorders affecting cortisol biosynthesis. Reduced activity of an enzyme required for cortisol production leads to chronic overstimulation of the adrenal cortex and accumulation of precursors proximal to the blocked enzymatic step. The most common form of CAH is caused by steroid 21-hydroxylase deficiency due to mutations in CYP21A2. Since the last publication summarizing CAH in Endocrine Reviews in 2000, there have been numerous new developments. These include more detailed understanding of steroidogenic pathways, refinements in neonatal screening, improved diagnostic measurements utilizing chromatography and mass spectrometry coupled with steroid profiling, and improved genotyping methods. Clinical trials of alternative medications and modes of delivery have been recently completed or are under way. Genetic and cell-based treatments are being explored. A large body of data concerning long-term outcomes in patients affected by CAH, including psychosexual well-being, has been enhanced by the establishment of disease registries. This review provides the reader with current insights in CAH with special attention to these new developments.

Clinical advances in the pharmacotherapy of congenital adrenal hyperplasia

BACKGROUND

Patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency congenital adrenal hyperplasia (21OHD-CAH) have poor health outcomes with increased mortality, short stature, impaired fertility, and increased cardiovascular risk factors such as obesity. To address this, there are therapies in development that target the clinical goal of treatment, which is to control excess androgens with an adrenal replacement dose of glucocorticoid.

METHODS

Narrative review of publications on recent clinical developments in the pharmacotherapy of congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

SUMMARY

Therapies in clinical development target different levels of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. Two corticotrophin-releasing factor type 1 (CRF1) receptor antagonists, Crinecerfont and Tildacerfont, have been trialled in poorly controlled 21OHD-CAH patients, and both reduced ACTH and androgen biomarkers while patients were on stable glucocorticoid replacement. Improvements in glucocorticoid replacement include replacing the circadian rhythm of cortisol that has been trialled with continuous s.c. infusion of hydrocortisone and Chronocort, a delayed-release hydrocortisone formulation. Chronocort optimally controlled 21OHD-CAH in 80% of patients on an adrenal replacement dose of hydrocortisone, which was associated with patient-reported benefits including restoration of menses and pregnancies. Adrenal-targeted therapies include the steroidogenesis-blocking drug Abiraterone acetate, which reduced adrenal androgen biomarkers in poorly controlled patients.

CONCLUSIONS

CRF1 receptor antagonists hold promise to avoid excess glucocorticoid replacement in patients not controlled on standard or circadian glucocorticoid replacement such as Chronocort. Gene and cell therapies are the only therapeutic approaches that could potentially correct both cortisol deficiency and androgen excess.

Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men

BACKGROUND

Many hormones display distinct circadian rhythms, driven by central regulators, hormonal bioavailability, and half-life. A set of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids (11-oxyandrogens) and pregnenolone sulfate (PregS) are elevated in congenital adrenal hyperplasia and other disorders, but their circadian patterns have not been characterized.

PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS

Peripheral blood was collected every 2 h over 24 h from healthy volunteer men (10 young, 18-30 years, and 10 older, 60-80 years). We used mass spectrometry to quantify 15 steroids, including androstenedione (A4), testosterone (T), 11β-hydroxy- and 11-ketotestosterone (11OHT, 11KT),11β-hydroxy- and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11OHA4, 11KA4), and 4 ∆5-steroid sulfates. Diurnal models including mesor (rhythm adjusted median), peak, and nadir concentrations, acrophase, and amplitude were computed.

RESULTS

11OHA4 followed a rhythm similar to cortisol: acrophase 8:00 h, nadir 21:00 h and were similar in young and old men. 11KT had similar diurnal patterns, but the peak was lower in older than in young men, as was the case for A4. All four steroid sulfates were higher in young vs older men. PregS and 17-hydroxypregnenolone sulfate (17OHPregS) showed sustained elevations between 8:00 and 18:00 h, and nadirs around midnight, while DHEAS and AdiolS displayed minimal diurnal variations. All 4 11-oxyandrogens correlated tightly with cortisol (r from 0.54 for 11OHT to 0.81 for 11OHA4, P < 0.0001 for all), but very weakly with T, supporting their adrenal origin and ACTH governance.

CONCLUSIONS

11-Oxyandrogens, PregS, and 17OHPregS display distinct circadian and age variations, which should be accounted for when used as clinical biomarkers.

Modified-Release Hydrocortisone in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

CONTEXT

Standard glucocorticoid therapy in congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) regularly fails to control androgen excess, causing glucocorticoid overexposure and poor health outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated whether modified-release hydrocortisone (MR-HC), which mimics physiologic cortisol secretion, could improve disease control.

METHODS

A 6-month, randomized, phase 3 study was conducted of MR-HC vs standard glucocorticoid, followed by a single-arm MR-HC extension study. Primary outcomes were change in 24-hour SD score (SDS) of androgen precursor 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) for phase 3, and efficacy, safety and tolerability of MR-HC for the extension study.

RESULTS

The phase 3 study recruited 122 adult CAH patients. Although the study failed its primary outcome at 6 months, there was evidence of better biochemical control on MR-HC, with lower 17OHP SDS at 4 (P = .007) and 12 (P = .019) weeks, and between 07:00h to 15:00h (P = .044) at 6 months. The percentage of patients with controlled 09:00h serum 17OHP (< 1200 ng/dL) was 52% at baseline, at 6 months 91% for MR-HC and 71% for standard therapy (P = .002), and 80% for MR-HC at 18 months' extension. The median daily hydrocortisone dose was 25 mg at baseline, at 6 months 31 mg for standard therapy, and 30 mg for MR-HC, and after 18 months 20 mg MR-HC. Three adrenal crises occurred in phase 3, none on MR-HC and 4 in the extension study. MR-HC resulted in patient-reported benefit including menses restoration in 8 patients (1 on standard therapy), and 3 patient and 4 partner pregnancies (none on standard therapy).

CONCLUSION

MR-HC improved biochemical disease control in adults with reduction in steroid dose over time and patient-reported benefit.

Sleep, Cognition and Cortisol in Addison's Disease: A Mechanistic Relationship

Sleep is a critical biological process, essential for cognitive well-being. Neuroscientific literature suggests there are mechanistic relations between sleep disruption and memory deficits, and that varying concentrations of cortisol may play an important role in mediating those relations. Patients with Addison's disease (AD) experience consistent and predictable periods of sub- and supra-physiological cortisol concentrations due to lifelong glucocorticoid replacement therapy, and they frequently report disrupted sleep and impaired memory. These disruptions and impairments may be related to the failure of replacement regimens to restore a normal circadian rhythm of cortisol secretion. Available data provides support for existing theoretical frameworks which postulate that in AD and other neuroendocrine, neurological, or psychiatric disorders, disrupted sleep is an important biological mechanism that underlies, at least partially, the memory impairments that patients frequently report experiencing. Given the literature linking sleep disruption and cognitive impairment in AD, future initiatives should aim to improve patients' cognitive performance (and, indeed, their overall quality of life) by prioritizing and optimizing sleep. This review summarizes the literature on sleep and cognition in AD, and the role that cortisol concentrations play in the relationship between the two.

Circadian Variation in Efficacy of Medications

Although much has been learned about circadian clocks and rhythms over the past few decades, translation of this foundational science underlying the temporal regulation of physiology and behavior to clinical applications has been slow. Indeed, acceptance of the modern study of circadian rhythms has been blunted because the phenomenology of cyclic changes had to counteract the 20th century dogma of homeostasis in the biological sciences and medicine. We are providing this review of clinical data to highlight the emerging awareness of circadian variation in efficacy of medications for physicians, clinicians, and pharmacists. We are suggesting that gold-standard double-blind clinical studies should be conducted to determine the best time of day for optimal effectiveness of medications; also, we suggest that time of day should be tracked and reported as an important biological variable in ongoing clinical studies hereafter. Furthermore, we emphasize that time of day is, and should be considered, a key biological variable in research design similar to sex. In common with biomedical research data that have been historically strongly skewed toward the male sex, most pharmaceutical data have been skewed toward morning dosing without strong evidence that this is the optimal time of efficacy.

Glucocorticoid replacement regimens for treating congenital adrenal hyperplasia

BACKGROUND

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is an autosomal recessive condition which leads to glucocorticoid deficiency and is the most common cause of adrenal insufficiency in children. In over 90% of cases, 21-hydroxylase enzyme deficiency is found which is caused by mutations in the 21-hydroxylase gene. Managing individuals with CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency involves replacing glucocorticoids with oral glucocorticoids (including prednisolone and hydrocortisone), suppressing adrenocorticotrophic hormones and replacing mineralocorticoids to prevent salt wasting. During childhood, the main aims of treatment are to prevent adrenal crises and to achieve normal stature, optimal adult height and to undergo normal puberty. In adults, treatment aims to prevent adrenal crises, ensure normal fertility and to avoid the long-term consequences of glucocorticoid use. Current glucocorticoid treatment regimens can not optimally replicate the normal physiological cortisol level and over-treatment or under-treatment is often reported.

OBJECTIVES

To compare and determine the efficacy and safety of different glucocorticoid replacement regimens in the treatment of CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency in children and adults.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Inborn Errors of Metabolism Trials Register, compiled from electronic database searches and handsearching of journals and conference abstract books. We also searched the reference lists of relevant articles and reviews, and trial registries (ClinicalTrials.gov and WHO ICTRP). Date of last search of trials register: 24 June 2019.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) or quasi-RCTs comparing different glucocorticoid replacement regimens for treating CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency in children and adults.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The authors independently extracted and analysed the data from different interventions. They undertook the comparisons separately and used GRADE to assess the quality of the evidence.

MAIN RESULTS

Searches identified 1729 records with 43 records subject to further examination. After screening, we included five RCTs (six references) with a total of 101 participants and identified a further six ongoing RCTs. The number of participants in each trial varied from six to 44, with participants' ages ranging from 3.6 months to 21 years. Four trials were of cross-over design and one was of parallel design. Duration of treatment ranged from two weeks to six months per treatment arm with an overall follow-up between six and 12 months for all trials. Overall, we judged the quality of the trials to be at moderate to high risk of bias; with lack of methodological detail leading to unclear or high risk of bias judgements across many of the domains. All trials employed an oral glucocorticoid replacement therapy, but with different daily schedules and dose levels. Three trials compared different dose schedules of hydrocortisone (HC), one three-arm trial compared HC to prednisolone (PD) and dexamethasone (DXA) and one trial compared HC with fludrocortisone to PD with fludrocortisone. Due to the heterogeneity of the trials and the limited amount of evidence, we were unable to perform any meta-analyses. No trials reported on quality of life, prevention of adrenal crisis, presence of osteopenia, presence of testicular or ovarian adrenal rest tumours, subfertility or final adult height. Five trials (101 participants) reported androgen normalisation but using different measurements (very low-quality evidence for all measurements). Five trials reported 17 hydroxyprogesterone (17 OHP) levels, four trials reported androstenedione, three trials reported testosterone and one trial reported dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS). After four weeks, results from one trial (15 participants) showed a high morning dose of HC or a high evening dose made little or no difference in 17 OHP, testosterone, androstenedione and DHEAS. One trial (27 participants) found that HC and DXA treatment suppressed 17 OHP and androstenedione more than PD treatment after six weeks and a further trial (eight participants) reported no difference in 17 OHP between the five different dosing schedules of HC at between four and six weeks. One trial (44 participants) comparing HC and PD found no differences in the values of 17 OHP, androstenedione and testosterone at one year. One trial (26 participants) of HC versus HC plus fludrocortisone found that at six months 17 OHP and androstenedione levels were more suppressed on HC alone, but there were no differences noted in testosterone levels. While no trials reported on absolute final adult height, we reported some surrogate markers. Three trials reported on growth and bone maturation and two trials reported on height velocity. One trial found height velocity was reduced at six months in 26 participants given once daily HC 25 mg/m²/day compared to once daily HC 15 mg/m²/day (both groups also received fludrocortisone 0.1 mg/day), but as the quality of the evidence was very low we are unsure whether the variation in HC dose caused the difference. There were no differences noted in growth hormone or IGF1 levels. The results from another trial (44 participants) indicate no difference in growth velocity between HC and PD at one year (very low-quality evidence), but this trial did report that once daily PD treatment may lead to better control of bone maturation compared to HC in prepubertal children and that the absolute change in bone age/chronological age ratio was higher in the HC group compared to the PD group.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There are currently limited trials comparing the efficacy and safety of different glucocorticoid replacement regimens for treating 21-hydroxylase deficiency CAH in children and adults and we were unable to draw any firm conclusions based on the evidence that was presented in the included trials. No trials included long-term outcomes such as quality of life, prevention of adrenal crisis, presence of osteopenia, presence of testicular or ovarian adrenal rest tumours, subfertility and final adult height. There were no trials examining a modified-release formulation of HC or use of 24-hour circadian continuous subcutaneous infusion of hydrocortisone. As a consequence, uncertainty remains about the most effective form of glucocorticoid replacement therapy in CAH for children and adults. Future trials should include both children and adults with CAH. A longer duration of follow-up is required to monitor biochemical and clinical outcomes.

Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and diagnosis of Addison's disease in adults

BACKGROUND

Addison's disease (AD) is a rare disorder and among adult population in developed countries is most commonly caused by autoimmunity. In contrast, in children genetic causes are responsible for AD in the majority of patients.

PURPOSE

This review describes epidemiology, pathogenesis, genetics, natural history, clinical manifestations, immunological markers and diagnostic strategies in patients with AD. Standard care treatments including the management of patients during pregnancy and adrenal crises consistent with the recent consensus statement of the European Consortium and the Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline are described. In addition, emerging therapies designed to improve the quality of life and new strategies to modify the natural history of autoimmune AD are discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

Progress in optimizing replacement therapy for patients with AD has allowed the patients to lead a normal life. However, continuous education of patients and health care professionals of ever-present danger of adrenal crisis is essential to save lives of patients with AD.

Insuffisance surrénalienne secondaire : actualités diagnostiques et thérapeutiques

Immunotherapy and opioids treatment are new causes of secondary adrenal insufficiency (SAI). Prevalence of SAI with immunotherapy is more frequent with combined therapy (8% vs 4 to 10% with CTLA4 blocking antibody and 1% with PD1 blocking antibody). Although hypophysitis are more frequently observed with CTLA4 blocking antibody, some cases of Isolated SAI have been reported in patients treated by PD1 blocking antibody. SAI could be transient, requiring long-term monitoring. The use of opioid analgesics is increasing in many countries, thus becoming a public health problem. Prevalence of opioid-related SAI is unclear but recent prospective studies reveal a prevalence between 5 and 20%. The main risk factor to develop this pathology is morphine-equivalent daily dose. Diagnosis relies on 8.00 am plasma cortisol measurement and cortisol increase after Synacthen^® administration. Recent cortisol immuno-assays, in agreement with mass spectrometry, give lower reference values, encouraging reevaluation of the current cut-off of 500 nmol/L. New modified-release hydrocortisone preparations have been recently developed to better mimic the physiological cortisol rhythm and to improve compliance in adrenocortical deficient patients. Nowadays, continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion seems to be a unique replacement therapy allowing adequate circadian biorhythm but should be restricted to specific patients due to the complexity of this substituting strategy. © 2019 Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved. Cet article fait partie du numéro supplément Les Must de l'Endocrinologie 2019 réalisé avec le soutien institutionnel de Ipsen-Pharma.

Glucocorticoid Regimens in the Treatment of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) requires both glucocorticoid replacement and suppression of adrenal androgen synthesis. It is recommended that children with CAH be treated with hydrocortisone, but the appropriate glucocorticoid regimen in adults is uncertain. In order to review the outcomes of different glucocorticoid regimens in the management of CAH, a systematic search of PubMed/MEDLINE and Web of Science was conducted, including reports published up to 25 February 2019. Studies that compared at least two types of glucocorticoid preparation were included. The following information was extracted from each study: first author, year of publication, number and characteristics of patients and control subjects, types and doses of glucocorticoid regimen used, study design and outcomes [e.g., biochemical tests, weight, height, body mass index (BMI), bone mineral density (BMD)]. A total of 23 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis, with 19 included in the quantitative synthesis. Dexamethasone was associated with the greatest degree of adrenal suppression; there was no significant difference in 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) and androstenedione levels between patients treated with hydrocortisone or prednisolone. Patients treated with dexamethasone had the lowest BMD and the highest BMI. Although dexamethasone therapy is associated with significantly lower 17OHP and androstenedione levels, it is also associated with more adverse effects. There do not appear to be significant differences between hydrocortisone and prednisolone therapy, and the choice of agent should be based on individual patient factors.

Factors impacting on the action of glucocorticoids in patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are steroid hormones, which are essential for life. They are secreted by the adrenal cortex under the control of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Glucocorticoids are essential for the normal function of most organ systems and, in both, excess and deficiency can lead to significant adverse consequences. Adrenal insufficiency (AI) is a rare, life-threatening disorder characterized by insufficient production of corticosteroid hormones. Primary AI is defined by the inability of the adrenal cortex to produce sufficient amounts of glucocorticoids and/or mineralocorticoids despite normal or increased adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH). Secondary AI is adrenal hypofunction due to insufficient amount of ACTH produced by the pituitary gland. Conventional treatment of both primary and secondary adrenal insufficiencies involves lifelong glucocorticoid replacement therapy. The role of cortisol deficiency and the impact of hydrocortisone replacement on morbidity and mortality in this patient group are under increasing scrutiny. Established glucocorticoid replacement regimens do not completely mirror endogenous hormonal production, and their monitoring to ensure optimum therapy is hampered by the lack of reliable biomarkers of hormone sufficiency. A further confounding issue is the tissue-specific regulation of glucocorticoid through the two isozymes of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β-HSD) with research focusing on the role of this prereceptor regulation in the development of adverse metabolic features in patients. This review defines the factors influencing glucocorticoid action in patients with adrenal insufficiency receiving glucocorticoid therapy.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline

Objective

To update the congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to steroid 21-hydroxylase deficiency clinical practice guideline published by the Endocrine Society in 2010.

Conclusions

The writing committee presents updated best practice guidelines for the clinical management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia based on published evidence and expert opinion with added considerations for patient safety, quality of life, cost, and utilization.

Long-term use of continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion therapy in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia

BACKGROUND

In a phase 2 short-term (6 months) study of patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion (CSHI) was found to be a safe, effective and well-tolerated method of replacing cortisol with improved disease and patient-related outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the safety and efficacy of long-term CSHI.

DESIGN

Single-centre, open-label, phase 2 extension study.

PATIENTS

Five adults with classic CAH.

MEASUREMENTS

Biomarkers of disease control, metabolic indices and health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL) estimates.

RESULTS

Six of eight patients chose to continue on long-term CSHI therapy. Compared to baseline, eighteen months of CSHI resulted in decreased (P = 0.043) 0700-hour ACTH, 17-hydroxyprogesterone, androstenedione and progesterone; increased whole-body lean mass (P = 0.024); and improved HRQoL, especially symptoms of adrenal insufficiency (P = 0.003). Findings at six and eighteen months did not differ, and improvements achieved in androgen control, lean body mass and HRQoL after 6 months of CSHI were maintained at eighteen months. The hydrocortisone dose appeared to decrease with time [6 vs 18 months: 38.3 ± 8.8 vs 33.6 ± 12.2 mg/day (P = 0.062)], especially in women receiving oral contraceptives. Reduction of testicular adrenal rest and adrenal size observed at 6 months remained stable. In one patient, an adrenal adenoma continually decreased over time. Subjective improvement in hirsutism was reported.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term use of CSHI is a safe and well-tolerated treatment option in a select set of adults with classic CAH. Improvements observed short term in disease control and subjective health status continued long term.

Human studies on hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

The daily rhythm of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is regulated by the central clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Cortisol, a glucocorticoid, acts as a secondary messenger between the central clock and the peripheral tissues. Changes in clock time, as seen in shift workers, alters the HPA axis and results in metabolic disturbances associated with ill health. Depression, anorexia nervosa and obstructive sleep apnoea, are associated with cortisol rhythm phase shifts and increased cortisol exposure. Higher nocturnal cortisol exposure is observed in patients with Cushing's syndrome and adrenal incidentalomas with autonomous cortisol secretion and is associated with insulin resistance, and increased cardiovascular risk and mortality. A decrease in cortisol rhythm amplitude is seen in adrenal insufficiency, and despite replacement, patients have an impaired quality of life and increased mortality. Research on cortisol replacement has focused on replacing the cortisol daily rhythm by subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusions and oral modified release hydrocortisone formulations with the aim of improving disease control and quality of life.

MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency: update on the management of adult patients and prenatal treatment

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency is characterized by cortisol and in some cases aldosterone deficiency associated with androgen excess. Goals of treatment are to replace deficient hormones and control androgen excess, while avoiding the adverse effects of exogenous glucocorticoid. Over the last 5 years, cohorts of adults with CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency from Europe and the United States have been described, allowing us to have a better knowledge of long-term complications of the disease and its treatment. Patients with CAH have increased mortality, morbidity and risk for infertility and metabolic disorders. These comorbidities are due in part to the drawbacks of the currently available glucocorticoid therapy. Consequently, novel therapies are being developed and studied in an attempt to improve patient outcomes. New management strategies in the care of pregnancies at risk for congenital adrenal hyperplasia using fetal sex determination and dexamethasone have also been described, but remain a subject of debate. We focused the present overview on the data published in the last 5 years, concentrating on studies dealing with cardiovascular risk, fertility, treatment and prenatal management in adults with classic CAH to provide the reader with an updated review on this rapidly evolving field of knowledge.

MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Regenerative therapies in autoimmune Addison's disease

The treatment for autoimmune Addison's disease (AAD) has remained virtually unchanged in the last 60 years. Most patients have symptoms that are relatively well controlled with exogenous steroid replacement, but there may be persistent symptoms, recurrent adrenal crisis and poor quality of life, despite good compliance with optimal current treatments. Treatment with conventional exogenous steroid therapy is also associated with premature mortality, increased cardiovascular risk and complications related to excessive steroid replacement. Hence, novel therapeutic approaches have emerged in the last decade attempting to improve the long-term outcome and quality of life of patients with AAD. This review discusses the recent developments in treatment innovations for AAD, including the novel exogenous steroid formulations with the intention of mimicking the physiological biorhythm of cortisol secretion. Our group has also carried out a few studies attempting to restore endogenous glucocorticoid production via immunomodulatory and regenerative medicine approaches. The recent advances in the understanding of adrenocortical stem cell biology, and adrenal plasticity will also be discussed to help comprehend the science behind the therapeutic approaches adopted.

A Phase 2 Study of Continuous Subcutaneous Hydrocortisone Infusion in Adults With Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

CONTEXT

Classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) management remains challenging, given that supraphysiologic glucocorticoid doses are often needed to optimally suppress the ACTH-driven adrenal androgen overproduction.

OBJECTIVE

This study sought to approximate physiologic cortisol secretion via continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion (CSHI) and evaluate the safety and efficacy of CSHI in patients with difficult-to-treat CAH.

DESIGN

Eight adult patients with classic CAH participated in a single-center open-label phase I-II study comparing CSHI to conventional oral glucocorticoid treatment. All patients had elevated adrenal steroids and one or more comorbidities at study entry. Assessment while receiving conventional therapy at baseline and 6 months following CSHI included: 24-hour hormonal sampling, metabolic and radiologic evaluation, health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL), and fatigue questionnaires.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The ability of CSHI to approximate physiologic cortisol secretion and the percent of patients with 0700-hour 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) ≤1200 ng/dL was measured.

RESULTS

CSHI approximated physiologic cortisol secretion. Compared with baseline, 6 months of CSHI resulted in decreased 0700-hour and 24-hour area under the curve 17-OHP, androstenedione, ACTH, and progesterone, increased osteocalcin, c-telopeptide and lean mass, and improved HRQoL (and SF-36 Vitality Score), and fatigue. One of three amenorrheic women resumed menses. One man had reduction of testicular adrenal rest tissue.

CONCLUSIONS

CSHI is a safe and well-tolerated modality of cortisol replacement that effectively approximates physiologic cortisol secretion in patients with classic CAH poorly controlled on conventional therapy. Improved adrenal steroid control and positive effects on HRQoL suggest that CSHI should be considered a treatment option for classic CAH. The long-term effect on established comorbidities requires further study.

Circadian disruption: New clinical perspective of disease pathology and basis for chronotherapeutic intervention

Biological processes are organized in time as innate rhythms defined by the period (τ), phase (peak [Φ] and trough time), amplitude (A, peak-trough difference) and mean level. The human time structure in its entirety is comprised of ultradian (τ < 20 h), circadian (20 h > τ < 28 h) and infradian (τ > 28 h) bioperiodicities. The circadian time structure (CTS) of human beings, which is more complicated than in lower animals, is orchestrated and staged by a brain central multioscillator system that includes a prominent pacemaker - the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus. Additional pacemaker activities are provided by the pineal hormone melatonin, which circulates during the nighttime, and the left and right cerebral cortices. Under ordinary circumstances this system coordinates the τ and Φ of rhythms driven by subservient peripheral cell, tissue and organ clock networks. Cyclic environmental, feeding and social time cues synchronize the endogenous 24 h clocks and rhythms. Accordingly, processes and functions of the internal environment are integrated in time for maximum biological efficiency, and they are also organized and synchronized in time to the external environment to ensure optimal performance and response to challenge. Artificial light at night (ALAN) exposure can alter the CTS as can night work, which, like rapid transmeridian displacement by air travel, necessitates realignment of the Φ of the multitude of 24 h rhythms. In 2001, Stevens and Rea coined the phrase "circadian disruption" (CD) to label the CTS misalignment induced by ALAN and shift work (SW) as a potential pathologic mechanism of the increased risk for cancer and other medical conditions. Current concerns relating to the effects of ALAN exposure on the CTS motivated us to renew our long-standing interest in the possible role of CD in the etiopathology of common human diseases and patient care. A surprisingly large number of medical conditions involve CD: adrenal insufficiency; nocturia; sleep-time non-dipping and rising blood pressure 24 h patterns (nocturnal hypertension); delayed sleep phase syndrome, non-24 h sleep/wake disorder; recurrent hypersomnia; SW intolerance; delirium; peptic ulcer disease; kidney failure; depression; mania; bipolar disorder; Parkinson's disease; Smith-Magenis syndrome; fatal familial insomnia syndrome; autism spectrum disorder; asthma; byssinosis; cancers; hand, foot and mouth disease; post-operative state; and ICU outcome. Poorly conceived medical interventions, for example nighttime dosing of synthetic corticosteroids and certain β-antagonists and cyclic nocturnal enteral or parenteral nutrition, plus lifestyle habits, including atypical eating times and chronic alcohol consumption, also can be causal of CD. Just as surprisingly are the many proven chronotherapeutic strategies available today to manage the CD of several of these medical conditions. In clinical medicine, CD seems to be a common, yet mostly unrecognized, pathologic mechanism of human disease as are the many effective chronotherapeutic interventions to remedy it.

Novel treatment strategies in congenital adrenal hyperplasia

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In recent years, important steps have been taken to improve the treatment of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a relatively stagnant area for decades. In this review, we summarize these advances and propose future lines of investigation.

RECENT FINDINGS

The two main goals of CAH treatment are to replace the deficient hormones when necessary and to dampen the adrenocorticotropin activation and the ensuing adrenal androgen excess. Glucocorticoids have been the mainstay of CAH treatment, but available preparations only partially meet the clinical needs. Recent efforts have focused on improving the delivery of glucocorticoid replacement agents, to closer mimic the physiologic secretion pattern. Examples include modified release oral glucocorticoids and continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone pumps. Furthermore, nonglucocorticoid approaches to address the androgen excess have emerged, such as inhibition of key androgenic enzymes and adrenocorticotropin secretion blockade by corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor antagonists.

SUMMARY

The promising recent progress made in CAH treatment brings new perspectives for individualized care in this complex disease.

Time dictates: emerging clinical analyses of the impact of circadian rhythms on diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of disease

Since the advent of modern molecular tools, researchers have extensively shown that essential cellular machineries have robust circadian (roughly 24 hours) variations in their pace. This molecular rhythmicity translates directly into time-of-day-dependent variation in physiology in most organ systems, which in turn provides the mechanistic rationale for why timing on a daily basis should matter in many aspects of human health. However, these basic science findings have been slow to move from bench to bedside because clinical studies are still lacking to demonstrate the importance of timing. Therefore, it has not been clear how physicians should incorporate knowledge of natural 24-hour rhythms into routine practice. This review is a brief summary of results from recently completed clinical studies on hypertension, myocardial infarction, diabetes mellitus, and adrenal dysfunction that highlights new evidence for the emerging importance of circadian rhythms in diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of disease.

Successful use of continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion after bilateral adrenalectomy secondary to bilateral pheochromocytoma

We report the use of continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion in an adolescent patient with primary adrenal insufficiency. This novel hydrocortisone delivery method proved to be a feasible, well-tolerated and safe option for selected patients with poor response to conventional therapy.

Circadian hormone profiles and insulin sensitivity in patients with Addison's disease: a comparison of continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion with conventional glucocorticoid replacement therapy

CONTEXT

Conventional glucocorticoid replacement therapy in patients with Addison's disease (AD) is unphysiological with possible adverse effects on mortality, morbidity and quality of life. The diurnal cortisol profile can likely be restored by continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion (CSHI).

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to compare circadian hormone rhythms and insulin sensitivity in conventional thrice-daily regimen of glucocorticoid replacement therapy with CSHI treatment in patients with AD.

DESIGN AND SETTING

An open, randomized, two-period, 12-week crossover multicentre trial in Norway and Sweden.

PATIENTS

Ten Norwegian patients were admitted for 24-h sampling of hormone profiles. Fifteen Swedish patients underwent euglycaemic-hyperinsulinaemic clamp.

INTERVENTION

Thrice-daily regimen of oral hydrocortisone (OHC) and CSHI treatment.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

We measured the circadian rhythm of cortisol, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factor-1, (IGF-1), IGF-binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3), glucose, insulin and triglycerides during OHC and CSHI treatment. Euglycaemic-hyperinsulinaemic clamp was used to assess insulin sensitivity.

RESULTS

Continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion provided a more physiological circadian cortisol curve including a late-night cortisol surge. ACTH levels showed a near normal circadian variation for CSHI. CSHI prevented a continuous decrease in glucose during the night. No difference in insulin sensitivity was observed between the two treatment arms.

CONCLUSION

Continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion replacement re-established a circadian cortisol rhythm and normalized the ACTH levels. Patients with CSHI replacement had a more stable night-time glucose level compared with OHC without compromising insulin sensitivity. Thus, restoring night-time cortisol levels might be advantageous for patients with AD.

Current and novel approaches to children and young people with congenital adrenal hyperplasia and adrenal insufficiency

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) represents a group of autosomal recessive conditions leading to glucocorticoid deficiency. CAH is the most common cause of adrenal insufficiency (AI) in the paediatric population. The majority of the other forms of primary and secondary adrenal insufficiency are rare conditions. It is critical to establish the underlying aetiology of each specific condition as a wide range of additional health problems specific to the underlying disorder can be found. Following the introduction of life-saving glucocorticoid replacement sixty years ago, steroid hormone replacement regimes have been refined leading to significant reductions in glucocorticoid doses over the last two decades. These adjustments are made with the aim both of improving the current management of children and young persons and of reducing future health problems in adult life. However despite optimisation of existing glucocorticoid replacement regimens fail to mimic the physiologic circadian rhythm of glucocorticoid secretion, current efforts therefore focus on optimising replacement strategies. In addition, in recent years novel experimental therapies have been developed which target adrenal sex steroid synthesis in patients with CAH aiming to reduce co-morbidities associated with sex steroid excess. These developments will hopefully improve the health status and long-term outcomes in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia and adrenal insufficiency.

Adrenal cortical insufficiency--a life threatening illness with multiple etiologies

BACKGROUND

The clinical signs of adrenal cortical insufficiency (incidence, ca. 25 per million per year; prevalence, ca. 400 per million) are nonspecific, and misdiagnoses are therefore common. Glucocorticoid substitution therapy has been in use for 50 years but is not a wholly adequate treatment. Our understanding of this disease remains incomplete in many ways.

METHOD

We selectively searched the Medline database for publications on adrenal cortical insufficiency, with particular attention to studies from the year 2000 onward (search terms: "adrenal insufficiency" or "Addison's disease" or "hypopituitarism").

RESULTS

Hydrocortisone substitution therapy is often given in doses of 10-25 mg/day, timed according to the circadian rhythm. Gastrointestinal and other, febrile infections account for 30-50% of life-threatening adrenocortical crises. Such crises affect 8 of 100 persons with adrenal cortical insufficiency per year and must be treated by the immediate administration of glucocorticoids and fluids. When persons with adrenal cortical insufficiency are acutely ill or are otherwise under unusual stress, they may need additional amounts of hydrocortisone, often in the range of 5-10 mg but occasionally as high as 200 mg. The sustained administration of excessive amounts of steroid can shorten patients lives by several years. Inappropriate substitution therapy can cause other major medical conditions, such as metabolic syndrome and osteoporosis.

CONCLUSION

Important measures for the prevention of adrenocortical crises include improved care by treating physicians, education of patients and their families, the provision of emergency identifying documents, and the prescription of glucocorticoid emergency kits.

Diagnosis and management of adrenal insufficiency

Adrenal insufficiency continues to be a challenge for patients, their physicians, and researchers. During the past decade, long-term studies have shown increased mortality and morbidity and impaired quality of life in patients with adrenal insufficiency. These findings might, at least partially, be due to the failure of glucocorticoid replacement therapy to closely resemble physiological diurnal secretion of cortisol. The potential effect of newly developed glucocorticoid drugs is a focus of research, as are the mechanisms potentially underlying increased morbidity and mortality. Adrenal crisis remains a threat to lives, and awareness and preventative measures now receive increasing attention. Awareness should be raised in medical teams and patients about adrenal insufficiency and management of adrenal crisis to improve clinical outcome.

A phase 2 study of Chronocort, a modified-release formulation of hydrocortisone, in the treatment of adults with classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia

CONTEXT

Treatment of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is suboptimal. Inadequate suppression of androgens and glucocorticoid excess are common and current glucocorticoid formulations cannot replace the cortisol circadian rhythm.

OBJECTIVES

The primary objective was to characterize the pharmacokinetic profile of Chronocort, a modified-release hydrocortisone formulation, in adults with CAH. Secondary objectives included examining disease control following 6 months of Chronocort with dose titration.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS

Sixteen adults (eight females) with classic CAH participated in an open-label, nonrandomized, Phase 2 study at the National Institutes of Health Clinical Center. Twenty-four-hour blood sampling was performed on conventional glucocorticoids and following 6 months of Chronocort. Chronocort was initiated at 10 mg (0700 h) and 20 mg (2300 h). Dose titration was performed based on androstenedione and 17-hydroxyprogresterone (17-OHP) levels and clinical symptomatology.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The primary outcome was cortisol pharmacokinetics of Chronocort and secondary outcomes included biomarkers of CAH control (androstenedione and 17-OHP).

RESULTS

In patients with CAH, Chronocort cortisol profiles were similar to physiologic cortisol secretion. Compared with conventional therapy, 6 months of Chronocort resulted in a decrease in hydrocortisone dose equivalent (28 ± 11.8 vs 25.9 ± 7.1 mg/d), with lower 24-hour (P = .004), morning (0700-1500 h; P = .002), and afternoon (1500-2300 h; P = .011) androstenedione area under the curve (AUC) and lower 24-hour (P = .023) and morning (0700-1500 h; P = .02) 17-OHP AUC.

CONCLUSIONS

Twice-daily Chronocort approximates physiologic cortisol secretion, and was well tolerated and effective in controlling androgen excess in adults with CAH. This novel hydrocortisone formulation represents a new treatment approach for patients with CAH.

Substitution therapy in adult patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a group of autosomal recessive inherited disorders caused by defective steroidogenesis. Steroid 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD) is its most prevalent form, accounting for over 90% of all cases. Clinically classic 21OHD is characterised by glucocorticoid deficiency and adrenal androgen excess with (salt wasting form) or without (simple virilising form) additional mineralocorticoid deficiency. Life-saving glucocorticoid substitution therapy has been available since the 1950s and enables long-term survival, and potentially, a good quality of life. However, care of adult patients with classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia is challenging for two main reasons: firstly, there is no glucocorticoid preparation available mimicking circadian cortisol release and adaptation to stress and secondly, management of adult patients is still in its infancy. There is no evidence-based treatment and experienced centres, taking care of larger patient cohorts, are only emerging. In this article we aim to guide physicians on the treatment and monitoring of adult patients with 21OHD, based on the clinical studies available and our own clinical experience.

Optimal glucocorticoid replacement in adrenal insufficiency

Adrenal insufficiency (glucocorticoid deficiency) comprises a group of rare diseases, including primary adrenal insufficiency, secondary adrenal insufficiency and congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Lifesaving glucocorticoid therapy was introduced over 60 years ago, but since then a number of advances in treatment have taken place. Specifically, little is known about short- and long-term treatment effects, and morbidity and mortality. Over the past decade, systematic cohort and registry studies have described reduced health-related quality of life, an unfavourable metabolic profile and increased mortality in patients with adrenal insufficiency, which may relate to unphysiological glucocorticoid replacement. This has led to the development of new modes of replacement that aim to mimic normal glucocorticoid physiology. Here, evidence for the inadequacy of conventional glucocorticoid therapy and recent developments in treatment are reviewed, with an emphasis on primary adrenal insufficiency.

Plasma, salivary and urinary cortisol levels following physiological and stress doses of hydrocortisone in normal volunteers

BACKGROUND

Glucocorticoid replacement is essential in patients with primary and secondary adrenal insufficiency, but many patients remain on higher than recommended dose regimens. There is no uniformly accepted method to monitor the dose in individual patients. We have compared cortisol concentrations in plasma, saliva and urine achieved following "physiological" and "stress" doses of hydrocortisone as potential methods for monitoring glucocorticoid replacement.

METHODS

Cortisol profiles were measured in plasma, saliva and urine following "physiological" (20 mg oral) or "stress" (50 mg intravenous) doses of hydrocortisone in dexamethasone-suppressed healthy subjects (8 in each group), compared to endogenous cortisol levels (12 subjects). Total plasma cortisol was measured half-hourly, and salivary cortisol and urinary cortisol:creatinine ratio were measured hourly from time 0 (between 0830 and 0900) to 5 h. Endogenous plasma corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG) levels were measured at time 0 and 5 h, and hourly from time 0 to 5 h following administration of oral or intravenous hydrocortisone. Plasma free cortisol was calculated using Coolens' equation.

RESULTS

Plasma, salivary and urine cortisol at 2 h after oral hydrocortisone gave a good indication of peak cortisol concentrations, which were uniformly supraphysiological. Intravenous hydrocortisone administration achieved very high 30 minute cortisol concentrations. Total plasma cortisol correlated significantly with both saliva and urine cortisol after oral and intravenous hydrocortisone (P <0.0001, correlation coefficient between 0.61 and 0.94). There was no difference in CBG levels across the sampling period.

CONCLUSIONS

An oral dose of hydrocortisone 20 mg is supraphysiological for routine maintenance, while stress doses above 50 mg 6-hourly would rarely be necessary in managing acute illness. Salivary cortisol and urinary cortisol:creatinine ratio may provide useful alternatives to plasma cortisol measurements to monitor replacement doses in hypoadrenal patients.

Improving outcomes in patients with adrenal insufficiency: a review of current and future treatments

INTRODUCTION

Adrenal insufficiency is a rare but life-threatening disease. Conventional therapy consists of glucocorticoid replacement using hydrocortisone administered two or three times daily. Although such therapy extends life expectancy, mortality is not normalized, and quality of life remains poor. This failure to restore normal health is thought to be due to the inability of conventional glucocorticoid replacement therapy to normalize total cortisol exposure and to respond to the increased need for glucocorticoids during illness and stress. Also, current management regimens do not restore or replicate the intrinsic circadian rhythm of cortisol secretion.

AREAS COVERED

This narrative review was based on a PubMed and Medline search of all English-language articles on the safety and efficacy of glucocorticoid replacement therapy in patients with adrenal insufficiency. Based on this search we discuss current treatment strategies in terms of the failure to maintain or normalize metabolism and quality of life in patients with adrenal insufficiency. The rationale for, and technology behind, the development of modified-release preparations of hydrocortisone are described, together with the evidence suggesting that hydrocortisone preparations that mimic the physiological circadian pattern of cortisol release are more effective than conventional glucocorticoid replacement therapies.

CONCLUSIONS

Modified-release hydrocortisone treatments for patients with adrenal insufficiency more closely mimic the physiological circadian pattern of cortisol secretion than conventional twice or thrice daily treatment. The available evidence suggests that these modified-release preparations should improve metabolic outcomes and quality of life.

An oral multiparticulate, modified-release, hydrocortisone replacement therapy that provides physiological cortisol exposure

OBJECTIVE

It is not possible with current hydrocortisone replacement to mimic the diurnal cortisol profile in patients with adrenal insufficiency. Previous attempts with modified-release technology were unsuccessful. Our objective was to develop hydrocortisone formulations that recreate the diurnal cortisol profile using multiparticulate technology.

DESIGN AND MEASUREMENTS

Screening by in vitro dissolution profiles, pharmacokinetic (PK) testing in dexamethasone-suppressed dogs and humans, and comparison with a reference population.

SETTING

Field laboratories and clinical research facility.

RESULTS

Formulations were generated using an enteric (delayed release) design configuration with an extended (sustained release) dissolution profile. In vitro dissolution confirmed delayed and sustained hydrocortisone release. However, in dogs and humans, sustained release resulted in reduced bioavailability. A formulation, DIURF-006, was developed that maintained delayed release but omitted the sustained-release functionality. PK characterization of DIURF-006 showed that, despite absence of a sustained-release component, absorption was sufficiently sustained to deliver extended hydrocortisone absorption. In dexamethasone-suppressed volunteers (n = 16) receiving a twice-daily 'toothbrush' regimen (20 mg at 23:00 h and 10 mg at 07:00 h), DIURF-006 gave a similar cortisol profile to physiological cortisol levels: DIURF-006 vs physiological, Geomean AUC 5610 vs 4706 h * nmol/l, Geomean Cmax 665 vs 594 nmol/l and Median Tmax 8·5 h vs clock time 08:12 h for peak cortisol. The relative bioavailability of DIURF-006 vs hydrocortisone was 89%, and cortisol levels increased linearly with doses between 5 and 30 mg.

CONCLUSION

A multiparticulate oral hydrocortisone formulation with only an enteric coat provides delayed and sustained absorption and when given in a 'toothbrush' regimen provides physiological cortisol exposure.

Treatment and health outcomes in adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a genetic disorder caused by defective steroidogenesis that results in glucocorticoid deficiency; the most common underlying mutation is in the gene that encodes 21-hydroxylase. Life-saving glucocorticoid treatment was introduced in the 1950s, and the number of adult patients is now growing; however, no consensus has been reached on the management of CAH beyond childhood. Adult patients are prescribed a variety of glucocorticoids, including hydrocortisone, prednisone, prednisolone, dexamethasone and combinations of these drugs taken in either a circadian or reverse circadian regimen. Despite these personalized treatments, biochemical control of CAH is only achieved in approximately one-third of patients. Some patients have a poor health status, with an increased incidence of obesity and osteoporosis, and impaired fertility and quality of life. The majority of poor health outcomes seem to relate to inadequate treatment rather than the genotype of the patient. Patients receiving high doses of glucocorticoids and the more potent synthetic long-acting glucocorticoids are at an increased risk of obesity, insulin resistance and a reduced quality of life. Further research is required to optimize the treatment of adult patients with CAH and improve health outcomes.

Therapy of endocrine disease: Perspectives on the management of adrenal insufficiency: clinical insights from across Europe

BACKGROUND

Conventional glucocorticoid (GC) replacement for patients with adrenal insufficiency (AI) is inadequate. Patients with AI continue to have increased mortality and morbidity and compromised quality of life despite treatment and monitoring.

OBJECTIVES

i) To review current management of AI and the unmet medical need based on literature and treatment experience and ii) to offer practical advice for managing AI in specific clinical situations.

METHODS

The review considers the most urgent questions endocrinologists face in managing AI and presents generalised patient cases with suggested strategies for treatment.

RESULTS

Optimisation and individualisation of GC replacement remain a challenge because available therapies do not mimic physiological cortisol patterns. While increased mortality and morbidity appear related to inadequate GC replacement, there are no objective measures to guide dose selection and optimisation. Physicians must rely on experience to recognise the clinical signs, which are not unique to AI, of inadequate treatment. The increased demand for corticosteroids during periods of stress can result in a life-threatening adrenal crisis (AC) in a patient with AI. Education is paramount for patients and their caregivers to anticipate, recognise and provide proper early treatment to prevent or reduce the occurrence of ACs.

CONCLUSIONS

This review highlights and offers suggestions to address the challenges endocrinologists encounter in treating patients with AI. New preparations are being developed to better mimic normal physiological cortisol levels with convenient, once-daily dosing which may improve treatment outcomes.

Influence of glucocorticoids and growth hormone on insulin sensitivity in humans

The seminal concept proposed by Sir Harold Himsworth more than 75 years ago that a large number of patients with diabetes were 'insulin insensitive', now termed insulin resistance, has now expanded to include several endocrine syndromes, namely those of glucocorticoid excess, and growth hormone excess and deficiency. Synthetic glucocorticoids are increasingly used to treat a wide variety of chronic diseases, whereas the beneficial effects of recombinant growth hormone replacement therapy in children and adults with growth hormone deficiency have now been well-recognized for over 25 years. However, clinical and experimental studies have established that increased circulating levels of glucocorticoids and growth hormone can also lead to worsening of insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, overt diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease. Improved understanding of the physiological 24-h rhythmicity of glucocorticoid and growth hormone secretion and its influence on the dawn phenomenon and the Staub-Trauggot effect has therefore led to renewed interest in studies on the mechanisms of insulin resistance induced by exogenous administration of glucocorticoids and growth hormone in humans. In this review, we describe the physiological events that result from the presence of resistance to insulin action at the level of skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and liver, describe the known mechanisms of glucocorticoid- and growth hormone-mediated insulin resistance, and provide an update of the contributions of glucocorticoids and growth hormone to understanding the pathophysiology of insulin resistance and its effects on several endocrine syndromes.

What is the best approach to tailoring hydrocortisone dose to meet patient needs in 2012?

Cortisol is an essential stress hormone and replacement with oral hydrocortisone is lifesaving in patients with adrenal insufficiency. Cortisol has a diurnal rhythm regulated by the central body clock and this rhythm is a metabolic signal for peripheral tissue clocks. Loss of cortisol rhythmicity is associated with fatigue, depression and insulin resistance. A general principle in endocrinology is to replace hormones to replicate physiological concentrations; however, the pharmacokinetics of oral immediate-release hydrocortisone make it impossible to fully mimic the cortisol rhythm and patients still have an increased morbidity and mortality despite replacement. Traditionally, physicians have replaced hydrocortisone with a total daily dose based on the diurnal 24-h cortisol production rate with hydrocortisone given twice or thrice daily, with the highest dose first thing in the morning. Monitoring treatment and dose titration has been much debated with some clinicians using cortisol day curves and others relying on clinical symptoms. The main challenge is that there is no established biomarker of cortisol activity. In addressing the clinical question, we have taken the view that an understanding of the cortisol circadian rhythm and hydrocortisone pharmacokinetics is essential when tailoring hydrocortisone dose. Using this approach, we have developed a thrice daily, weight-related, dosing regimen and a pharmacokinetic and clinical method to monitor treatment. Our argument for replicating the cortisol circadian rhythm is based on the observation that disruption of the rhythm is associated with ill health, and the few studies that have compared different treatment regimens. Further studies are required to definitively test the benefits of replacing the cortisol circadian rhythm in patients with adrenal insufficiency.

Glucocorticoid treatment regimen and health outcomes in adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia

BACKGROUND

Adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) are treated with a wide variety of glucocorticoid treatment regimens.

OBJECTIVE, DESIGN AND METHODS

To test whether drug dose and timing of glucocorticoid treatment regimen impacts on health outcomes. This was a cross-sectional study of 196 adult CAH patients in whom treatment and health outcomes were measured. Glucocorticoid dose was converted to prednisolone dose equivalent (PreDEq) using three published formulae. Associations between the type of glucocorticoid regimen and PreDEq with specific health outcome variables were tested using partial correlation and principal components analysis (PCA).

RESULTS

Patients on dexamethasone had lower androgens and ACTH but greater insulin resistance compared with those receiving hydrocortisone or prednisolone. Dexamethasone dose and once daily administration were associated with insulin resistance. Partial correlation analysis adjusted for age and sex showed PreDEq weakly correlated (r < 0·2) with blood pressure and androstenedione. Mutation severity was associated with increased PreDEq (F(3,141)  = 4·4, P < 0·01). In PCA, 3 PCs were identified that explained 62% of the total variance (r(2) ) in observed variables. Regression analysis (age and sex adjusted) confirmed that PC2, reflecting disease control (androstenedione, 17-hydroxypregesterone and testosterone), and PC3, reflecting blood pressure and mutations (systolic and diastolic blood pressure and mutation severity), related directly to PreDEq (r(2)  = 23%, P < 0·001).

CONCLUSIONS

In adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia, dexamethasone use was associated with lower androgens but greater insulin resistance, and increasing glucocorticoid dose associated with increased blood pressure, poor disease control and mutation severity.

A randomized, double-blind, crossover study comparing two- and four-dose hydrocortisone regimen with regard to quality of life, cortisol and ACTH profiles in patients with primary adrenal insufficiency

CONTEXT

Current guidelines on how to divide the daily cortisol substitution dose in patients with primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) are controversial and mainly based on empirical data.

OBJECTIVE

To assess how an equal dose of hydrocortisone (HC) given either four times daily or twice daily influence diurnal profiles of cortisol and ACTH, patient preferences and health-related quality of life (HRQoL).

DESIGN

Double blind, crossover.

METHODS

Fifteen patients with PAI (six women) were included. Capsules of HC or placebo were given at 07:00, 12:00, 16:00 and 22:00 h in 4-week treatment periods: either one period with four doses (10 + 10 + 5 + 5 mg) or one period with two doses (20 + 0 + 10 + 0 mg). Diurnal profiles of cortisol and ACTH were collected, and area under the curve (AUC) was calculated. Questionnaires were used to evaluate patient preferences and HRQoL.

RESULTS

The four-dose regimen gave a higher serum cortisol before tablet intake in the morning (P = 0·027) and a higher 24-h cortisol(AUC) (P < 0·0001) compared with the two-dose period. In contrast, a lower median plasma ACTH in the morning before tablet intake (P = 0·003) and a lower 24-h ln(ACTH(AUC) ) were found during the four-dose period. The patients preferred the four-dose regimen (P = 0·03), and the HRQoL scores tended to be higher (high score indicates better HRQoL) for the four-dose period. In summary, a four-dose regimen gives increased availability of cortisol and an enhanced effect with a less elevated ACTH in the morning in comparison with a two-dose regimen but the effect on HRQoL remains inconclusive.

Optimizing glucocorticoid replacement therapy in severely adrenocorticotropin-deficient hypopituitary male patients

BACKGROUND

The optimal replacement regimen of hydrocortisone in adults with severe ACTH deficiency remains unknown. Management strategies vary from treatment with 15-30 mg or higher in daily divided doses, reflecting the paucity of prospective data on the adequacy of different glucocorticoid regimens.

OBJECTIVE

Primarily to define the hydrocortisone regimen which results in a 24 h cortisol profile that most closely resembles that of healthy controls and secondarily to assess the impact on quality of life (QoL).

DESIGN

Ten male hypopituitary patients with severe ACTH deficiency (basal cortisol <100 nm and peak response to stimulation <400 nm) were enrolled in a prospective, randomized, crossover study of 3 hydrocortisone dose regimens. Following 6 weeks of each regimen patients underwent 24 h serum cortisol sampling and QoL assessment with the Short Form 36 (SF36) and the Nottingham Health Profile (NHP) questionnaires. Free cortisol was calculated using Coolen's equation. All results were compared to those of healthy, matched controls.

RESULTS

Corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG) was significantly lower across all dose regimens compared to controls (P < 0·05). The lower dose regimen C (10 mg mane/5 mg tarde) produced a 24 h free cortisol profile (FCP) which most closely resembled that of controls. Both regimen A(20 mg mane/10 mg tarde) and B(10 mg mane/10 mg tarde) produced supraphysiological post-absorption peaks. There was no significant difference in QoL in patients between the three regimens, however energy level was significantly lower across all dose regimens compared to controls (P < 0·001).

CONCLUSIONS

The lower dose of hydrocortisone (10 mg/5 mg) produces a more physiological cortisol profile, without compromising QoL, compared to higher doses still used in clinical practice. This may have important implications in these patients, known to have excess cardiovascular mortality.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia--pharmacologic interventions from the prenatal phase to adulthood

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is one of the most common inherited autosomal recessive disorders, caused by deficiency of one of the enzymes involved in steroid synthesis. The clinical picture of the most prevalent form, i.e. 21-hydroxylase deficiency, is characterized by cortisol and mostly aldosterone deficiency and androgen excess (leading to congenital virilization in girls). Treatment consists of glucocorticoids, aimed at substitution of cortisol deficiency and, decrease of androgen excess. Usually supraphysiological doses of glucocorticoids are required to effectively suppress adrenal androgens. Furthermore, with the currently available glucocorticoid preparations, it is not possible to simulate a normal circadian rhythm in CAH patients. Therefore, it is a difficult task for (pediatric) endocrinologists to find the best balance between under- and overtreatment thereby avoiding important long term complications. In this review we will discuss the current pharmacologic treatment options. We give age dependent dose recommendations and describe the limitations of current treatment strategies. We discuss effects on fertility, bone density and cardiovascular risks. Recommendations about the use of glucocorticoids in case of fever or stress situations are given. The principles of treatment of non classic (mild) CAH are discussed in a separate section. Also prenatal therapy, to prevent congenital virilization of a female CAH newborn, is discussed. Furthermore, an overview of alternative pharmacological treatment options in the future is given.

Results of the prolonged use of subcutaneous continuous infusion of hydrocortisone in a man with congenital adrenal hyperplasia

This is a case report study of a young man with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) who has been treated during 2 years by a subcutaneous continuous infusion hydrocortisone (SCIH) to optimize his treatment. Hydrocortisone was delivered via an insulin infusion device. We also studied the evolution of testicular adrenal rest tumors (TARTs) and the quality of life through SF36 survey. Four rates were determined, with a total of 47 mg per day. Biochemical parameters were normalized at 2 months. The SF36 questionnaire showed a progress of well-being. The weight decreased to 106 kg, that is, −5 kg (height: 1.71 m). Unfortunatly, there was no change of the TARTs. Two episodes of dermohypodermitis, with abscess at the infusion site, were observed. This case demonstrates the feasibility of prolonged SCIH therapy in patients with CAH, reporting positive effects on quality of life and on BMI.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to steroid 21-hydroxylase deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline

OBJECTIVE

We developed clinical practice guidelines for congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).

PARTICIPANTS

The Task Force included a chair, selected by The Endocrine Society Clinical Guidelines Subcommittee (CGS), ten additional clinicians experienced in treating CAH, a methodologist, and a medical writer. Additional experts were also consulted. The authors received no corporate funding or remuneration.

CONSENSUS PROCESS

Consensus was guided by systematic reviews of evidence and discussions. The guidelines were reviewed and approved sequentially by The Endocrine Society's CGS and Clinical Affairs Core Committee, members responding to a web posting, and The Endocrine Society Council. At each stage, the Task Force incorporated changes in response to written comments.

CONCLUSIONS

We recommend universal newborn screening for severe steroid 21-hydroxylase deficiency followed by confirmatory tests. We recommend that prenatal treatment of CAH continue to be regarded as experimental. The diagnosis rests on clinical and hormonal data; genotyping is reserved for equivocal cases and genetic counseling. Glucocorticoid dosage should be minimized to avoid iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome. Mineralocorticoids and, in infants, supplemental sodium are recommended in classic CAH patients. We recommend against the routine use of experimental therapies to promote growth and delay puberty; we suggest patients avoid adrenalectomy. Surgical guidelines emphasize early single-stage genital repair for severely virilized girls, performed by experienced surgeons. Clinicians should consider patients' quality of life, consulting mental health professionals as appropriate. At the transition to adulthood, we recommend monitoring for potential complications of CAH. Finally, we recommend judicious use of medication during pregnancy and in symptomatic patients with nonclassic CAH.

Alternative strategies for the treatment of classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia: pitfalls and promises

Despite decades of different treatment algorithms, the management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) remains clinically challenging. This is due to the inherent difficulty of suppressing adrenal androgen production using near physiological dosing of glucocorticoids (GC). As a result, alternating cycles of androgen versus GC excess can occur and may lead to short stature, obesity, virilization, and alterations in puberty. Novel therapeutic alternatives, including new and more physiological means of GC delivery, inhibitors at the level of CRH or ACTH secretion and/or action, as well as “rescue strategies”, such as GnRH analogs, anti-androgens, aromatase inhibitors, and estrogen receptor blockers, are available; many of these agents, however, still require active investigation in CAH. Bilateral adrenalectomy is effective but it is also still an experimental approach. Gene therapy and stem cells, to provide functional adrenal cortical tissue, are at preclinical stage but provide exciting avenues for a potential cure for CAH.

Replication of cortisol circadian rhythm: new advances in hydrocortisone replacement therapy

Cortisol has one of the most distinct and fascinating circadian rhythms in human physiology. This is regulated by the central clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. It has been suggested that cortisol acts as a secondary messenger between central and peripheral clocks, hence its importance in the synchronization of body circadian rhythms. Conventional immediate-release hydrocortisone, either at twice- or thrice-daily doses, is not capable of replicating physiological cortisol circadian rhythm and patients with adrenal insufficiency or congenital adrenal hyperplasia still suffer from a poor quality of life and increased mortality. Novel treatments for replacement therapy are therefore essential. Proof-of-concept studies using hydrocortisone infusions suggest that the circadian delivery of hydrocortisone may improve biochemical control and life quality in patients lacking cortisol with an impaired cortisol rhythm. Recently oral formulations of modified-release hydrocortisone are being developed and it has been shown that it is possible to replicate cortisol circadian rhythm and also achieve better control of morning androgen levels. These new drug therapies are promising and potentially offer a more effective treatment with less adverse effects. Definite improvements clearly need to be established in future clinical trials.