Plant sterols and host plant suitability for a phloem-feeding insect

Metabolism of crown tissue is crucial for drought tolerance and recovery after stress cessation in Lolium/Festuca forage grasses

A process of plant recovery after drought cessation is a complex trait which has not been fully recognized. The most important organ associated with this phenomenon in monocots, including forage grasses, is the crown tissue located between shoots and roots. The crown tissue is a meristematic crossroads for metabolites and other compounds between these two plant organs. Here, for the first time, we present a metabolomic and lipidomic study focused on the crown tissue under drought and recovery in forage grasses, important for agriculture in European temperate regions. The plant materials involve high (HDT) and low drought-tolerant (LDT) genotypes of Festuca arundinacea, and Lolium multiflorum/F. arundinacea introgression forms. The obtained results clearly demonstrated that remodeling patterns of the primary metabolome and lipidome in the crown under drought and recovery were different between HDT and LDT plants. Furthermore, HDT plants accumulated higher contents of primary metabolites under drought in the crown tissue, especially carbohydrates which could function as osmoprotectants and storage materials. On the other hand, LDT plants characterized by higher membranes damage under drought, simultaneously accumulated membrane phospholipids in the crown and possessed the capacity to recover their metabolic functions after stress cessation to the levels observed in HDT plants.

Tomato Sterol 22-desaturase Gene CYP710A11: Its Roles in Meloidogyne incognita Infection and Plant Stigmasterol Alteration

Sterols are isoprenoid-derived lipids that play essential structural and functional roles in eukaryotic cells. Plants produce a complex mixture of sterols, and changes in plant sterol profiles have been linked to plant-pathogen interactions. β-Sitosterol and stigmasterol, in particular, have been associated with plant defense. As nematodes have lost the ability to synthesize sterols de novo, they require sterols from the host. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants infected by the plant parasitic nematode Meloidogyne incognita show a reduced level of stigmasterol and a repression of the gene CYP710A11, encoding the sterol C-22 desaturase that is responsible for the conversion of β-sitosterol to stigmasterol. In this study, we investigated the role of the tomato sterol C-22 desaturase gene CYP710A11 in the response to infection by M. incognita. We explored the plant-nematode interaction over time by analyzing the plant sterol composition and CYP710A11 gene regulation in S. lycopersicum after M. incognita infection. The temporal gene expression analysis showed that 3 days after inoculation with M. incognita, the CYP710A11 expression was significantly suppressed in the tomato roots, while a significant decrease in the stigmasterol content was observed after 14 days. A cyp710a11 knockout mutant tomato line lacking stigmasterol was analyzed to better understand the role of CYP710A11 in nematode development. M. incognita grown in the mutant line showed reduced egg mass counts, presumably due to the impaired growth of the mutant. However, the nematodes developed as well as they did in the wild-type line. Thus, while the suppression of CYP710A11 expression during nematode development may be a defense response of the plant against the nematode, the lack of stigmasterol did not seem to affect the nematode. This study contributes to the understanding of the role of stigmasterol in the interaction between M. incognita and tomato plants and shows that the sterol C-22 desaturase is not essential for the success of M. incognita.

Characterization and functional analysis of BmSR-B1 for phytosterol uptake

Insects cannot synthesize sterols, such as cholesterol, and require sterols in their diet. Phytophagous insects use dietary phytosterols as a source of cholesterol. Sterols are transported from the midgut by the insect lipoprotein, lipophorin (Lp), although mechanisms for uptake of phytosterols into tissues are unclear. This study characterizes Scavenger Receptor class B type1 (SR-B1) from Bombyx mori (BmSR-B1) as molecules related to phytosterol uptake. According to sterol quantification using LC-MS/MS analysis, the midgut and fat body were phytosterol-rich relative to cholesterol-rich brain and prothoracic glands. Gene expression analysis of Bmsr-b1 in silkworm tissues showed that the genes Bmsr-b1_2, 3, 4, 6, and 10 were expressed in the midgut and fat body. To characterize the function of BmSR-B1, 11 BmSR-B1 homologs expressed in Bombyx ovary-derived BmN cells and Drosophila melanogaster embryo-derived Schneider 2 (S2) cells were incubated with purified Lp. Our analysis showed that BmSR-B1_3 induced the accumulation of campesterol and BmSR-B1_4 induced the accumulation of β-sitosterol and campesterol in culture cells. BmSR-B1 incorporated specific phytosterols into insect cells by selective uptake across the cell membrane where BmSR-B1 was localized. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that one function of BmSR-B1 is the uptake of phytosterols into silkworm tissues.

Knockdown of ecdysteroid synthesis genes results in impaired molting and high mortality in Bactericera cockerelli (Hemiptera: Triozidae)

BACKGROUND

RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) has become a promising biopesticide technology with which to direct sequence-specific gene knockdown of key targets in the potato psyllid (PoP) Bactericera cockerelli, resulting in significant mortality. In this study, three strategically selected target genes, ATF4, C7 and D24, essential for the biosynthesis and regulation of ecdysteroids, were evaluated for knockdown and mortality using oral delivery of individual, paired and all three double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs), in five replicated experiments. Knockdown was determined as the fold-change in gene expression using a quantitative polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

Knockdown of the D24 target, at 39%-45%, resulted in 51% PoP mortality by 10 days post-ingestion (dpi) of dsRNA. Knockdown of C7, at 38%-61%, resulted in 53% mortality by 10 dpi, whereas dsD24 ingestion resulted in 65% mortality by 10 dpi when dsD24 and dsC7 were co-delivered. Three phenotypes, INCOMEC, PREMEC and SWOLLEN, were observed at a frequency of 4%-12%, and are consistent with incomplete ecdysis in immature and/or adult PoP. Adult PoP exhibiting INCOMEC survived for several days but were unable to mate or fly, whereas SWOLLEN and PREMEC were lethal to the immature instars. Knockdown of ATF4 did not result in the mortality or malformations in immature and adult PoP.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with knockdown of individual D24 and C7 targets, significantly greater RNAi penetrance was achieved following delivery of combined dsRNAs. The highest knockdown that resulted in incomplete ecdysis and/or mortality was obtained for targets with predicted involvement in the same or interacting pathway(s). Knockdown of ATF4 was apparently "rescued" by uncharacterized compensatory gene(s) or effects. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Addition of Sterols and Cryoprotectants to Optimize a Diet Developed for Eldana saccharina Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Using the Carcass Milling Technique

Various combinations and concentrations of cholesterol (C) and stigmasterol (S) were added into a base diet developed for Eldana saccharina. Survival of inoculated neonate was high on all diets (>92% at day 20 and >95% at day 27). Fastest larval development occurred on the minimum specification (MS) (+1.0 gS) and MS (+0.2 gC: 0.2 gS) diets (72 and 70% pupation respectively at day 20). Significantly slower development (15% pupation) occurred on the control diet at day 20. Female pupal weight increased when larvae fed on the MS (+0.1 gC), (+0.1 gS) and (+0.2 gC:0.2 gS) diets (0.2143 ± 0.00 g, 0.2271 ± 0.01 g and 0.2252 ± 0.01 g, respectively) as compared with the control diet (0.1886 ± 0.00 g). Adult emergence was significantly higher (100%) from the MS (+0.1 gS) and MS (+0.2 gC:0.2 gS) diets, as compared with the remaining sterol (95%) and control diets (97%). To potentially increase E. saccharina’s cold tolerance, inclusion of cryoprotectants L-proline (P) and trehalose (T) into the MS diet was investigated. Males from the MS (0.2 gP:0.2 gT), MS (0.5 gP:0.5 gT) and MS (1.0 gT) diets recovered fastest from chill coma treatment (204 ± 44 s, 215 ± 7 s and 215 ± 9 s, respectively) than those from the remaining cryoprotectant diets (305 ± 22 s). The addition of cryoprotectants severely reduced female fertility (<44%) when mated with non-chill coma exposed males. In contrast, eggs from females not exposed to chilling treatment were 84% fertile when mated with males from the same source. The MS (0.2 gC:0.2 gS) diet is the preferred choice to replace the currently used diet, reducing the larval growth period by 60% without negative effects on key life cycle parameters of E. saccharina.

Collection and Analysis of Phloem Lipids

The plant phloem is a long-distance conduit for the transport of assimilates but also of mobile developmental and stress signals. These signals can be sugars, metabolites, amino acids, peptides, proteins, microRNA, or mRNA. Yet small lipophilic molecules such as oxylipins and, more recently, phospholipids have emerged as possible long-distance signals as well. Analysis of phloem (phospho)lipids, however, requires enrichment, purification, and sensitive analysis. This chapter describes the EDTA-facilitated approach of phloem exudate collection, phase partitioning against chloroform-methanol for lipid separation and enrichment, and analysis/identification of phloem lipids using LC-MS with multiplexed collision induced dissociation (CID).

NPC1b as a novel target in controlling the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera

BACKGROUND

Insects cannot synthesize sterols and must acquire them from food. The mechanisms underlying how insects uptake dietary sterols are largely unknown except that NPC1b, an integral membrane protein, has been shown to be responsible for dietary cholesterol uptake in Drosophila melanogaster. However, whether NPC1b orthologs in other insect species, particularly the economically important pests, function similarly remains to be determined.

RESULTS

In this study, we characterized the function of NPC1b in Helicoverpa armigera, a global pest that causes severe yield losses to many important crops. Limiting dietary cholesterol uptake to insects significantly inhibited food ingestion and weight gain. Compared to the wild-type H. armigera, the CRISPR/Cas9-edited NPC1b mutant larvae were incapable of getting adequate cholesterol and died in their early life stage. Gene expression profile and in situ hybridization analyses indicated that NPC1b was mainly expressed in the midgut where dietary cholesterol was absorbed. Expression of NPC1b was also correlated with the feeding life stages and was especially upregulated during early larval instars. Protein-ligand docking and sequence similarity analyses further demonstrated that NPC1b proteins of lepidopteran insects shared a relatively conserved cholesterol binding region, NPC1b_NTD, which, however, was highly divergent from bees-derived sequences.

CONCLUSION

NPC1b was crucial for dietary cholesterol uptake and growth of H. armigera, and therefore could serve as an insecticide target for the development of a novel pest-management approach to control this economically significant insect pest with little off-target effect on bees and sterol-autotrophic animals. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Insect Sterol Nutrition: Physiological Mechanisms, Ecology, and Applications

Insects, like all eukaryotes, require sterols for structural and metabolic purposes. However, insects, like all arthropods, cannot make sterols. Cholesterol is the dominant tissue sterol for most insects; insect herbivores produce cholesterol by metabolizing phytosterols, but not always with high efficiency. Many insects grow on a mixed-sterol diet, but this ability varies depending on the types and ratio of dietary sterols. Dietary sterol uptake, transport, and metabolism are regulated by several proteins and processes that are relatively conserved across eukaryotes. Sterol requirements also impact insect ecology and behavior. There is potential to exploit insect sterol requirements to (a) control insect pests in agricultural systems and (b) better understand sterol biology, including in humans. We suggest that future studies focus on the genetic mechanism of sterol metabolism and reverse transportation, characterizing sterol distribution and function at the cellular level, the role of bacterial symbionts in sterol metabolism, and interrupting sterol trafficking for pest control.

Untargeted Metabolomics Approach Reveals Differences in Host Plant Chemistry Before and After Infestation With Different Pea Aphid Host Races

The pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum), a phloem-sucking insect, has undergone a rapid radiation together with the domestication and anthropogenic range expansion of several of its legume host plants. This insect species is a complex of at least 15 genetically different host races that can all develop on the universal host plant Vicia faba. However, each host race is specialized on a particular plant species, such as Medicago sativa, Trifolium pratense, or Pisum sativum, which makes it an attractive model insect to study ecological speciation. Previous work revealed that pea aphid host plants produce a specific phytohormone profile depending on the host plant – host race combination. Native aphid races induce lower defense hormone levels in their host plant than non-native pea aphid races. Whether these changes in hormone levels also lead to changes in other metabolites is still unknown. We used a mass spectrometry-based untargeted metabolomic approach to identify plant chemical compounds that vary among different host plant-host race combinations and might therefore, be involved in pea aphid host race specialization. We found significant differences among the metabolic fingerprints of the four legume species studied prior to aphid infestation, which correlated with aphid performance. After infestation, the metabolic profiles of M. sativa and T. pratense plants infested with their respective native aphid host race were consistently different from profiles after infestation with non-native host races and from uninfested control plants. The metabolic profiles of P. sativum plants infested with their native aphid host race were also different from plants infested with non-native host races, but not different from uninfested control plants. The compounds responsible for these differences were putatively identified as flavonoids, saponins, non-proteinogenic amino acids and peptides among others. As members of these compound classes are known for their activity against insects and aphids in particular, they may be responsible for the differential performance of host races on native vs. non-native host plants. We conclude that the untargeted metabolomic approach is suitable to identify candidate compounds involved in the specificity of pea aphid – host plant interactions.

A plant virus (BYDV) promotes trophic facilitation in aphids on wheat

Pathogens and other parasites can have profound effects on biological communities and ecosystems. Here we explore how two strains of a plant virus - Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus, BYDV - influence the foraging performance and fecundity of two aphid species: Rhopalosiphum maidis and R. padi. We found that pre-inhabitation by R. padi on plants facilitates the subsequent foraging of conspecifics and R. maidis. Without the virus, the occurrence of facilitation is asymmetric because it depends on the order of species arrival. However, with virus we found facilitation irrespective of the order of species arrival. Furthermore, the virus also boosted the fecundity of both aphids. Analyses of nutrient content of virus-free and virus-infected plants show significant increases of essential amino acids, sterols, and carbohydrates. Such nutrient increases appear to underlie the facilitative interactions and fecundity of aphids on virus-infected plants. Our experiments demonstrate that the virus dramatically increases the food consumption and fecundity of aphids through intra and interspecific trophic facilitation, resulting in processes that could affect community organization.

Overturning dogma: tolerance of insects to mixed-sterol diets is not universal

Insects cannot synthesize sterols de novo, but like all eukaryotes they use them as cell membrane inserts where they influence membrane fluidity and rigidity. They also use a small amount for metabolic purposes, most notably as essential precursors for steroid hormones. It has been a long-held view that most insects require a small amount of specific sterol (often cholesterol) for metabolic purposes, but for membrane purposes (where the bulk of sterols are used) specificity in sterol structure was less important. Under this model, it was assumed that insects could tolerate mixed-sterol diets as long as a small amount of cholesterol was available. In the current paper this dogma is overturned, using data from plant-feeding insects that were fed mixed-sterol diets with different amounts and ratios of dietary sterols.

Candidatus Dactylopiibacterium carminicum, a Nitrogen-Fixing Symbiont of Dactylopius Cochineal Insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Dactylopiidae)

The domesticated carmine cochineal Dactylopius coccus (scale insect) has commercial value and has been used for more than 500 years for natural red pigment production. Besides the domesticated cochineal, other wild Dactylopius species such as Dactylopius opuntiae are found in the Americas, all feeding on nutrient poor sap from native cacti. To compensate nutritional deficiencies, many insects harbor symbiotic bacteria which provide essential amino acids or vitamins to their hosts. Here, we characterized a symbiont from the carmine cochineal insects, Candidatus Dactylopiibacterium carminicum (betaproteobacterium, Rhodocyclaceae family) and found it in D. coccus and in D. opuntiae ovaries by fluorescent in situ hybridization, suggesting maternal inheritance. Bacterial genomes recovered from metagenomic data derived from whole insects or tissues both from D. coccus and from D. opuntiae were around 3.6 Mb in size. Phylogenomics showed that dactylopiibacteria constituted a closely related clade neighbor to nitrogen fixing bacteria from soil or from various plants including rice and other grass endophytes. Metabolic capabilities were inferred from genomic analyses, showing a complete operon for nitrogen fixation, biosynthesis of amino acids and vitamins and putative traits of anaerobic or microoxic metabolism as well as genes for plant interaction. Dactylopiibacterium nif gene expression and acetylene reduction activity detecting nitrogen fixation were evidenced in D. coccus hemolymph and ovaries, in congruence with the endosymbiont fluorescent in situ hybridization location. Dactylopiibacterium symbionts may compensate for the nitrogen deficiency in the cochineal diet. In addition, this symbiont may provide essential amino acids, recycle uric acid, and increase the cochineal life span.

Transcript profiling of two potato cultivars during glycoalkaloid-inducing treatments shows differential expression of genes in sterol and glycoalkaloid metabolism

Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGA) are sterol-derived neurotoxic defence substances present in several members of the Solanaceae. In the potato (Solanum tuberosum), high SGA levels may render tubers harmful for consumption. Tuber SGA levels depend on genetic factors, and can increase as a response to certain stresses and environmental conditions. To identify genes underlying the cultivar variation in tuber SGA levels, we investigated two potato cultivars differing in their SGA accumulation during wounding or light exposure; two known SGA-inducing treatments. Using microarray analysis coupled to sterol and SGA quantifications, we identified a small number of differentially expressed genes that were associated with increased SGA levels. Two of these genes, encoding distinct types of sterol Δ²⁴-reductases, were by sense/antisense expression in transgenic potato plants shown to have differing roles in sterol and SGA metabolism. The results show that an increased SGA level in potato tubers during both wounding and light exposure is mediated by coordinated expression of a set of key genes in isoprenoid and steroid metabolism, and suggest that differences in this expression underlie cultivar variations in SGA levels. These results may find use within potato breeding and quality assessment.

The draft genome of whitefly Bemisia tabaci MEAM1, a global crop pest, provides novel insights into virus transmission, host adaptation, and insecticide resistance

Background

The whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) is among the 100 worst invasive species in the world. As one of the most important crop pests and virus vectors, B. tabaci causes substantial crop losses and poses a serious threat to global food security.

Results

We report the 615-Mb high-quality genome sequence of B. tabaci Middle East-Asia Minor 1 (MEAM1), the first genome sequence in the Aleyrodidae family, which contains 15,664 protein-coding genes. The B. tabaci genome is highly divergent from other sequenced hemipteran genomes, sharing no detectable synteny. A number of known detoxification gene families, including cytochrome P450s and UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, are significantly expanded in B. tabaci. Other expanded gene families, including cathepsins, large clusters of tandemly duplicated B. tabaci-specific genes, and phosphatidylethanolamine-binding proteins (PEBPs), were found to be associated with virus acquisition and transmission and/or insecticide resistance, likely contributing to the global invasiveness and efficient virus transmission capacity of B. tabaci. The presence of 142 horizontally transferred genes from bacteria or fungi in the B. tabaci genome, including genes encoding hopanoid/sterol synthesis and xenobiotic detoxification enzymes that are not present in other insects, offers novel insights into the unique biological adaptations of this insect such as polyphagy and insecticide resistance. Interestingly, two adjacent bacterial pantothenate biosynthesis genes, panB and panC, have been co-transferred into B. tabaci and fused into a single gene that has acquired introns during its evolution.

Conclusions

The B. tabaci genome contains numerous genetic novelties, including expansions in gene families associated with insecticide resistance, detoxification and virus transmission, as well as numerous horizontally transferred genes from bacteria and fungi. We believe these novelties likely have shaped B. tabaci as a highly invasive polyphagous crop pest and efficient vector of plant viruses. The genome serves as a reference for resolving the B. tabaci cryptic species complex, understanding fundamental biological novelties, and providing valuable genetic information to assist the development of novel strategies for controlling whiteflies and the viruses they transmit.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12915-016-0321-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Phloem Proteomics Reveals New Lipid-Binding Proteins with a Putative Role in Lipid-Mediated Signaling

Global climate changes inversely affect our ability to grow the food required for an increasing world population. To combat future crop loss due to abiotic stress, we need to understand the signals responsible for changes in plant development and the resulting adaptations, especially the signaling molecules traveling long-distance through the plant phloem. Using a proteomics approach, we had identified several putative lipid-binding proteins in the phloem exudates. Simultaneously, we identified several complex lipids as well as jasmonates. These findings prompted us to propose that phloem (phospho-) lipids could act as long-distance developmental signals in response to abiotic stress, and that they are released, sensed, and moved by phloem lipid-binding proteins (Benning et al., 2012). Indeed, the proteins we identified include lipases that could release a signaling lipid into the phloem, putative receptor components, and proteins that could mediate lipid-movement. To test this possible protein-based lipid-signaling pathway, three of the proteins, which could potentially act in a relay, are characterized here: (I) a putative GDSL-motif lipase (II) a PIG-P-like protein, with a possible receptor-like function; (III) and PLAFP (phloem lipid-associated family protein), a predicted lipid-binding protein of unknown function. Here we show that all three proteins bind lipids, in particular phosphatidic acid (PtdOH), which is known to participate in intracellular stress signaling. Genes encoding these proteins are expressed in the vasculature, a prerequisite for phloem transport. Cellular localization studies show that the proteins are not retained in the endoplasmic reticulum but surround the cell in a spotted pattern that has been previously observed with receptors and plasmodesmatal proteins. Abiotic signals that induce the production of PtdOH also regulate the expression of GDSL-lipase and PLAFP, albeit in opposite patterns. Our findings suggest that while all three proteins are indeed lipid-binding and act in the vasculature possibly in a function related to long-distance signaling, the three proteins do not act in the same but rather in distinct pathways. It also points toward PLAFP as a prime candidate to investigate long-distance lipid signaling in the plant drought response.

Long-Distance Lipid Signaling and its Role in Plant Development and Stress Response

Lipids are important signaling compounds in plants. They can range from small lipophilic molecules like the dicarboxylic acid Azelaic acid to complex phosphoglycerolipids and regulate plant development as well as the response to biotic and abiotic stress. While their intracellular function is well described, several lipophilic signals are known to be found in the plant phloem and can, thus, also play a role in long-distance signaling. Mostly, they play a role in the pathogen response and systemic acquired resistance. This is particularly true for oxylipins, dehydroabietinal, and azelaic acid. However, several phospholipids have now been described in phloem exudates. Their intracellular function as well as implications and a model for long-distance signaling are discussed in this chapter.

Potential of the Desert Locust Schistocerca gregaria (Orthoptera: Acrididae) as an Unconventional Source of Dietary and Therapeutic Sterols

Insects are increasingly being recognized not only as a source of food to feed the ever growing world population but also as potential sources of new products and therapeutic agents, among which are sterols. In this study, we sought to profile sterols and their derivatives present in the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria, focusing on those with potential importance as dietary and therapeutic components for humans. Using coupled gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), we analyzed and compared the quantities of sterols in the different sections of the gut and tissues of the locust. In the gut, we identified 34 sterols which showed a patchy distribution, but with the highest composition in the foregut (55%) followed by midgut (31%) and hindgut (14%). Fed ad libitum on wheat seedlings, five sterols unique to the insect were detected. These sterols were identified as 7-dehydrocholesterol, desmosterol, fucosterol, (3β, 5α) cholesta-8, 14, 24-trien-3-ol, 4, 4-dimethyl, and (3β, 20R) cholesta-5, 24-dien-3, 20-diol with the first three having known health benefits in humans. Incubation of the fore-, mid- and hindgut with cholesterol-[4-¹³C] yielded eight derivatives, three of these were detected in the gut of the desert locust after it had consumed the vegetative diet but were not detected in the diet. Our study shows that the desert locust ingests phytosterols from a vegetative diet and, amplifies and metabolizes them into derivatives with potential salutary benefits and we discuss our findings in this context.

Thresholds for sterol-limited growth of Daphnia magna: a comparative approach using 10 different sterols

Arthropods are incapable of synthesizing sterols de novo and thus require a dietary source to cover their physiological demands. The most prominent sterol in animal tissues is cholesterol, which is an indispensable structural component of cell membranes and serves as precursor for steroid hormones. Instead of cholesterol, plants and algae contain a variety of different phytosterols. Consequently, herbivorous arthropods have to metabolize dietary phytosterols to cholesterol to meet their requirements for growth and reproduction. Here, we investigated sterol-limited growth responses of the freshwater herbivore Daphnia magna by supplementing a sterol-free diet with increasing amounts of 10 different phytosterols and comparing thresholds for sterol-limited growth. In addition, we analyzed the sterol composition of D. magna to explore sterol metabolic constraints and bioconversion capacities. We show that dietary phytosterols strongly differ in their potential to support somatic growth of D. magna. The dietary threshold concentrations obtained by supplementing the different sterols cover a wide range (3.5-34.4 μg mg C(-1)) and encompass the one for cholesterol (8.9 μg mg C(-1)), indicating that certain phytosterols are more efficient in supporting somatic growth than cholesterol (e.g., fucosterol, brassicasterol) while others are less efficient (e.g., dihydrocholesterol, lathosterol). The dietary sterol concentration gradients revealed that the poor quality of particular sterols can be alleviated partially by increasing dietary concentrations, and that qualitative differences among sterols are most pronounced at low to moderate dietary concentrations. We infer that the dietary sterol composition has to be considered in zooplankton nutritional ecology to accurately assess potential sterol limitations under field conditions.

Diet micronutrient balance matters: How the ratio of dietary sterols/steroids affects development, growth and reproduction in two lepidopteran insects

Insects lack the ability to synthesize sterols de novo so they acquire this essential nutrient from their food. Cholesterol is the dominant sterol found in most insects, but in plant vegetative tissue it makes up only a small fraction of the total sterol profile. Instead, plants mostly contain phytosterols; plant-feeding insects generate the majority of their cholesterol by metabolizing phytosterols. However, not all phytosterols are readily converted to cholesterol, and some are even deleterious when ingested above a threshold level. In a recent study we showed that caterpillars reared on tobacco accumulating novel sterols/steroids exhibited reduced performance, even when suitable sterols were present. In the current study we examined how the dominant sterols (cholesterol and stigmasterol) and steroids (cholestanol and cholestanone) typical of the modified tobacco plants affected two insect herbivores (Heliothis virescens and Helicoverpa zea). The sterols/steroids were incorporated into synthetic diets singly, as well as in various combinations, ratios and amounts. For each insect species, a range of performance values was recorded for two generations, with the eggs from the 1st-generation adults as the source of neonates for the 2nd-generation. Performance on the novel steroids (cholestanol and cholestanone) was extremely poor compared to suitable sterols (cholesterol and stigmasterol). Additionally, performance tended to decrease as the ratio of the novel dietary steroids increased. We discuss how the balance of different dietary sterols/steroids affected our two caterpillar species, relate this back to recent studies on sterol/steroid metabolism in these two species, and consider the potential application of sterol/steroid modification in crops.

A dietary test of putative deleterious sterols for the aphid Myzus persicae

The aphid Myzus persicae displays high mortality on tobacco plants bearing a transgene which results in the accumulation of the ketosteroids cholestan-3-one and cholest-4-en-3-one in the phloem sap. To test whether the ketosteroids are the basis of the plant resistance to the aphids, M. persicae were reared on chemically-defined diets with different steroid contents at 0.1-10 µg ml(-1). Relative to sterol-free diet and dietary supplements of the two ketosteroids and two phytosterols, dietary cholesterol significantly extended aphid lifespan and increased fecundity at one or more dietary concentrations tested. Median lifespan was 50% lower on the diet supplemented with cholest-4-en-3-one than on the cholesterol-supplemented diet. Aphid feeding rate did not vary significantly across the treatments, indicative of no anti-feedant effect of any sterol/steroid. Aphids reared on diets containing equal amounts of cholesterol and cholest-4-en-3-one showed fecundity equivalent to aphids on diets containing only cholesterol. Aphids were reared on diets that reproduced the relative steroid abundance in the phloem sap of the control and modified tobacco plants, and their performance on the two diet formulations was broadly equivalent. We conclude that, at the concentrations tested, plant ketosteroids support weaker aphid performance than cholesterol, but do not cause acute toxicity to the aphids. In plants, the ketosteroids may act synergistically with plant factors absent from artificial diets but are unlikely to be solely responsible for resistance of modified tobacco plants.

Conversion of exogenous cholesterol into glycoalkaloids in potato shoots, using two methods for sterol solubilisation

Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGA) are toxic secondary metabolites naturally occurring in the potato, as well as in certain other Solanaceous plant species, such as tomato, eggplant and pepper. To investigate the steroidal origin of SGA biosynthesis, cut potato shoots were fed cholesterol labelled with deuterium (D) in the sterol ring structure (D5- or D6-labelled), or side chain (D7-labelled), and analysed after three or five weeks. The labelled cholesterol and presence of D-labelled SGA were analysed by GC-MS and LC-MS/MS, respectively. When feeding D-labelled cholesterol solubilised in Tween-80, labelled cholesterol in free form became present in both leaves and stems, although the major part was recovered as steryl esters. Minor amounts of D-labelled SGA (α-solanine and α-chaconine) were identified in cholesterol-treated shoots, but not in blank controls, or in shoots fed D6-27-hydroxycholesterol. Solubilising the labelled cholesterol in methyl-β-cyclodextrin instead of Tween-80 increased the levels of labelled SGA up to 100-fold, and about 1 mole% of the labelled cholesterol was recovered as labelled SGA in potato leaves. Both side chain and ring structure D labels were retained in SGA, showing that the entire cholesterol molecule is converted to SGA. However, feeding side chain D7-labelled cholesterol resulted in D5-labelled SGA, indicating that two hydrogen atoms were released during formation of the SGA nitrogen-containing ring system. Feeding with D7-sitosterol did not produce any labelled SGA, indicating that cholesterol is a specific SGA precursor. In conclusion, we have demonstrated a superior performance of methyl-β-cyclodextrin for delivery of cholesterol in plant tissue feeding experiments, and given firm evidence for cholesterol as a specific sterol precursor of SGA in potato.

ABCG9, ABCG11 and ABCG14 ABC transporters are required for vascular development in Arabidopsis

In order to obtain insights into the regulatory pathways controlling phloem development, we characterized three genes encoding membrane proteins from the G sub-family of ABC transporters (ABCG9, ABCG11 and ABCG14), whose expression in the phloem has been confirmed. Mutations in the genes encoding these dimerizing 'half transporters' are semi-dominant and result in vascular patterning defects in cotyledons and the floral stem. Co-immunoprecipitation and bimolecular fluorescence complementation experiments demonstrated that these proteins dimerize, either by flexible pairing (ABCG11 and ABCG9) or by forming strict heterodimers (ABCG14). In addition, metabolome analyses and measurement of sterol ester contents in the mutants suggested that ABCG9, ABCG11 and ABCG14 are involved in lipid/sterol homeostasis regulation. Our results show that these three ABCG genes are required for proper vascular development in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Shoot feeding as a nutrient acquisition strategy in free-living psylloids

Shoot feeding by sucking insects is accepted as an adaptation to feeding where plant nutrients are most concentrated and/or of higher quality. Psylloids are an important hemipteran taxon, most of which are free-living and comprise many shoot feeding species, whose nutritional ecology has been largely ignored. I conducted a longitudinal study of Ctenarytaina eucalypti (Maskell) and C. bipartita Burckhardt et al. (Aphalaridae) feeding on eucalypts to document how within-plant (ontogenic) variation in nutritional quality, in particular of free amino acids, determines host suitability and hence the distribution and abundance of nymphs. Nymphs were most abundant within developing apical buds but were not more abundant on branchlets of greater vigour (indicated by rate of extension). Nymphs could be found up to two (C. bipartita) to three (C. eucalypti) alternate leaf pairs distant from apical buds but infrequently and in low numbers; they were never found on older, fully expanded leaves. The position of a leaf on a branchlet (indicative of age) determined its nutritional quality. Younger leaves had higher water contents, lower chlorophyll contents and differed in amino acid (essential and non-essential) composition compared to older leaves. The abundance of C. eucalypti nymphs on expanding leaves and in buds was positively correlated with the concentrations of methionine, valine and threonine in E. globulus leaves at the same or comparable position on a branchlet. The abundance of C. bipartita nymphs was positively correlated with foliar leucine concentrations. Shoot feeding by these two psyllids facilitates access to more concentrated, better quality plant nutrients but may not entirely explain the adaptive significance of their behaviour. The humid microclimate created by the architecture of the hosts’ apical buds protects eggs and nymphs from desiccation and is suggested to have had a significant influence on the evolution of host utilisation strategies of psyllids within this genus.

Sterol/steroid metabolism and absorption in a generalist and specialist caterpillar: effects of dietary sterol/steroid structure, mixture and ratio

Insects cannot synthesize sterols de novo, so they typically require a dietary source. Cholesterol is the dominant sterol in most insects, but because plants contain only small amounts of cholesterol, plant-feeding insects generate most of their cholesterol by metabolizing plant sterols. Plants almost always contain mixtures of different sterols, but some are not readily metabolized to cholesterol. Here we explore, in two separate experiments, how dietary phytosterols and phytosteroids, in different mixtures, ratios, and amounts, affect insect herbivore sterol/steroid metabolism and absorption; we use two caterpillars species - one a generalist (Heliothis virescens), the other a specialist (Manduca sexta). In our first experiment caterpillars were reared on two tobacco lines - one expressing a typical phystosterol profile, the other expressing high amounts/ratios of stanols and 3-ketosteroids. Caterpillars reared on the control tobacco contained mostly cholesterol, but those reared on the modified tobacco had reduced amounts of cholesterol, and lower total sterol/steroid body profiles. In our second experiment, caterpillars were reared on artificial diets containing known amounts of cholesterol, stigmasterol, cholestanol and/or cholestanone, either singly or in various combinations and ratios. Cholesterol and stigmasterol-reared moths were mostly cholesterol, while cholestanol-reared moths were mostly cholestanol. Moth tissue cholesterol concentration tended to decrease as the ratio of dietary cholestanol and/or cholestanone increased. In both moths cholestanone was metabolized into cholestanol and epicholestanol. Interestingly, M. sexta generated much more cholestanol than epicholestanol, while H. virescens did the opposite. Finally, total tissue steroid levels were significantly reduced in moths reared on diets containing very high levels of cholestanol. We discuss how dietary sterol/steroid structural differences are important with respect to sterol/steroid metabolism and uptake, including species-specific differences.

Microbial brokers of insect-plant interactions revisited

Recent advances in sequencing methods have transformed the field of microbial ecology, making it possible to determine the composition and functional capabilities of uncultured microorganisms. These technologies have been instrumental in the recognition that resident microorganisms can have profound effects on the phenotype and fitness of their animal hosts by modulating the animal signaling networks that regulate growth, development, behavior, etc. Against this backdrop, this review assesses the impact of microorganisms on insect-plant interactions, in the context of the hypothesis that microorganisms are biochemical brokers of plant utilization by insects. There is now overwhelming evidence for a microbial role in insect utilization of certain plant diets with an extremely low or unbalanced nutrient content. Specifically, microorganisms enable insect utilization of plant sap by synthesizing essential amino acids. They also can broker insect utilization of plant products of extremely high lignocellulose content, by enzymatic breakdown of complex plant polysaccharides, nitrogen fixation, and sterol synthesis. However, the experimental evidence for microbial-mediated detoxification of plant allelochemicals is limited. The significance of microorganisms as brokers of plant utilization by insects is predicted to vary, possibly widely, as a result of potentially complex interactions between the composition of the microbiota and the diet and insect developmental age or genotype. For every insect species feeding on plant material, the role of resident microbiota as biochemical brokers of plant utilization is a testable hypothesis.

The plant vascular system: evolution, development and functions

The emergence of the tracheophyte-based vascular system of land plants had major impacts on the evolution of terrestrial biology, in general, through its role in facilitating the development of plants with increased stature, photosynthetic output, and ability to colonize a greatly expanded range of environmental habitats. Recently, considerable progress has been made in terms of our understanding of the developmental and physiological programs involved in the formation and function of the plant vascular system. In this review, we first examine the evolutionary events that gave rise to the tracheophytes, followed by analysis of the genetic and hormonal networks that cooperate to orchestrate vascular development in the gymnosperms and angiosperms. The two essential functions performed by the vascular system, namely the delivery of resources (water, essential mineral nutrients, sugars and amino acids) to the various plant organs and provision of mechanical support are next discussed. Here, we focus on critical questions relating to structural and physiological properties controlling the delivery of material through the xylem and phloem. Recent discoveries into the role of the vascular system as an effective long-distance communication system are next assessed in terms of the coordination of developmental, physiological and defense-related processes, at the whole-plant level. A concerted effort has been made to integrate all these new findings into a comprehensive picture of the state-of-the-art in the area of plant vascular biology. Finally, areas important for future research are highlighted in terms of their likely contribution both to basic knowledge and applications to primary industry.

Plant phloem sterol content: forms, putative functions, and implications for phloem-feeding insects

All eukaryotes contain sterols, which serve as structural components in cell membranes, and as precursors for important hormones. Plant vegetative tissues are known to contain mixtures of sterols, but very little is known about the sterol composition of phloem. Plants are food for many animals, but plant-feeding arthropods (including phloem-feeding insets) are unique among animals in that they have lost the ability to synthesize sterols, and must therefore acquire these essential nutrients from their food, or via endosymbionts. Our paper starts by providing a very brief overview of variation in plant sterol content, and how different sterols can affect insect herbivores, including those specializing on phloem. We then describe an experiment, where we bulk collected phloem sap exudate from bean and tobacco, and analyzed its sterol content. This approach revealed two significant observations concerning phloem sterols. First, the phloem exudate from each plant was found to contain sterols in three different fractions - free sterols, sterols conjugated to lipids (acylated), and sterols conjugated to carbohydrates (glycosylated). Second, for both plants, cholesterol was identified as the dominant sterol in each phloem exudate fraction; the remaining sterols in each fraction were a mixture of common phytosterols. We discuss our phloem exudate sterol profiles in a plant physiology/biochemistry context, and how it relates to the nutritional physiology/ecology of phloem-feeding insects. We close by proposing important next steps that will advance our knowledge concerning plant phloem sterol biology, and how phloem-sterol content might affect phloem-feeding insects.

Role of the phloem in the biochemistry and ecophysiology of benzylisoquinoline alkaloid metabolism

Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs) are a diverse group of biologically active specialized metabolites produced mainly in four plant families. BIA metabolism is likely of monophyletic origin and involves multiple enzymes yielding structurally diverse compounds. Several BIAs possess defensive properties against pathogenic microorganisms and herbivores. Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum: Papaveraceae) has emerged as a model system to investigate the cellular localization of BIA biosynthesis. Although alkaloids accumulate in the laticifer cytoplasm (latex) of opium poppy, corresponding biosynthetic enzymes and gene transcripts are localized to proximal sieve elements and companion cells, respectively. In contrast, BIA metabolism in the non-laticiferous meadow rue (Thalictrum flavum; Ranunculaceae) occurs independent of the phloem. Evidence points toward the adoption of diverse strategies for the biosynthesis and accumulation of alkaloids as defensive compounds. Recruitment of cell types involved in BIA metabolism, both within and external to the phloem, was likely driven by selection pressures unique to different taxa. The biochemistry, cell biology, ecophysiology, and evolution of BIA metabolism are considered in this context.

The physiology of sterol nutrition in the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum

The phloem sap of fava bean (Vicia faba) plants utilized by the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum contains three sterols, cholesterol, stigmasterol and sitosterol, in a 2:2:1 ratio. To investigate the nutritional value of these sterols, pea aphids were reared on chemically-defined diets containing each sterol at 0.1, 1 and 10μgml(-1) with a sterol-free diet as control. Larval growth rate and aphid lifespan did not vary significantly across the diets, indicating that sterol reserves can buffer some performance indices against a shortfall in dietary sterol over at least one generation. However, lifetime reproductive output was depressed in aphids on diets containing stigmasterol or no sterol, relative to diets supplemented with cholesterol or sitosterol. The cholesterol density of embryos in teneral adults was significantly higher than in the total body; and the number and biomass of embryos in aphids on diets with stigmasterol and no sterols were reduced relative to diets with cholesterol or sitosterol, indicating that the reproductive output of the pea aphid can be limited by the amount and composition of dietary sterol. In a complementary RNA-seq analysis of pea aphids reared on plants and diets with different sterol contents, 7.6% of the 17,417 detected gene transcripts were differentially expressed. Transcript abundance of genes with annotated function in sterol utilization did not vary significantly among treatments, suggesting that the metabolic response to dietary sterol may be mediated primarily at the level of enzyme function or metabolite concentration.

New aspects of Phloem-mediated long-distance lipid signaling in plants

Plants are sessile and cannot move to appropriate hiding places or feeding grounds to escape adverse conditions. As a consequence, they evolved mechanisms to detect changes in their environment, communicate these to different organs, and adjust development accordingly. These adaptations include two long-distance transport systems which are essential in plants: the xylem and the phloem. The phloem serves as a major trafficking pathway for assimilates, viruses, RNA, plant hormones, metabolites, and proteins with functions ranging from synthesis to metabolism to signaling. The study of signaling compounds within the phloem is essential for our understanding of plant communication of environmental cues. Determining the nature of signals and the mechanisms by which they are communicated through the phloem will lead to a more complete understanding of plant development and plant responses to stress. In our analysis of Arabidopsis phloem exudates, we had identified several lipid-binding proteins as well as fatty acids and lipids. The latter are not typically expected in the aqueous environment of sieve elements. Hence, lipid transport in the phloem has been given little attention until now. Long-distance transport of hydrophobic compounds in an aqueous system is not without precedence in biological systems: a variety of lipids is found in human blood and is often bound to proteins. Some lipid-protein complexes are transported to other tissues for storage, use, modification, or degradation; others serve as messengers and modulate transcription factor activity. By simple analogy it raises the possibility that lipids and the respective lipid-binding proteins in the phloem serve similar functions in plants and play an important role in stress and developmental signaling. Here, we introduce the lipid-binding proteins and the lipids we found in the phloem and discuss the possibility that they may play an important role in developmental and stress signaling.

Plant sterols and host plant suitability for generalist and specialist caterpillars

Insects, unlike plants and vertebrates, lack the ability to biosynthesize sterols. Cholesterol is typically the most common sterol found in plant-feeding insects, but it is rarely found in plants above trace levels, so plant-feeding insects must produce the cholesterol they need by metabolizing the sterols found in the plants they eat. Plant-feeding insects are, however, often limited in terms of which sterols can be converted to cholesterol. In the current study we used a transgenic tobacco plant line that displays high levels of atypical plant steroids, specifically stanols and ketone-steroids, to explore how novel steroid structural features affect performance in three economically important caterpillars (Heliothis virescens, Spodoptera exigua, and Manduca sexta). For each species we measured pupation success, larval development, pupal mass, pupal development, and eclosion success. For the two generalists species (H. virescens and S. exigua) we also measured egg production and egg viability. We then used these eggs to replicate the experiment, so that we could examine the effect of parental steroid dietary history on survival, growth and reproduction of 2nd-generation individuals. Significant negative effects of novel steroids on larval and pupal performance were observed for each caterpillar in the first generation, although these were often subtle, and were not consistent between the three species. In the second generation, larval survival estimated by 'pupation number/plant' on the tobacco plants with novel steroids was significantly reduced, while eclosion success was significantly lower for H. virescens. With respect to adult reproduction (i.e. egg production and egg viability) there were no observed differences in the first generation, but novel steroids significantly negatively impacted reproduction in the second generation. The findings from this study, when integrated into a simple population growth model, demonstrate the potential in using plants with modified steroids as a novel approach to manage populations of economically important caterpillar species.