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Spatial and temporal variations in interspecific interaction: impact of a recreational landscape. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-022-01584-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
AbstractAnthropogenic activities, such as outdoor recreation, have the potential to change complex interactions between wildlife and livestock, with further consequences for the management of both animals, the environment, and disease transmission. We present the interaction amongst wildlife, livestock, and outdoor recreationists as a three-way interaction. Little is known about how recreational activities alter the interaction between herbivores in areas extensively used for recreational purposes. We investigate how hiking activity affects spatio-temporal co-occurrence between domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). We used camera traps to capture the spatio-temporal distribution of red deer and sheep and used the distance from the hiking path as a proxy of hiking activity. We used generalized linear models to investigate the spatial distribution of sheep and deer. We analysed the activity patterns of sheep and deer and then calculated their coefficients of temporal overlap for each camera trap location. We compared these coefficients in relation to the distance from the hiking path. Finally, we used a generalized linear mixed-model to investigate which factors influence the spatio-temporal succession between deer and sheep. We do not find that sheep and red deer spatially avoid each other. The coefficient of temporal overlap varied with distance from the hiking trail, with stronger temporal co-occurrence at greater distances from the hiking trail. Red deer were more likely to be detected further from the path during the day, which increased the temporal overlap with sheep in these areas. This suggests that hiking pressure influences spatio-temporal interactions between sheep and deer, leading to greater temporal overlap in areas further from the hiking path due to red deer spatial avoidance of hikers. This impact of recreationists on the wildlife and livestock interaction can have consequences for the animals’ welfare, the vegetation they graze, their management, and disease transmission.
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In defense of elemental currencies: can ecological stoichiometry stand as a framework for terrestrial herbivore nutritional ecology? Oecologia 2022; 199:27-38. [PMID: 35396976 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-022-05160-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Nutritional ecologists aim to predict population or landscape-level effects of food availability, but the tools to extrapolate nutrition from small to large extents are often lacking. The appropriate nutritional ecology currencies should be able to represent consumer responses to food while simultaneously be simple enough to expand such responses to large spatial extents and link them to ecosystem functioning. Ecological stoichiometry (ES), a framework of nutritional ecology, can meet these demands, but it is typically associated with ecosystem ecology and nutrient cycling, and less often used to study wildlife nutrition. Despite the emerging zoogeochemical evidence that animals, and thus their diets, play critical roles in nutrient movement, wildlife nutritional ecology has not fully embraced ES, and ES has not incorporated nutrition in many wildlife studies. Here, we discuss how elemental currencies are "nutritionally, organismally, and ecologically explicit" in the context of terrestrial herbivore nutritional ecology. We add that ES and elemental currencies offer a means to measure resource quality across landscapes and compare nutrient availability among regions. Further, we discuss ES shortcomings and solutions, and list future directions to advance the field. As ecological studies increasingly grow in spatial extent, and attempt to link multiple levels of biological organization, integrating more simple and unifying currencies into nutritional studies, like elements, is necessary for nutritional ecology to predict herbivore occurrences and abundances across regions.
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Stears K, Shrader AM. Coexistence between wildlife and livestock is contingent on cattle density and season but not differences in body size. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0236895. [PMID: 32735578 PMCID: PMC7394405 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0236895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Many studies on the coexistence of wildlife with livestock have focused primarily on similar-sized species. Furthermore, many of these studies have used dietary overlap as a measure of potential competition between interacting species and thus lack the important link between dietary overlap and any negative effects on a particular species–a prerequisite for competition. Consequently, the mechanisms that drive interspecific interactions between wildlife and cattle are frequently overlooked. To address this, we used an experimental setup where we leveraged different cattle stocking rates across two seasons to identify the drivers of interspecific interactions (i.e. competition and facilitation) between smaller-bodied oribi antelope and cattle. Using direct foraging observations, we assessed dietary overlap and grass regrowth, and also calculated oribi nutritional intake rates. Ultimately, we found that cattle compete with, and facilitate, smaller-bodied oribi antelope through bottom-up control. Specifically, cattle facilitated oribi during the wet season, irrespective of cattle stocking density, because cattle foraging produced high-quality grass regrowth. In contrast, during the dry season, cattle and oribi did not co-exist in the same areas (i.e. no direct dietary overlap). Despite this, we found that cattle foraging at high densities during the previous wet season reduced the dry season availability of oribi’s preferred grass species. To compensate, oribi expanded their dry season diet breadth and included less palatable grass species, ultimately reducing their nutritional intake rates. Thus, cattle competed with oribi through a delayed, across-season habitat modification. We show that differences in body size alone may not be able to offset competitive interactions between cattle and wildlife. Finally, understanding the mechanisms that drive facilitation and competition are key to promoting co-existence between cattle and wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keenan Stears
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States of America
- South African Environmental Observation Network, Ndlovu Node, Scientific Services, Kruger National Park, Phalaborwa, South Africa
- University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville, South Africa
- * E-mail:
| | - Adrian M. Shrader
- University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville, South Africa
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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Spake R, Bellamy C, Gill R, Watts K, Wilson T, Ditchburn B, Eigenbrod F. Forest damage by deer depends on cross‐scale interactions between climate, deer density and landscape structure. J Appl Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.13622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Spake
- School of Geography and Environmental Science University of Southampton Southampton UK
| | - Chloe Bellamy
- Forest ResearchNorthern Research Station Midlothian UK
| | - Robin Gill
- Forest Research, Alice Holt Lodge Farnham Surrey UK
| | - Kevin Watts
- Forest Research, Alice Holt Lodge Farnham Surrey UK
| | - Tom Wilson
- Forest ResearchNorthern Research Station Midlothian UK
| | - Ben Ditchburn
- Forest ResearchNorthern Research Station Midlothian UK
| | - Felix Eigenbrod
- School of Geography and Environmental Science University of Southampton Southampton UK
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McLaren BE, MacNearney D, Siavichay CA. Livestock and the functional habitat of vicuñas in Ecuador: a new puzzle. Ecosphere 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Brian E. McLaren
- Lakehead University 955 Oliver Road Thunder Bay Ontario P7B 5E1 Canada
- Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo Km 1/2 Panamericana Sur Riobamba EC060155 Ecuador
| | | | - Carlos A. Siavichay
- Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo Km 1/2 Panamericana Sur Riobamba EC060155 Ecuador
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Nagy G, Csivincsik Á, Sugár L, Zsolnai A. Benzimidazole resistance within red deer, roe deer and sheep populations within a joint habitat in Hungary. Small Rumin Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2017.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Herfindal I, Lande US, Solberg EJ, Rolandsen CM, Roer O, Wam HK. Weather affects temporal niche partitioning between moose and livestock. WILDLIFE BIOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.2981/wlb.00275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ivar Herfindal
- I. Herfindal , Dept of Biology, Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Norwegian Univ. of Science and Technology, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Unni Støbet Lande
- U. S. Lande, Division of Forest and Forest Resources, Norwegian Inst. of Bioeconomy Research, Tingvoll, Norway
| | - Erling Johan Solberg
- E. J. Solberg and C. M. Rolandsen, Norwegian Inst. for Nature Research (NINA), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Christer Moe Rolandsen
- E. J. Solberg and C. M. Rolandsen, Norwegian Inst. for Nature Research (NINA), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ole Roer
- O. Roer, Faun Naturforvaltning AS, Fyresdal, Norway
| | - Hilde Karine Wam
- H. K. Wam, Div. of Forest and Forest Resources, Norwegian Inst. of Bioeconomy Research, Ås, Norway
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9
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Ross LC, Austrheim G, Asheim LJ, Bjarnason G, Feilberg J, Fosaa AM, Hester AJ, Holand Ø, Jónsdóttir IS, Mortensen LE, Mysterud A, Olsen E, Skonhoft A, Speed JDM, Steinheim G, Thompson DBA, Thórhallsdóttir AG. Sheep grazing in the North Atlantic region: A long-term perspective on environmental sustainability. AMBIO 2016; 45:551-566. [PMID: 26932602 PMCID: PMC4980316 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-016-0771-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Revised: 11/27/2015] [Accepted: 02/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Sheep grazing is an important part of agriculture in the North Atlantic region, defined here as the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, Norway and Scotland. This process has played a key role in shaping the landscape and biodiversity of the region, sometimes with major environmental consequences, and has also been instrumental in the development of its rural economy and culture. In this review, we present results of the first interdisciplinary study taking a long-term perspective on sheep management, resource economy and the ecological impacts of sheep grazing, showing that sustainability boundaries are most likely to be exceeded in fragile environments where financial support is linked to the number of sheep produced. The sustainability of sheep grazing can be enhanced by a management regime that promotes grazing densities appropriate to the site and supported by area-based subsidy systems, thus minimizing environmental degradation, encouraging biodiversity and preserving the integrity of ecosystem processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise C. Ross
- The James Hutton Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen, AB15 8QH Scotland, UK
| | - Gunnar Austrheim
- Department of Natural History, University Museum, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Leif-Jarle Asheim
- Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), P.O. Box 8024 Dep., 0030 Oslo, Norway
| | - Gunnar Bjarnason
- Landbrugsfonden (Búnaðargrunnurin), R.C. Effersøesgøta 4, 100 Tórshavn, Faroe Islands
| | - Jon Feilberg
- Biomedia, Kastrupvej 8, Haraldsted, 4100 Ringsted, Denmark
| | - Anna Maria Fosaa
- The Faroese Museum of Natural History (Føroya Náttúrugripasavn), V. U. Hammershaimbsgøta 13, 100 Tórshavn, Faroe Islands
| | - Alison J. Hester
- The James Hutton Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen, AB15 8QH Scotland, UK
| | - Øystein Holand
- Department of Animal and Aquacultural Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, 1432 Ås, Norway
| | - Ingibjörg S. Jónsdóttir
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Iceland, 101 Reykjavík, Iceland
- University Centre in Svalbard, P.O. Box 156, 9171 Longyearbyen, Norway
| | - Lis E. Mortensen
- Jarðfeingi, Brekkutún 1, P.O. Box 3059, 110 Tórshavn, Faroe Islands
| | - Atle Mysterud
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Erla Olsen
- Gramar Research, Bergsvegur 6, P.O. Box 134, 110 Tórshavn, Faroe Islands
| | - Anders Skonhoft
- Department of Economics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7034 Trondheim, Norway
- Dragvoll University Campus, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - James D. M. Speed
- Department of Natural History, University Museum, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Geir Steinheim
- Department of Animal and Aquacultural Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, 1432 Ås, Norway
| | - Des B. A. Thompson
- Scottish Natural Heritage, Silvan House, 231 Corstorphine Road, Edinburgh, EH12 7AT Scotland, UK
- Hatfield College, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3RQ UK
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Champagne E, Tremblay J, Côté SD. Spatial extent of neighboring plants influences the strength of associational effects on mammal herbivory. Ecosphere 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.1371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Champagne
- Département de Biologie & Centre d’études NordiquesUniversité Laval Québec Québec G1V 0A6 Canada
| | - Jean‐Pierre Tremblay
- Département de Biologie & Centre d’études NordiquesUniversité Laval Québec Québec G1V 0A6 Canada
- Centre d’étude de la forêtUniversité Laval Québec Québec G1V 0A6 Canada
| | - Steeve D. Côté
- Département de Biologie & Centre d’études NordiquesUniversité Laval Québec Québec G1V 0A6 Canada
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Martínez-Abraín A, Jiménez J. Anthropogenic areas as incidental substitutes for original habitat. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2016; 30:593-598. [PMID: 26483140 DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2015] [Revised: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
One speaks of ecological substitutes when an introduced species performs, to some extent, the ecosystem function of an extirpated native species. We suggest that a similar case exists for habitats. Species evolve within ecosystems, but habitats can be destroyed or modified by natural and human-made causes. Sometimes habitat alteration forces animals to move to or remain in a suboptimal habitat type. In that case, the habitat is considered a refuge, and the species is called a refugee. Typically refugee species have lower population growth rates than in their original habitats. Human action may lead to the unintended generation of artificial or semiartificial habitat types that functionally resemble the essential features of the original habitat and thus allow a population growth rate of the same magnitude or higher than in the original habitat. We call such areas substitution habitats and define them as human-made habitats within the focal species range that by chance are partial substitutes for the species' original habitat. We call species occupying a substitution habitat adopted species. These are 2 new terms in conservation biology. Examples of substitution habitats are dams for European otters, wheat and rice fields for many steppeland and aquatic birds, and urban areas for storks, falcons, and swifts. Although substitution habitats can bring about increased resilience against the agents of global change, the conservation of original habitat types remains a conservation priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Martínez-Abraín
- Evolutionary Biology Group, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidade da Coruña, Campus da Zapateira s/n, 15071, A Coruña, Spain.
- Population Ecology Group, Mediterranean Institute of Advanced Studies (CSIC-UIB), C/Miquel Marquès 21, 07190, Esporles, Mallorca, Spain.
| | - Juan Jiménez
- Servicio de Vida Silvestre, Consellería de Infraestructuras, Territorio y Medio Ambiente, Generalitat Valenciana, C/ Castán Tobeñas, 77, 46018, Valencia, Spain
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12
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Newey S, Mustin K, Bryce R, Fielding D, Redpath S, Bunnefeld N, Daniel B, Irvine RJ. Impact of Management on Avian Communities in the Scottish Highlands. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0155473. [PMID: 27195486 PMCID: PMC4873258 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0155473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The protection of biodiversity is a key national and international policy objective. While protected areas provide one approach, a major challenge lies in understanding how the conservation of biodiversity can be achieved in the context of multiple land management objectives in the wider countryside. Here we analyse metrics of bird diversity in the Scottish uplands in relation to land management types and explore how bird species composition varies in relation to land managed for grazing, hunting and conservation. Birds were surveyed on the heather moorland areas of 26 different landholdings in Scotland. The results indicate that, in relation to dominant management type, the composition of bird species varies but measures of diversity and species richness do not. Intensive management for grouse shooting affects the occurrence, absolute and relative abundance of bird species. While less intensive forms of land management appear to only affect the relative abundance of species, though extensive sheep grazing appears to have little effect on avian community composition. Therefore enhanced biodiversity at the landscape level is likely to be achieved by maintaining heterogeneity in land management among land management units. This result should be taken into account when developing policies that consider how to achieve enhanced biodiversity outside protected areas, in the context of other legitimate land-uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Newey
- The James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
- Hedmark University College, Campus Evenstad, Koppang, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Karen Mustin
- The James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
- Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Rosalind Bryce
- Aberdeen Centre for Environmental Sustainability, Institute of Biological & Environmental Sciences, Aberdeen University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
- The Centre for Mountain Studies, Perth College University of the Highlands & Island, Perth, United Kingdom
| | | | - Steve Redpath
- Aberdeen Centre for Environmental Sustainability, Institute of Biological & Environmental Sciences, Aberdeen University, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Nils Bunnefeld
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Silwood Park, Ascot, United Kingdom
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom
| | - Bronwen Daniel
- The James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Silwood Park, Ascot, United Kingdom
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Rosvold J, Herfindal I, Andersen R, Hufthammer AK. Long-term morphological changes in the skeleton of red deer (Artiodactyla, Cervidae) at its northern periphery. J Mammal 2014. [DOI: 10.1644/13-mamm-a-231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Maffey G, Reed M, Irvine RJ, van der Wal R. Habitat monitoring in the wider countryside: a case study on the pursuit of innovation in red deer management. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2013; 128:779-86. [PMID: 23860380 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Revised: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Policy frameworks for protected areas, such as the EU habitats directive, ensure that environmental monitoring takes place to assess the condition of these sites. However, this monitoring rarely extends to the wider countryside, and there is no obligation for private landowners to detect trends in habitat condition. Using the diffusion of innovations model as an analytical framework we conducted a series of semi-structured interviews to consider the uptake of habitat impact assessment methods throughout a community involved in private land use pursuits in Scotland. It was found that although the community as a whole recognises the benefits of habitat impact assessments there are a number of barriers to their uptake, including the complexity of data gathering and interpretation, and uncertainty around who should be responsible for the conduct of assessments. Analysing the uptake of an innovation at an early stage, rather than retrospectively as is commonly done, highlights the potential for non-adoption and could therefore inform the reinvention of the innovation. In this instance reinvention could lead to more appropriate monitoring methods, which, if taken up, could reduce the need for legislative intervention in situations where both public and private interests need to be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgina Maffey
- dot.rural, RCUK Digital Economy Research, MacRobert Building, King's College, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 5UA, United Kingdom.
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15
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Millett J, Edmondson S. The impact of 36 years of grazing management on vegetation dynamics in dune slacks. J Appl Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Millett
- Centre for Hydrological and Ecosystem Sciences; Department of Geography; Loughborough University; Loughborough UK
| | - Sally Edmondson
- Centre for Hydrological and Ecosystem Sciences; Department of Geography; Loughborough University; Loughborough UK
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Fagúndez J. Heathlands confronting global change: drivers of biodiversity loss from past to future scenarios. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2013; 111:151-72. [PMID: 23223202 PMCID: PMC3555525 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcs257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heathlands are dynamic plant communities characterized by a high cover of sclerophyllous, ericoid shrubs that develop over nutrient-poor soils. Interest in the preservation of these habitats in Europe has increased over the last decades, but over this time there has been a general decline in habitat quality, affecting community structure, ecosystem functions and biodiversity. Negative drivers that trigger these changes include land-use changes (i.e. habitat destruction and fragmentation), pollution, climate change, natural succession and human management, as well as the presence of invasive exotic species. SCOPE Based on recent scientific literature, the effect of each of these potential drivers on a wide set of factors, including physiological traits, species richness and diversity, community structure, ecosystem functions and soil conditions, is reviewed. The effects of these drivers are generally understood, but the direction and magnitude of factor interactions, whenever studied, have shown high variability. CONCLUSIONS Habitat loss and fragmentation affect sensitive species and ecosystem functions. The nature of the surrounding area will condition the quality of the heathland remnants by, for example, propagule pressure from invasive species. The dominant ericoid shrubs can be out-competed by vigorous perennial grasses with increased atmospheric nitrogen deposition, although interactions with climate and management practices may either counteract or enhance this process. Grazing or periodic burning promotes heath loss but site-specific combined treatments maintain species diversity and community structure. Climate change alone moderately affects plant diversity, community structure and ecosystem functions. Combined with other factors, climatic changes will condition heath development, mainly with regard to key aspects such as seed set and seedling establishment, rare species occurrence and nutrient cycling in the soil. It is essential to address the effects of not only individual factors, but their interactions, together with land-use history, on heathland development and conservation in order to predict habitat response to future scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaime Fagúndez
- Departamento de Bioloxía Animal, Bioloxía Vexetal e Ecoloxía, Facultade de Ciencias, Universidade da Coruña, A Coruña, Spain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan T. du Toit
- Department of Wildland Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
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