Antibody-mediated (immune) transfusion-related acute lung injury

Production of recombinant humanized monoclonal anti-human neutrophil antigen (HNA) antibodies with potential applicability as standard antibodies

BACKGROUND

Antibodies against human neutrophil antigen (HNA) are involved in the pathogenesis of neonatal alloimmune neutropenia, autoimmune neutropenia, and transfusion-related acute lung injury. The present methods for anti-HNA antibody identification strongly depend on the presence of standard antisera with known allo/isospecificities. Here, we aimed to produce recombinant humanized antibodies to HNA from available mouse monoclonal antibodies (MoAbs).

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

RNAs were extracted from available hybridoma cells producing mouse anti-HNA antibodies recognizing HNA-1a (TAG-1), -1b (TAG-2), -2 (TAG-4), and FcγRIIIb, and the cDNA was synthesized. Recombinant fragments consisting of the variable regions of the H and L chains of the mouse MoAb ligated to the constant region of human IgG were incorporated into an expression vector and transfected into CHO cells. Antibody specificity of the selected humanized monoclonal antibodies was confirmed, and tested by the participants of the ISBT Granulocyte Immunobiology Working Party (GIWP) workshop 2020.

RESULTS

GIFT results confirmed the specific reactivity of TAGH-1 to -4, except for a cross-reactivity of TAGH-2 with HNA-1a/a neutrophils, only in flow-cytometry. MAIGA results showed clear specificity of all humanized antibodies, but the selection of the appropriate capture monoclonal antibody was essential for the test. The results of the ISBT GIWP showed high concordance among the labs.

CONCLUSIONS

These are the first humanized monoclonal antibodies to HNA-1 and HNA-2 antigens produced and they will be important standard reagents for laboratories testing for neutrophil antibodies. We plan to have these humanized MoAbs available through WHO.

Transfusion-Related Acute Lung Injury in an Alcoholic Hepatic Cirrhosis Patient: A Case Report

Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is one of the leading causes of transfusion-related mortality in the United States. It is a rare, potentially fatal complication of blood product transfusion, often seen in one in 5000 transfusion cases. On average, studies show a reported estimated fatality rate of 5-24% with a mortality rate of 12%. In the US, TRALI has been responsible for 30% of transfusion-related deaths. In this report, we discuss a case of a 51-year female with a past medical history of alcohol dependence and depression who presented complaining of dizziness and lightheadedness for 1 week. Subsequent diagnostic assessment and therapeutic interventions included various imaging studies, serial hematological evaluations, and eventual administration of blood transfusions, intravenous corticosteroids, supplemental oxygenation, and diuresis for clinical management. The occurrence of TRALI is often underreported due to a lack of timely recognition resulting in delayed treatment. Overall, we were able to not only diagnose TRALI in this patient but also effectively comprehend the significance of guiding appropriate management strategies due tohuman leukocyte antigen (HLA) TRALI-mediating antibodies to potentially reduce the overall incidence of such transfusion reactions.

Mechanism of TLR4 mediated immune effect in transfusion-induced acute lung injury based on Slit2/Robo4 signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is the infusion of blood or blood system.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the mechanism of TLR4-mediated T cell immune effect in TRALI.

METHODS

In this animal study, a mouse model of LPS-induced TRALI was established. Sixty adult C57/BL6 mice (wild-type, WT) were randomly divided into 5 groups: 1) normal WT type, 2) LPS control group of WT type lipopolysaccharide, 3) WT type TRALI group (LPS + MHC-I mAb), 4) (TLR4 antibody) lipopolysaccharide LPS control group, 5) (TLR4 antibody) TRALI group (LPS + MHC-I mAb). Mice were injected with LPS (0.1 mg/kg) and MHC-I mAb (2 mg/kg) into the tail vein. H&E staining was performed to detect pathological features. The myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and the level of inflammatory cytokines in lung tissue homogenate supernatant were measured. Blood, spleen single-cell suspension, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were collected to detect the ratio of Treg and Th17 cells by flow cytometry. RT-PCR and WB were used to detect mRNA or protein expression.

RESULTS

TLR4 mAb treatment alleviated the pathogenesis of LPS-induced TRALI in vivo, the MPO activity, and the level of proinflammatory factors in lung tissues. TLR4 exerted its function by changing of Treg/Th17 ratio via the SLIT2/ROBO4 signaling pathway and downregulating CDH5 and SETSIP.

CONCLUSION

TLR4 mediates immune response in the LPS-induced TRALI model through the SLIT2/ROBO4 signaling pathway.

Polymorphonuclear neutrophil activation by Src phosphorylation contributes to HLA-A2 antibody-induced transfusion-related acute lung injury

Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A2 antibody contributes to the pathogenesis of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) via polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) activation, but the signaling pathways involved this process remain largely undefined. In this study, we sought to study the signaling pathways involved in the pathogenesis of HLA-A2-induced TRALI. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and the plasma from the HLA-A2 antibody-positive donors were utilized to establish a rat model of TRALI. Human pulmonary endothelial cells (HPMECs) were in vitro co-cultured with HLA-A2 antibody-treated PMNs and then treated with LPS to induce a cytotoxicity model. The effects of HLA-A2 antibody on HPMEC injury were evaluated in this model. Besides, dasatinib was used to block the Src phosphorylation to explore whether Src involved in the TRALI or HPMEC injury induced by HLA-A2 antibody. The HLA-A2 antibody plus LPS induced TRALI and stimulated PMN activation in rats. HLA-A2 antibody-induced TRALI could be attenuated via depletion of PMN. HLA-A2 antibody activated NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome. In addition, HLA-A2 antibody aggravated the HPMEC injuries and the release of PMN surfaces makers, but dasatinib treatment reversed this effect, indicating that HLA-A2 antibody activated PMNs and exacerbated TRALI by stimulating phosphorylation of Src followed by activation of NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome, which was validated in vivo. In summary, HLA-A2 induced PMNs by activating NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome via phosphorylated-Src elevation, thereby exacerbating TRALI. This study highlights promising target for the treatment of antibody-mediated TRALI.

Tranexamic Acid versus Epsilon-Aminocaproic Acid in Total Knee Arthroplasty: A Meta-Analysis

Objective

At present, the effect of tranexamic acid (TXA) and epsilon-aminocaproic acid (EACA) on total knee arthroplasty (TKA) remains controversial. Therefore, the aim of this meta-analysis is to compare the differences between the effects of TXA and EACA in TKA.

Methods

We used electronic databases, including PubMed, Embase, MEDLINE, Ovid, ScienceDirect, Cochran Library, Google Scholar, clinical trial, and Chinese related databases, for literature search to find any effect of TXA and EACA in TKA. The differences between groups were compared by odds ratio (OR), weighted mean difference (WMD), and 95% confidence interval (CI). A total of four studies, including 3 randomized controlled trials (RCT) and 1 cohort study, were involved in this meta-analysis, involving 1836 participants. Among these participants, 816 belonged to the TXA group and 1020 belonged to the EACA group.

Results

Meta-analysis indicated no difference in surgery time (WMD = 0.01, 95% CI -0.35 to 0.36), total amount of blood loss (WMD = 0.14, 95% CI -0.09 to 0.37), transfusion rate (OR = 0.74, 95% CI 0.20 to 2.78), transfusion units per patient (SMD = -0.15, 95% CI -0.54 to 0.25), complications (OR = 0.75, 95% CI 0.37 to 1.55), and length of stay (SMD = -0.01, 95% CI -0.11 to 0.08).

Conclusions

Our results suggest that the effect of TXA is not superior to EACA in TKA. However, this conclusion still needs to be further confirmed by multicenter and large-sample clinical trials.

Severe antibody-mediated transfusion-related acute lung injury in an obstetric patient following transfusion of fresh frozen plasma from a non-transfused male blood donor

Transfusion-Related Acute Lung Injury (TRALI) has been associated with neutrophil reacting antibodies in transfused blood products. We report a case of life-threatening TRALI in an obstetric patient triggered by transfusion from a non-transfused male blood donor. A residual risk of TRALI exist, even in a male-only plasma setting.

Leukocyte-Reactive Antibodies in Female Blood Donors: The Austrian Experience

Introduction

Antibody-mediated transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is caused by antibodies against human leukocyte antigens (HLAs) or human neutrophil antigens (HNAs), and is one of the most serious complications associated with transfusion medicine. Prevention strategies like testing allo-exposed female blood donors have not yet been introduced nationwide in Austria. To assess the need and feasibility of routine leukocyte antibody testing, the prevalence of leukocyte-reactive antibodies in an Austrian female donor population was been determined using classical cell-based methods which were compared with a high-throughput bead-based method.

Methods

Sera from 1,022 female blood donors were screened using a granulocyte aggregation test (GAT) and a white blood cell immunofluorescence test (WIFT) after retesting and specification of positive samples by granulocyte immunofluorescence test (GIFT) and monoclonal antibody-specific immobilization of granulocyte antigens (MAIGA). Potential HLA reactivities were confirmed using the microbeads assay LabScreen^TM Mixed. The results in 142 donor sera and 38 well-defined reference sera were investigated by the microbeads assay LabScreen^TM Multi and compared with classical cell-based methods.

Results

Reactivity with either granulocytes and/or lymphocytes was detected in 79 sera (7.7%), with the majority being HLA-specific. Antibodies against HNA were obtained in 7 samples (0.7%). The aggregating potential of the detected antibodies was observed in 9 cases (0.9%). Most of the leukocyte-reactive antibodies occurred at a donor age of between 35 and 59 years (n = 61). LabScreen Multi showed good agreement (κ = 0.767) for HNA antibody detection by cell-based assays, but double/multiple specificities (100% of 7 anti-HNA-1b sera) as well as false-negative results (40% of 15 HNA-3-specific sera) occurred.

Discussion

Leukocyte-reactive antibody screening is advised in Austrian female donors for safe blood transfusion, including single-donor convalescent plasma treatment of COVID-19 that may be implemented soon. For the introduction of LabScreen Multi, the combination with GAT should be considered to ensure correct anti-HNA-3a detection.

The Association of Increased FFP:RBC Transfusion Ratio to Primary Graft Dysfunction in Bleeding Lung Transplantation Patients

OBJECTIVES

Lung transplantation is associated with a significant risk of needed transfusion. Although algorithm-based transfusion strategies that promote a high fresh frozen plasma:red blood cells (FFP:RBC) ratio have reduced overall blood product requirements in other populations, large-volume transfusions have been linked to primary graft dysfunction (PGD) in lung transplantation, particularly use of platelets and plasma. The authors hypothesized that in lung transplant recipients requiring large-volume transfusions, a higher FFP:RBC ratio would be associated with increased PGD severity at 72 hours.

DESIGN

Observational retrospective review.

SETTING

Single tertiary academic center.

PARTICIPANTS

Adult patients undergoing bilateral or single orthotopic lung transplantation and receiving >4 U PRBC in the first 72 hours from February 2014 to March 2019.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Patient demographics, operative characteristics, blood transfusions, and outcomes including PGD scores and length of stay were collected. Eighty-nine patients received >4U PRBC, had available 72-hour PGD data, and were included in the study. These patients were grouped into a high-ratio (>1:2 units of FFP:RBC, N = 38) or low-ratio group (<1:2 units of FFP:RBC, N = 51). Patients in the high-ratio group received more transfusions and factor concentrates and had significantly longer case length. The high-ratio group had a higher rate of severe PGD at 72 hours (60.5% v 23.5%, p = 0.0013) and longer hospital length of stay (40 v 32 days, p = 0.0273).

CONCLUSIONS

In bleeding lung transplantation patients at high risk for PGD, a high FFP:RBC transfusion ratio was associated with worsened 72-hour PGD scores when compared with the low-ratio cohort.

Red-blood-cell manufacturing methods and storage solutions differentially induce pulmonary cell activation

Background and Objectives

Red‐blood‐cell (RBC) transfusion is associated with lung injury, which is further exacerbated by mechanical ventilation. Manufacturing methods of blood products differ globally and may play a role in the induction of pulmonary cell activation through alteration of the immunomodulatory property of the products. Here, the effect of different manufacturing methods on pulmonary cell activation was investigated in an in vitro model of mechanical ventilation.

Materials and Methods

Pulmonary type II cells were incubated with supernatant from fresh and old RBC products obtained via whole blood filtration (WBF), red cell filtration (RCF), apheresis‐derived (AD) or whole blood‐derived (WBD) methods. Lung cells were subjected to 25% stretch for 24 h. Controls were non‐stretched or non‐incubated cells.

Results

Fresh but not old AD products and WBF products induce lung cell production of pro‐inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which was not observed with WBD or RCF products. Effects were associated with an increased amount of platelet‐derived vesicles and an increased thrombin‐generating capacity. Mechanical stretching of lung cells induced more severe cell injury compared to un‐stretched controls, including alterations in the cytoskeleton, which was further augmented by incubation with AD products. In all read‐out parameters, RCF products seemed to induce less injury compared to the other products.

Conclusions

Our findings show that manufacturing methods of RBC products impact pulmonary cell activation, which may be mediated by the generation of vesicles in the product. We suggest RBC manufacturing method may be an important factor in understanding the association between RBC transfusion and lung injury.

Transfusion-Associated Circulatory Overload as a Result of Plasma Transfusion to Correct International Normalized Ratio Before an Invasive Procedure: A Case Report

Plasma transfusion is commonly used to correct elevated international normalized ratio (INR) before invasive procedures. A 54-year-old woman presented to the emergency department with abdominal pain. Workup revealed Streptococcus pneumoniae peritonitis. Her hospitalization was complicated by respiratory failure, fluid overload, atrial fibrillation, and acute kidney injury. Patient underwent 2 paracentesis (9 L removed). Four units of plasma were transfused to correct an INR of 3.0 (goal 1.5) for a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt procedure. INR remained at 1.9, and she developed acute pulmonary edema and died within 24 hours. Prothrombin complex concentrates may have been a more appropriate treatment option in this case.

Perioperative red blood cell transfusion in orofacial surgery

In the field of orofacial surgery, a red blood cell transfusion (RBCT) is occasionally required during double jaw and oral cancer surgery. However, the question remains whether the effect of RBCT during the perioperative period is beneficial or harmful. The answer to this question remains challenging. In the field of orofacial surgery, transfusion is performed for the purpose of oxygen transfer to hypoxic tissues and plasma volume expansion when there is bleeding. However, there are various risks, such as infectious complications (viral and bacterial), transfusion-related acute lung injury, ABO and non-ABO associated hemolytic transfusion reactions, febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reactions, transfusion associated graft-versus-host disease, transfusion associated circulatory overload, and hypersensitivity transfusion reaction including anaphylaxis and transfusion-related immune-modulation. Many studies and guidelines have suggested RBCT is considered when hemoglobin levels recorded are 7 g/dL for general patients and 8-9 g/dL for patients with cardiovascular disease or hemodynamically unstable patients. However, RBCT is occasionally an essential treatment during surgeries and it is often required in emergency cases. We need to comprehensively consider postoperative bleeding, different clinical situations, the level of intra- and postoperative patient monitoring, and various problems that may arise from a transfusion, in the perspective of patient safety. Since orofacial surgery has an especially high risk of bleeding due to the complex structures involved and the extensive vascular distribution, measures to prevent bleeding should be taken and the conditions for a transfusion should be optimized and appropriate in order to promote patient safety.

Antibodies to major histocompatibility complex class II antigens directly prime neutrophils and cause acute lung injury in a two-event in vivo rat model

BACKGROUND

Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is a significant cause of mortality, especially after transfusions containing antibodies to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II antigens. We hypothesize that a first event induces both 1) polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) to express MHC class II antigens, and 2) activation of the pulmonary endothelium, leading to PMN sequestration, so that the infusion of specific MHC class II antibodies to these antigens causes PMN-mediated acute lung injury (ALI).

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Rats were treated with saline (NS), endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide [LPS]), or cytokines (interferon-γ [IFNγ], macrophage colony-stimulating factor [MCSF], tumor necrosis factor-α [TNFα]); the PMNs were isolated; and the surface expression of the MHC class II antigen OX6 and priming by OX6 antibodies were measured by flow cytometry or priming assays.

RESULTS

A two-event model of ALI was completed with NS, LPS, or IFNγ/MCSF/TNFα (first events) and the infusion of OX6 (second event). Compared with NS incubation, rats treated with either LPS or IFNγ/MCSF/TNFα exhibited OX6 PMN surface expression, OX6 antibodies primed the formyl-methionyl-leucyl phenylalanine (fMLF)-activated respiratory burst, and PMN sequestration was increased. OX6 antibody infusion into LPS-incubated or IFNγ/MCSF/TNFα-incubated rats elicited ALI, the OX6 antibody was present on the PMNs, and PMN depletion abrogated ALI.

CONCLUSION

Proinflammatory first events induce PMN MHC class II surface expression, activation of the pulmonary endothelium, and PMN sequestration such that the infusion of cognate antibodies precipitates TRALI.

Hair Cell Loss, Spiral Ganglion Degeneration, and Progressive Sensorineural Hearing Loss in Mice with Targeted Deletion of Slc44a2/Ctl2

SLC44A2 (solute carrier 44a2), also known as CTL2 (choline transporter-like protein 2), is expressed in many supporting cell types in the cochlea and is implicated in hair cell survival and antibody-induced hearing loss. In mice with the mixed C57BL/6-129 background, homozygous deletion of Slc44a2 exons 3–10 (Slc44a2^Δ/Δ) resulted in high-frequency hearing loss and hair cell death. To reduce effects associated with age-related hearing loss (ARHL) in these strains, mice carrying the Slc44a2^Δ allele were backcrossed to the ARHL-resistant FVB/NJ strain and evaluated after backcross seven (N7) (99 % FVB). Slc44a2^Δ/Δ mice produced abnormally spliced Slc44a2 transcripts that contain a frameshift and premature stop codons. Neither full-length SLC44A2 nor a putative truncated protein could be detected in Slc44a2^Δ/Δ mice, suggesting a likely null allele. Auditory brain stem responses (ABRs) of mice carrying the Slc44a2^Δ allele on an FVB/NJ genetic background were tested longitudinally between the ages of 2 and 10 months. By 6 months of age, Slc44a2^Δ/Δ mice exhibited hearing loss at 32 kHz, but at 12 and 24 kHz had sound thresholds similar to those of wild-type Slc44a2^+/+ and heterozygous +/Slc44a2^Δ mice. After 6 months of age, Slc44a2^Δ/Δ mutants exhibited progressive hearing loss at all frequencies and +/Slc44a2^Δ mice exhibited moderate threshold elevations at high frequency. Histologic evaluation of Slc44a2^Δ/Δ mice revealed extensive hair cell and spiral ganglion cell loss, especially in the basal turn of the cochlea. We conclude that Slc44a2 function is required for long-term hair cell survival and maintenance of hearing.

Heterogeneity of Human Neutrophil CD177 Expression Results from CD177P1 Pseudogene Conversion

Most humans harbor both CD177neg and CD177pos neutrophils but 1-10% of people are CD177null, placing them at risk for formation of anti-neutrophil antibodies that can cause transfusion-related acute lung injury and neonatal alloimmune neutropenia. By deep sequencing the CD177 locus, we catalogued CD177 single nucleotide variants and identified a novel stop codon in CD177null individuals arising from a single base substitution in exon 7. This is not a mutation in CD177 itself, rather the CD177null phenotype arises when exon 7 of CD177 is supplied entirely by the CD177 pseudogene (CD177P1), which appears to have resulted from allelic gene conversion. In CD177 expressing individuals the CD177 locus contains both CD177P1 and CD177 sequences. The proportion of CD177hi neutrophils in the blood is a heritable trait. Abundance of CD177hi neutrophils correlates with homozygosity for CD177 reference allele, while heterozygosity for ectopic CD177P1 gene conversion correlates with increased CD177neg neutrophils, in which both CD177P1 partially incorporated allele and paired intact CD177 allele are transcribed. Human neutrophil heterogeneity for CD177 expression arises by ectopic allelic conversion. Resolution of the genetic basis of CD177null phenotype identifies a method for screening for individuals at risk of CD177 isoimmunisation.

Allelic Discrimination by TaqMan-PCR for Genotyping of Human Neutrophil Antigens

Neutrophil antigens are implicated in a variety of clinical conditions, including neonatal immune neutropenia, transfusion-related acute lung injury, refractoriness to granulocyte transfusions, febrile transfusion reactions, and autoimmune neutropenia. In this report, we describe simultaneous genotyping of human neutrophil antigens (HNA)-1, -3, -4, and -5 using PCR with allele-specific TaqMan probes and end-point fluorescence detection, which is a robust, rapid, and reproducible method, allowing for high-throughput genotyping.

Is solvent/detergent plasma better than standard fresh-frozen plasma? A systematic review and an expert consensus document

BACKGROUND

Only a few studies have compared solvent/detergent plasma (SD-plasma) to standard fresh-frozen plasma (FFP) in terms of efficacy and safety.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A systematic review was performed in order to develop a consensus document on the use of SD-plasma. Moreover, a pharmacoeconomic study was performed in order to assess whether the use of SD-plasma can be cost-effective with respect to the use of FFP. A multidisciplinary panel used the systematic review and the GRADE methodology to develop evidence-based recommendations on this topic.

RESULTS

Based on moderate to very low quality evidence, the panel developed the following consensus statements: (i) the panel suggested that SD-plasma is safer than FFP; (ii) the panel could not express for or against a greater efficacy of SD-plasma as compared to FFP; (iii) the panel suggested that in patients undergoing liver transplantation SD-plasma can be preferred over FFP; (iv) the panel suggested that SD-plasma can be preferred over FFP in patients with thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura undergoing plasma-exchange procedures; (v) the panel could not recommend for or against preferring SD-plasma over FFP in critical care patients; and (vi) the panel suggested that the use of SD-plasma can be cost-effective with respect to the use of FFP.

DISCUSSION

Data from additional randomised studies are needed to establish more definitive guidelines on the use of SD-plasma.

HNA antibody-mediated neutrophil aggregation is dependent on serine protease activity

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is often caused by antibodies against human neutrophil alloantigen-2 (HNA-2) and HNA-3a. Neutrophil aggregation is considered as a major cause of TRALI, but little is known about how HNA antibodies initiate this process. We explored mechanisms involved in neutrophil aggregation induced by HNA-2 and HNA-3a antibodies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Isolated neutrophils were pretreated with broad-spectrum or specific inhibitors against different cell functions or proteases. Granulocyte agglutination test (GAT) was performed with serially diluted anti-HNA-2 and anti-HNA-3a plasmas or control plasma, and reactivity was evaluated microscopically. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in neutrophils was investigated using a lucigenin-based chemiluminescence assay.

RESULTS

HNA-2 and HNA-3a antibody-mediated neutrophil aggregation was inhibited by pretreatment with formaldehyde, iodoacetamide and the serine protease inhibitors Pefabloc-SC, N-p-tosyl-L-phenylalanine chloromethyl ketone (TPCK) and Nα-tosyl-L-lysine chloromethyl ketone hydrochloride (TLCK). In contrast, inhibition of actin polymerization, respiratory burst, cysteine proteases, metalloproteases or aspartic proteases did not affect neutrophil aggregation. Furthermore, HNA-3a antibodies did not directly cause ROS production in neutrophils.

CONCLUSION

Aggregation of neutrophils induced by HNA-2 and HNA-3a antibodies is an active process and depends on trypsin- or chymotrypsin-like serine proteases but is not dependent on the production of ROS. These findings may open new prospects for the pharmacologic prevention of neutrophil-associated acute lung injury.

Anemia and Transfusion in Critical Care

Objective:

The objective of this report is to review the physiology and management of anemia in critical care. Selected publications on physiology and transfusion related to anemia and critical care, including the modern randomized trials of conservative versus liberal transfusion policy, were used. Anemia is compensated and tolerated in most critically ill patients as long as oxygen delivery is at least twice oxygen consumption. There are risks to blood transfusion which can be minimized by blood banking practice. The availability of cultured red cells may allow correction of anemia without significant risk. The benefit of transfusion in anemia must be weighted against the risk in any specific patient.

Conclusion and Recommendation:

In a criticially ill patient, anemia should be managed to avoid oxygen supply dependency (oxygen delivery less than twice comsumption) and to maintain moderate oxygen delivery reserve (DO2/VO2 > 3).

Detection of granulocyte-reactive antibodies: a comparison of different methods

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Granulocyte-reactive antibodies can cause autoimmune and neonatal immune neutropenias as well as transfusion-related acute lung injury. The classical antibody-detection methods granulocyte aggregation test (GAT), granulocyte immunofluorescence test (GIFT) and monoclonal antibody-specific immobilization of granulocyte antigens (MAIGA) are time-consuming and technically challenging. In recent years, flow cytometric white blood cell immunofluorescence test (Flow-WIFT) and the microbeads assay LabScreen® Multi have emerged and are still subject of evaluation. These serological tests were compared on a screening and specification level.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For screening, the combination of GAT/GIFT was compared to Flow-WIFT testing 333 samples. Positive samples were further analysed with MAIGA and LabScreen® Multi.

RESULTS

Granulocyte aggregation test/GIFT detected 77 positive samples, Flow-WIFT found 108 granulocyte-reactive samples. Six Samples were only positive in GAT/GIFT, and 37 samples were only positive in Flow-WIFT (κ = 0.682). Antibody specification with MAIGA and the microbeads assay confirmed granulocyte-reactivity in 83 cases with 70 matching results (κ = 0.742). However, out of six detected human neutrophil antigen (HNA) reactivities only two specificities matched in both assays.

CONCLUSION

Flow-WIFT may be a valuable addition to GIFT for granulocyte-reactive antibody screening. MAIGA remains the most reliable laboratory method for antibody specification.

Spotlight on pathogenesis of TRALI: HNA-3a (CTL2) antibodies

Human neutrophil antigen-3a (HNA-3a) antibodies contained in donor plasma can result in severe, sometimes fatal transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI). Recent developments in TRALI secondary to antibodies to HNA-3a antigen span diagnosis, pathophysiology, treatment, and prevention resulting in improved understanding, potential treatments, and mitigation strategies. First, on the molecular level, characterization of HNA-3 antigen has allowed for genotyping methods that clarify population prevalence. Related work has led to generation of multiple antibody detection assays. These assays aid in determining potential populations at risk and potential mitigation strategies. Second, the development of TRALI requires a hit from the patient and from the product. Anti-HNA-3a is one of the product-derived factors and appears to result in TRALI by binding directly to pulmonary endothelium as well as to neutrophils expressing the corresponding antigen. Finally, potential mitigation strategies include red blood cell product filtration to remove anti-HNA-3a as well as other antibodies.

Low incidence of hyperfibrinolysis and thromboembolism in 195 primary liver transplantations transfused with solvent/detergent-treated plasma

BACKGROUND

Liver transplantation regularly requires transfusion of red blood cells (RBCs), plasma, and platelets. Compared to fresh frozen plasma (FFP) from single blood donors, solvent/detergent-treated plasma (SD-plasma) pooled from several hundred blood donors has advantages with respect to pathogen reduction, standardized content of plasma proteins, and significantly reduced risk of transfusion related lung injury and allergic/immunologic adverse reactions. However, SD-plasma has been suspected to increase the incidence of hyperfibrinolysis and thromboembolic events.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

We investigated the transfusion practices, hyperfibrinolysis parameters, and thrombosis outcomes in 195 consecutive adult primary liver transplants in our center using SD-plasma (Octaplas) as the exclusive source of plasma.

RESULTS

Perioperatively, median (interquartile range) 4 (1 to 9) RBC-units, 10 (4 to 18) plasma-bags, and 0 (0 to 2) platelet-units were transfused. Hyperfibrinolysis defined as LY30 ≤ 7.5% was detected in 12/138 thrombelastography-monitored patients (9%). These patients received significantly more RBCs, plasma, and platelets than did patients without hyperfibrinolysis. Thrombotic graft complications were observed in three patients (2%). Pulmonary embolism was not observed in any patient.

CONCLUSION

SD-plasma is a safe plasma product for liver transplant recipients, and the incidences of hyperfibrinolysis and thromboembolic events are not significantly different from those seen in centers using FFP.

Analysis of leucocyte antibodies, cytokines, lysophospholipids and cell microparticles in blood components implicated in post-transfusion reactions with dyspnoea

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Post-transfusion reactions with dyspnoea (PTR) are major causes of morbidity and death after blood transfusion. Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) and transfusion-associated circulatory overload (TACO) are most dangerous, while transfusion-associated dyspnoea (TAD) is a milder respiratory distress. We investigated blood components for immune and non-immune factors implicated in PTR.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We analysed 464 blood components (RBCs, PLTs, L-PLTs, FFP) transfused to 271 patients with PTR. Blood components were evaluated for 1/antileucocyte antibodies, 2/cytokines: IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, sCD40L, 3/lysophosphatidylcholines (LysoPCs), 4/microparticles (MPs) shed from plateletes (PMPs), erythrocytes (EMPs) and leucocytes (LMPs).

RESULTS

Anti-HLA class I/II antibodies or granulocyte-reactive anti-HLA antibodies were detected in 18.2% of blood components (RBC and FFP) transfused to TRALI and in 0.5% of FFP transfused to TAD cases. Cytokines and LysoPCs concentrations in blood components transfused to PTR patients did not exceed those in blood components transfused to patients with no PTR. Only EMPs percentage in RBCs transfused to patients with TRALI was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than in RBCs transfused to patients with no PTR.

CONCLUSION

Immune character of PTR was confirmed mainly in 1/5 TRALI cases. Among non-immune factors, only MPs released from stored RBCs are suggested as potential mediators of TRALI. Our results require further observations in a more numerous and better defined group of patients.

Novel swine model of transfusion-related acute lung injury

BACKGROUND

Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is a life-threatening complication of blood transfusion. Antibodies against human leukocyte antigens in donors' plasma are the major causes of TRALI. Several animal models of TRALI have been developed, and the mechanism underlying TRALI development has been extensively investigated using rodent models. Although sheep models of nonimmune TRALI have been developed, large-animal models of antibody-mediated TRALI are not yet available.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

To develop a swine model of TRALI, male Clawn strain miniature pigs were used. A monoclonal antibody (MoAb) against swine leukocyte antigens (SLAs) Class I (4G8, 0.3 or 1.0 mg/kg body weight [BW]) and a control antibody (1.0 mg/kg BW) were injected into the peripheral vein after priming with or without 1 μg/kg BW lipopolysaccharide (LPS; n = 3 each). Lung injury was assessed using PaO2 /FiO2 (P/F) ratio and by chest X-ray imaging. Histopathologic analysis was also conducted.

RESULTS

Lung injury could be induced by injecting 4G8 at an amount of 1.0 mg/kg BW, after LPS. The P/F ratio 90 minutes after the administration of 4G8 significantly decreased (p < 0.05). Bilateral infiltration was shown in chest X-ray imaging. Lung injury was confirmed by histopathologic analysis.

CONCLUSION

Lung injury in pigs was successfully induced by anti-SLA MoAb. Priming with LPS is a prerequisite for inducing lung injury and the amount of the antibody is a critical condition.

Heme-related molecules induce rapid production of neutrophil extracellular traps

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary endothelial cell damages caused by neutrophil overactivation could result in acute lung injuries including transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI). We previously reported that heme-related molecules derived from hemolysis induced the production of reactive oxygen species from neutrophils. Recently, neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) have been demonstrated to associate with the onset of TRALI.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

In this study, neutrophils' morphologic changes induced by the heme-related molecule hemin were confirmed to be NETs via confocal laser scanning microscopy and electron microscopy (EM). Additionally, concentrations of hemin in red blood cell (RBC) components were measured via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and possible contribution of these molecules to the onset of TRALI was discussed.

RESULTS

SYTOX green staining observation via confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that neutrophil morphology changed rapidly upon addition of hemin. The nuclei began to be enlarged and become segmented after 5 minutes, and NET-like structures were released from neutrophils after 15 minutes. In EM observation, NET-like structures appeared after 10 minutes and the nucleoplasm was partially separated from the nuclear membrane, which were consistent with the features of NET formation. These structures stained positively for both myeloperoxidase and histone H3 antibodies.

CONCLUSION

Thus, our results suggest that hemin induced NETs in 15 minutes, a quicker reaction than NET induction by phorbol myristate acetate requiring 3 hours. Moreover, since RBC components, especially those with long-term storage, contained sufficient hemin concentration to induce NETs, special attention to hemolysis of stored RBC components is important.

Genotyping of human neutrophil antigens by polymerase chain reaction sequence-based typing

BACKGROUND

Genotyping for human neutrophil antigen (HNA) systems is required in the investigation of disorders involving alloimmunisation to HNA. We established a polymerase chain reaction sequence-based typing method for genotyping HNA and determined the genotype and allele frequencies of HNA in the Zhejiang Han population of China.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Four hundred, healthy unrelated Zhejiang Han individuals were recruited. Specific primers for HNA were designed and the polymerase chain reaction amplification conditions were optimised. Amplification amplicons were purified with enzyme digestion and then sequenced.

RESULTS

The frequencies of the FCGR3B*01 and FCGR3B*02 alleles were 0.613 and 0.387; no FCGR3B*03 allele was found. The frequencies of the SLC44A2*1 and SLC44A2*2 alleles were 0.654 and 0.346, respectively, while the frequencies of the ITGAL*1 (HNA-5a) and ITGAL*2 (HNA-5b) alleles were 0.896 and 0.104. Only ITGAM*1 (HNA-4a) allele was found in this study. Six single nucleotide polymorphisms were confirmed on sequenced regions separate from HNA polymorphisms, including FCGR3B (IVS3+39G>A and IVS3+52G>A), CD177(172A>G), SLC44A2 (IVS5-44A>G and IVS7-15T>C) and ITGAM (IVS3+118T>C).

DISCUSSION

The polymerase chain reaction sequence-based typing method for genotyping HNA is reliable. These data of HNA alleles frequencies could contribute to the analysis of alloimmunisation to HNA in China.

Transfusion-related acute lung injury: advances in understanding the role of proinflammatory mediators in its genesis

Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is the most common cause of serious morbidity and mortality due to hemotherapy. The pathogenesis is the result of two events: the first related to the recipient's clinical condition, predisposing to acute lung injury (ALI) through neutrophil or polymorphonuclear leukocyte sequestration, and the second being the infusion of antibodies or mediators that activate these adherent polymorphonuclear neutrophils, resulting in endothelial damage, capillary leak and ALI. TRALI is most prevalent in the critically ill, although many of these cases are termed ALI. Although mitigation strategies, such as the use of male-only plasma, have decreased the number of TRALI cases and deaths, TRALI still occurs. This review will detail the pathophysiology of TRALI, provide insight into newer areas of research and critically assess current practices to mitigate TRALI and improve transfusion safety.

Neutrophils contain cholesterol crystals in transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI)

OBJECTIVES

Intracellular components of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) were investigated by transmission electron microscopy.

METHODS

The lungs from 2 fatal TRALI cases and 2 controls, previously studied by scanning electron microscopy, were studied by transmission electron microscopy. Morphologic data by light and phase microscopy, along with scanning and transmission electron microscopic observations, were collated.

RESULTS

The 2 fatal TRALI cases exhibited dense laminated material within capillaries and postcapillary venules, similar to material identified within their neutrophils when viewed by transmission electron microscopy. This material polarized light and is presumed to be cholesterol crystals.

CONCLUSIONS

The damage to the pulmonary vascular endothelium in TRALI is related to formation of cholesterol crystals originating within neutrophils.

Human neutrophil antigen-3a antibodies induce neutrophil aggregation in a plasma-free medium

BACKGROUND

Antibodies against the human neutrophil alloantigen-3a (HNA-3a) are involved in severe cases of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI), but the susceptibility of patients towards HNA-3a antibody differs largely. HNA-3a antibodies induce granulocyte aggregation. However, it is unresolved whether plasma proteins are required for granulocyte aggregation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We investigated whether HNA-3a-antibody-induced aggregation of polymorphonuclear cells is dependent on plasma factors by using and modifying the granulocyte agglutination test (GAT).

RESULTS

Polymorphonuclear cells homozygous for HNA-3a did not aggregate when incubated with HNA-3a antibodies in a plasma-protein-free GAT setup. When the GAT was performed using polymorphonuclear cells re-suspended in phosphate-buffered saline containing proteins, HNA-3-mediated aggregation was observed. Moreover, using Tween® 20 for blocking the plates, reconstituted the granulocyte aggregation in a protein-free medium. This indicates that granulocyte aggregation probably occurs by direct granulocyte-granulocyte interaction(s) or is mediated by substances released by neutrophils after activation.

DISCUSSION

Granulocyte aggregation induced by HNA-3a antibodies does not require human plasma proteins. Interindividual variability in the response to HNA-3a antibodies does not depend on differences in patient's plasma proteins.

Human neutrophil antibodies in a blood donor population: a lookback study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Human neutrophil antibodies (HNA) have been associated with severe transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI). We identified HNA antibodies in a blood donor population and performed an observational lookback on patients who received products from these donors to determine whether TRALI was associated with these transfusions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

  Human neutrophil antibodies were determined in 1171 blood donors (388 non-transfused males, 390 human leucocyte antigen (HLA) antibody-negative females and 393 HLA antibody-positive females) for IgG and IgM antibodies using a flow cytometric assay. Selected positive samples had a monoclonal antibody immobilization of granulocyte antigen (MAIGA) and neutrophil genotyping performed to confirm specificity. Lookback was performed on patients receiving blood from donors with positive samples by extracting recipient data from hospital medical records. An expert panel of three pulmonary critical care physicians reviewed the summarized data and assigned a diagnosis of TRALI, possible TRALI, cannot distinguish between TRALI and TACO, TACO and other.

RESULTS

Eight donors had HNA antibodies of which five contributed to this lookback (3-HNA-specific antibodies, 2-HNA non-specific antibodies). Seventy-six blood products were transfused from these donors into individual patients. One patient developed TRALI that was associated with a donor with a non-specific HNA antibody as well as class-I and class-II HLA antibodies.

CONCLUSION

The incidence of TRALI in this lookback was low and combined with low frequency of HNA antibodies in the donor population suggests not screening donors for HNA antibodies at this time is acceptable.

Adverse effects of plasma transfusion

Plasma utilization has increased over the past two decades, and there is a growing concern that many plasma transfusions are inappropriate. Plasma transfusion is not without risk, and certain complications are more likely with plasma than other blood components. Clinical and laboratory investigations of the patients suffering reactions after infusion of fresh-frozen plasma (FFP) define the etiology and pathogenesis of the panoply of adverse effects. We review here the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management of the risks associated with plasma transfusion. Risks commonly associated with FFP include: 1) transfusion-related acute lung injury, 2) transfusion-associated circulatory overload, and 3) allergic and/or anaphylactic reactions. Other less common risks include 1) transmission of infections, 2) febrile nonhemolytic transfusion reactions, 3) red blood cell alloimmunization, and 4) hemolytic transfusion reactions. The effects of pathogen inactivation or reduction methods on these risks are also discussed. Fortunately, a majority of the adverse effects are not lethal and are adequately treated in clinical practice.

Morphological and flow-cytometric analysis of haemin-induced human neutrophil activation: implications for transfusion-related acute lung injury

BACKGROUND

Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is associated with vascular endothelial cell injury following neutrophil activation. Recently, it has been suggested that haem-related molecules induce activation of neutrophils and that erythrocyte-derived substances contained in blood preparations are involved in TRALI. We observed the morphological effects and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production of haem-related molecules and investigated the effects of signal transduction inhibitors on haem-induced neutrophil activation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The polymorphonuclear cell fraction was isolated and stimulated using a control stimulant, PMA or fMLP, or by haem-related molecules, haemin, ferric citrate, or protoporphyrin IX. After stimulation, neutrophil was analysed using electron microscopy, a flowcytometer (FCM) and confocal laser scanning microscope to determine the fluorescent intensity of aminophenyl fluorescein (to detect ROS).

RESULTS

In FCM analysis, haemin and protoporphyrin IX, both of which have a porphyrin ring, induced ROS production in neutrophils. Ferric citrate, which has no porphyrin ring, did not induce neutrophil activation. Haemin alone induced ROS production at relatively high concentrations, whereas low-level fMLP acted as an agonist in the presence of low concentrations of haemin. Haem-related molecules induced ROS production in neutrophil granules through signal transduction in a way similar to PMA. However, in electron microscopy studies, haemin stimulated neutrophils showed minute process at their surface and did not show the vacuolation observable following stimulation with PMA or fMLP.

DISCUSSION

We suggest that low concentrations of haem-related molecules with porphyrin rings in the presence of other stimulating agent are important for ROS production and possibly the onset of TRALI. The ROS production induced by these molecules is dependent on a signal transduction pathway in a way similar to PMA.

A threshold model for the susceptibility to transfusion-related acute lung injury

Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is a serious, often life-threatening pulmonary transfusion reaction characterized by non-cardiogenic lung oedema, hypoxemia and respiratory distress in temporal association with blood transfusion. The critical mechanism in TRALI is the sudden increase in permeability of the pulmonary endothelium and the subsequent, often extensive shift of fluid into the alveolae. The rapid clinical recovery seen in most patients makes it likely that this is a temporary phenomenon. Reactive oxygen species released by neutrophils or other cells are attractive candidate mediators of this process. There is experimental and clinical evidence that several pathways can induce barrier breakdown in TRALI, a concept known as the threshold model of TRALI. Surprisingly, neutrophils may not always be required. Other cells may play a role as multipliers or attenuators of TRALI, depending on recipient-related and transfusion-related factors involved. This review will summarize recent findings on pathophysiology, with a focus on newly discovered or disenchanted recipient-related and transfusion-related risk factors for TRALI and will present the threshold model of TRALI as a unifying concept on how TRALI develops.

FCGR3B allele frequencies in Tunisians of sub-Saharan origin

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The importance of human neutrophil antigens (HNA) in immunogenetics and their involvement in hematologic diseases have accelerated the elucidation of their molecular basis and their allele frequencies distribution has been described in many populations over the world. In this study, our aim was to evaluate the frequency of FCGR3B alleles encoding HNA-1a, 1b and 1c among Tunisians of sub-Saharan origin and to compare them to Tunisian blood donors and to a group from sub-Saharan Africa.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We typed the DNA of 106 individuals (62 Tunisians of sub-Saharan origin, 33 Tunisian blood donors and 11 from sub-Saharan Africa) for the three FCGR3B alleles by polymerase chain reaction using sequence specific primer (PCR-SSP).

RESULTS

FCGR3B*1, FCGR3B*2 and FCGR3B*3 allele frequencies were respectively 0.347, 0.573 and 0.080 among Tunisians of sub-Saharan origin, 0.379, 0.591 and 0.030 among Tunisian blood donors and 0.318, 0.546 and 0.136 among the group from sub-Saharan Africa.

CONCLUSION

These allele frequencies were similar to those previously reported in other black and white populations. The frequencies found in the two Tunisian groups confirm the intermixing origin from Europe, sub-Africa and Asia of the Tunisian population. Our results provide a database for future studies of the HNA system and associated diseases in Tunisia.

Perioperative Red Blood Cell Transfusion: Harmful or Beneficial to the Patient?

Although the transfusion of red blood cells (RBCs) is safer than ever regarding infections, it is still associated with several adverse reactions and therefore should only be used on the basis of evidence-based triggers. However, prevention of RBC transfusion and subsequent substitution of blood losses with acellular solutions will inevitably result in dilutional anemia. Acute dilutional anemia can be compensated by the body over a wide range of hemoglobin concentrations without a critical restriction of tissue oxygenation. On the other hand, chronic anemia is known to be a potent cause of morbidity and mortality. As a consequence, the impact of perioperative anemia on mortality is difficult to describe, because anemia, as well as the transfusion of RBCs, can influence the clinical outcome. The resulting 'Gordian knot' cannot be cut easily, and this circumstance forces clinical physicians to make a daily trade-off between transfusion-associated and anemia-associated risks. This review focuses on the physiology of oxygen transport, the hazards of acute anemia, the hazards of RBC transfusion, and the literature putting these problems into perspective.

Implementation and outcomes of a transfusion-related acute lung injury surveillance programme and study of HLA/HNA alloimmunisation in blood donors

BACKGROUND

Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is the leading cause of transfusion-associated mortality. Antibodies against human leucocyte antigens (HLA) and human neutrophil antigens (HNA) are often detected in the implicated donors. We investigated the incidence and aetiology of TRALI in Lombardy. Moreover, we determined the rate of HLA and HNA alloimmunisation and the HNA genotype in a cohort of local blood donors.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

During a 2-year observational study in eight blood transfusion services, suspected TRALI cases were collected and characterised by means of HLA and HNA antibody screening of implicated donors, donor/recipient cross-matching and HLA/HNA molecular typing. In addition, 406 Italian donors were evaluated for alloimmunisation and in 102 of them HNA gene frequencies were determined.

RESULTS

Eleven cases were referred to the central laboratory, of whom three were diagnosed as having TRALI, seven as having possible TRALI and one as having transfusion-associated circulatory overload. Seven TRALI cases were immune-mediated whereas in three we did not find either alloantibodies in implicated donors or a positive reaction in the cross-match. The most frequently implicated blood component was red blood cells (in 5 males and in 1 female), whereas four cases of TRALI were associated with transfusion of fresh-frozen plasma (in 3 females and in 1 male). The frequency of reported TRALI/possible TRALI cases was 1:82,000 for red blood cells and 1:22,500 for fresh-frozen plasma. No cases were observed for platelets. Overall, the frequency of HLA or HNA alloimmunisation in blood donors was 29% for females and 7% for males. The latter could be related, at least in part, to natural antibodies. HNA gene frequencies showed that HNA-1b is more frequent than HNA-1a in our sample of donors.

DISCUSSION

The recently adopted national policy to prevent TRALI, i.e. using only plasma donated by males, would have had a positive impact in our setting.

Frequencies of SLC44A2 alleles encoding human neutrophil antigen-3 variants in the African American population

BACKGROUND

The human neutrophil antigen-3 (HNA-3) epitopes reside on the choline transporter-like protein-2 (CTL2). A single-nucleotide substitution (461G>A; Arg154Gln) on the CTL2 gene (SLC44A2) defines the allele SLC44A2*1, which expresses HNA-3a, and SLC44A2*2, which expresses HNA-3b; an additional substitution (457C>T; Leu153Phe) in SLC44A2*1:2 may impact genotyping systems. People who only express HNA-3b may develop anti-HNA-3a. These alloantibodies have been linked to severe transfusion-related acute lung injury, which may be a reason to screen blood donors for SLC44A2*2 homozygosity. For Caucasian and Asian populations, SLC44A2 allele frequencies are known. Our primary objective was to determine the SLC44A2 allele frequencies in the African American population.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Purified DNA from 334 individuals (202 male, 132 female; 241 African American, 93 Caucasian) was collected. Two real-time polymerase chain reaction assays were developed to genotype all samples; results were confirmed by nucleotide sequencing.

RESULTS

In 241 African American donors, the allele frequency of SLC44A2*1 was 93% (85%-<100%; 95% confidence intervals, Poisson distribution) while SLC44A2*2 was 7% (5%-10%). In 93 Caucasian donors, the allele frequency of SLC44A2*1 was 83% (71%-98%) and SLC44A2*2 was 17% (11%-24%), matching previously reported data for Caucasians but differing from African Americans (p < 0.001, Fisher's exact test).

CONCLUSIONS

This study describes the allele frequencies of the three known HNA-3 variants in an African American population. We found that African Americans have a significantly lower probability of possessing the SLC44A2*2 allele and may thus be less likely to form the clinically relevant anti-HNA-3a.

Proteomic analyses of human plasma: Venus versus Mars

BACKGROUND

Plasma is vital for the resuscitation of injured patients and to restore necessary procoagulants, especially Factors (F)II, FV, FVII, FX, and FXIII; however, female plasma has been implicated in the majority of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) cases and male-only plasma transfusion regimens have significantly decreased the incidence of TRALI. Little is known about the human plasma proteome, and no comparisons have been made between male and female plasma; therefore, we hypothesize that there are significant differences between plasma from male and female donors.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Five units of fresh-frozen plasma each were collected from nulliparous female donors and male donors, and the proteome was analyzed by depleting the 14 most common proteins by immunoaffinity columns followed by protein separation by one dimension gel electrophoresis, tryptic digestion of the proteins, analysis of the peptides by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, and identification employing human protein sequence databases.

RESULTS

Female plasma versus male plasma contained pregnancy zone protein (419- to 580-fold), FV (twofold), α(1)-antitrypsin (twofold), β(2) -microglobulin (twofold), and Complement Factors H and C4B (1.5- to 2-fold) at significantly higher concentrations than males and males contained significant increases in Fc-binding protein (twofold), protein Z-dependent protease inhibitor (twofold), phosphatidylinositol glycan-specific phospholipase (fourfold), protein S-100 (threefold), and transgelin-2 (14-fold) versus females (p < 0.005). The increases in FV, α(1)-antitrypsin, and β(2)-microglobulin were confirmed by an activity assay or immunoblots.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that there are proteomic differences between male and female plasma, which could be exploited to improve clinical outcomes in transfused patients.

Lack of evidence of CD40 ligand involvement in transfusion-related acute lung injury

Activated platelets have been implicated in playing a major role in transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI), as platelets can trigger neutrophils, resulting in vascular damage. We hypothesized that binding of platelet CD40 ligand (CD40L) to endothelial CD40 is essential in the onset of TRALI. Mice were challenged with monoclonal major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-1 antibody which induced TRALI, evidenced by pulmonary oedema, accompanied by significantly elevated bronchoalveolar fluid (BALF) levels of total protein and elevated plasma levels of keratinocyte-derived chemokine (KC) and macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2) compared to infusion of isotype antibody (all Ps < 0·05). Treatment with ciglitazone, which inhibits platelet CD40L expression, had no effect on pulmonary and systemic inflammation compared to controls. In addition, treatment with anti-CD40L antibody, which antagonizes all CD40-CD40L interactions, also did not abrogate the TRALI reaction. Furthermore, levels of soluble CD40L were measured in a cohort of cardiac surgery patients, who were followed prospectively for the onset of TRALI after transfusion. Plasma levels of sCD40L at baseline and at time of developing TRALI did not differ between TRALI patients and controls (transfused cardiac surgery patients not developing acute lung injury) (275 ± 192 versus 258 ± 346 and 93 ± 82 versus 93 ± 123 pg/ml, respectively, not significant). In conclusion, these results do not support the idea that the CD40-CD40L interaction is involved in mediating TRALI.