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Shi Y, Kang J, Sommer W, Cao X. The development of processing second-order spatial relations of faces in Chinese preschoolers. J Exp Child Psychol 2023; 232:105678. [PMID: 37004264 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
Second-order relational information processing is the perception of the relative distance between facial features. Previous studies ignored the effect of different spatial manipulations on second-order sensitivity in face processing, and little is known about its developmental trajectory in East Asian populations, who have stronger holistic face processing than Western populations. We addressed these gaps in the literature through an experiment with four groups of Chinese preschool children (aged 3-6 years; n = 157) and a group of adults (n = 25). The participants were presented with face pairs displaying features with various spatial distance manipulations (Change 1: changes in the spacing between eyes; Change 2: nose-mouth spacing changes; Change 3: a combination of Changes 1 and 2) using a simultaneous two-alternative forced-choice task. Second-order sensitivity was already present in 3-year-old children across all manipulations and became more pronounced in 4-year-old children. Second-order sensitivity to the spatial distance between the eyes (i.e., Changes 1 and 3) among 4-year-olds was higher than that of 3-year-olds and was similar to that of adults, suggesting a key increase of this sensitivity from 3 to 4 years of age. Regarding the Change 2 condition, preschoolers aged 5 and 6 years had higher sensitivity than 3-year-olds; however, all preschoolers' sensitivity was inferior to that of adults. These findings show that the development of Chinese preschoolers' sensitivity for detecting spatial relations between the eyes might be faster than that for detecting nose-mouth spacing, supporting the importance of eyes in face processing.
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2
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Yeung SC, Sidhu J, Youn S, Schaefer HRH, Barton JJS, Corrow SL. The role of the upper and lower face in the recognition of facial identity in dynamic stimuli. Vision Res 2023; 206:108194. [PMID: 36801665 PMCID: PMC10085847 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2023.108194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
Studies with static faces find that upper face halves are more easily recognized than lower face halves-an upper-face advantage. However, faces are usually encountered as dynamic stimuli, and there is evidence that dynamic information influences face identity recognition. This raises the question of whether dynamic faces also show an upper-face advantage. The objective of this study was to examine whether familiarity for recently learned faces was more accurate for upper or lower face halves, and whether this depended upon whether the face was presented as static or dynamic. In Experiment 1, subjects learned a total of 12 faces--6 static images and 6 dynamic video-clips of actors in silent conversation. In experiment 2, subjects learned 12 faces, all dynamic video-clips. During the testing phase of Experiments 1 (between subjects) and 2 (within subjects), subjects were asked to recognize upper and lower face halves from either static images and/or dynamic clips. The data did not provide evidence for a difference in the upper-face advantage between static and dynamic faces. However, in both experiments, we found an upper-face advantage, consistent with prior literature, for female faces, but not for male faces. In conclusion, the use of dynamic stimuli may have little effect on the presence of an upper-face advantage, especially when the static comparison contains a series of static images, rather than a single static image, and is of sufficient image quality. Future studies could investigate the influence of face gender on the presence of an upper-face advantage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanna C Yeung
- Psychology Department, Bethel University, 3900 Bethel Drive, St Paul, MN 55112, Canada
| | - Jhunam Sidhu
- Psychology Department, Bethel University, 3900 Bethel Drive, St Paul, MN 55112, Canada
| | - Sena Youn
- Psychology Department, Bethel University, 3900 Bethel Drive, St Paul, MN 55112, Canada
| | - Heidi R H Schaefer
- Psychology Department, Bethel University, 3900 Bethel Drive, St Paul, MN 55112, Canada
| | - Jason J S Barton
- Psychology Department, Bethel University, 3900 Bethel Drive, St Paul, MN 55112, Canada
| | - Sherryse L Corrow
- Psychology Department, Bethel University, 3900 Bethel Drive, St Paul, MN 55112, Canada.
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3
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Balas B, Weigelt S, Koldewyn K. Configural properties of face portraits change between childhood and adulthood. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/01650254221111792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Adult observers are sensitive to the configuration of facial features within a face, able to distinguish between relative differences in feature spacing, and detecting deviations from typical facial appearance. How does the representation of the typical configuration of facial features develop? While there is a great deal of work describing children’s developing abilities to detect differences in feature spacing across face images, there is substantially less work examining what children think constitutes a typical arrangement of facial features. In the current study, we investigated this issue using a production task in which adults and 5- to 10-year-old children created a face “portrait” by arranging the eyes, nose, and mouth of a standard face within an empty outline. Using this simple task, we found differences in face configuration across age groups, such that children of all ages made far larger errors than adult participants, expanding facial features outward from the center of the face more than adults. These results were not affected by face inversion, potentially implying a domain-general rather than face-specific process. We also found that children of all ages endorsed the correct configuration as a best likeness in a perceptual task. We discuss these results in terms of ongoing debate regarding the extent to which configural processing is a meaningful component of face recognition and the conclusions we can draw from production paradigms as compared to purely perceptual tasks.
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4
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Blazhenkova O, Dogerlioglu-Demir K, Booth RW. Masked emotions: Do face mask patterns and colors affect the recognition of emotions? Cogn Res Princ Implic 2022; 7:33. [PMID: 35394218 PMCID: PMC8990494 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-022-00380-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research has shown that face masks impair the ability to perceive social information and the readability of emotions. These studies mostly explored the effect of standard medical, often white, masks on emotion recognition. However, in reality, many individuals prefer masks with different styles. We investigated whether the appearance of the mask (pattern: angular vs. curvy and color: black vs. white) affected the recognition of emotional states. Participants were asked to identify the emotions on faces covered by masks with different designs. The presence of masks resulted in decreasing accuracy and confidence and increasing reaction times, indicating that masks impair emotion recognition. There were no significant effects of angularity versus curvature or color on emotion recognition, which suggests that mask design may not impair the recognition beyond the effect of mere mask wearing. Besides, we found relationships between individual difference variables such as mask wearing attitudes, mask design preferences, individual traits and emotion recognition. The majority of participants demonstrated positive attitudes toward mask wearing and preferred non-patterned black and white masks. Preferences for white masks were associated with better emotion recognition of masked faces. In contrast, those with negative attitudes toward masks showed marginally poorer performance in emotion recognition for masked faces, and preferred patterned more than plain masks, perhaps viewing masks as a fashion item rather than a necessity. Moreover, preferences to wear patterned masks were negatively related to actual wearing of masks indoors and perceived risks of COVID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olesya Blazhenkova
- Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Sabanci University, Orta Mahalle, Üniversite Caddesi No:27, 34956, Tuzla-Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Kivilcim Dogerlioglu-Demir
- Sabanci Business School, Sabanci University, Orta Mahalle, Üniversite Caddesi No:27, 34956, Tuzla-Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Robert W Booth
- Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Sabanci University, Orta Mahalle, Üniversite Caddesi No:27, 34956, Tuzla-Istanbul, Turkey
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5
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Qu Z, Yang R, Gao L, Han Y, Su Y, Cui T, Zhang X. Social avoidance motivation tendency linked to face processing ability among 6- to 12-year-old children. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2022.101178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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6
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Ventura P, Guerreiro JC, Domingues M, Farinha-Fernandes A, Leite I. Children process faces holistically with the same efficiency as adults. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2021; 217:103309. [PMID: 33932857 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous studies had reported qualitatively identical holistic face processing (using the composite task) already in 6-year-olds. In the present study, we evaluated these processes quantitatively by evaluating whether children are less efficient in dealing with and encoding faces. Thus, in the present study we explored the time course of holistic processing in children and adults by manipulating stimulus presentation time. The study composite task was presented for 800 ms. The test composite face was presented either for 183 ms or 800 ms. Our youngest participants, 6-year-olds, process faces holistically with the same efficiency as typical adults.
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Fodarella C, Marsh JE, Chu S, Athwal-Kooner P, Jones HS, Skelton FC, Wood E, Jackson E, Frowd CD. The importance of detailed context reinstatement for the production of identifiable composite faces from memory. VISUAL COGNITION 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2021.1890292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Fodarella
- School of Psychology and Computer Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
| | - John E. Marsh
- School of Psychology and Computer Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
- Department of Business Administration, Technology and Social Sciences, Humans and Technology, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden
| | - Simon Chu
- School of Psychology and Computer Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
| | | | - Helen S. Jones
- School of Psychology and Computer Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
| | - Faye C. Skelton
- School of Applied Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Ellena Wood
- School of Psychology and Computer Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
| | - Elizabeth Jackson
- School of Psychology and Computer Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
| | - Charlie D. Frowd
- School of Psychology and Computer Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
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Balas B, Auen A, Thrash J, Lammers S. Children's use of local and global visual features for material perception. J Vis 2020; 20:10. [PMID: 32097486 PMCID: PMC7343528 DOI: 10.1167/jov.20.2.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Adults can rapidly recognize material properties in natural images, and children's performance in material categorization tasks suggests that this ability develops slowly during childhood. In the current study, we further examined the information children use to recognize materials during development by asking how the use of local versus global visual features for material perception changes in middle childhood. We recruited adults and 5- to 10-year-old children for three experiments that required participants to distinguish between shape-matched images of real and artificial food. Accurate performance in this task requires participants to distinguish between a wide range of material properties characteristic of each category, thus testing material perception abilities broadly. In two tasks, we applied distinct methods of image scrambling (block scrambling and diffeomorphic scrambling) to parametrically disrupt global appearance while preserving features in small spatial neighborhoods. In the third task, we used image blurring to parametrically disrupt local feature visibility. Our key question was whether or not participant age affected performance differently when local versus global appearance was disrupted. We found that although image blur led to disproportionately poorer performance in young children, this effect was reduced or absent when diffeomorphic scrambling was used. We interpret this outcome as evidence that the ability to recruit large-scale visual features for material perception may develop slowly during middle childhood.
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Testing a new lineup procedure with children: The elimination with wildcard. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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10
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Ventura P, Leite I, Fernandes T. The development of holistic face processing: An evaluation with the complete design of the composite task. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2018; 191:32-41. [PMID: 30195179 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Revised: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The composite paradigm is widely used to quantify holistic processing (HP) of faces: participants perform a sequential same-different task on one half (e.g., top) of a test-face relative to the corresponding half of a study-face. There is, however, debate regarding the appropriate design in this task. In the partial design, the irrelevant halves (e.g., bottom) of test- and study-faces are always different; an alignment effect indexes HP. In the complete design, besides alignment, congruency between the irrelevant and critical halves of the test-face is manipulated regarding the same/different response status of the study-face. The HP indexed in the complete design does not confound congruency and alignment and has good construct and convergent validities. De Heering, Houthuys, & Rossion (2007) argued that HP is mature as early as 4-year-olds but employed the partial design. Here we revisit this claim, testing four groups of 4- to 9/10 year-old children and two groups of adults. We found evidence of HP only from 6-year-olds on when considering the complete design, whereas significant alignment effects were found in the index adopted in the partial design already in 4-year-olds but which we demonstrate that reflects other factors besides HP, including response bias associated with congruency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Ventura
- CICPSI, Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa, Alameda da Cidade Universitária, 1649-013 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Isabel Leite
- Departamento de Psicologia, Universidade de Évora, Apartado 94, 7002-554 Évora, Portugal.
| | - Tânia Fernandes
- CICPSI, Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa, Alameda da Cidade Universitária, 1649-013 Lisboa, Portugal.
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11
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Petrakova A, Sommer W, Junge M, Hildebrandt A. Configural face perception in childhood and adolescence: An individual differences approach. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2018; 188:148-176. [PMID: 29940535 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive experimental and neuroscientific research in adults indicates that an important property of face perception is its specificity and reliance on configural processing. In addition, individual differences in face perception between adults cannot be entirely explained through general cognitive functioning and object cognition. Although recent years have witnessed growing interest in the development of face perception through childhood and adolescence, as yet, little is known about individual differences in configural face perception in this period of life, and whether these differences are face-specific. Here, we addressed these questions in a large sample (N = 338) drawn continuously from age six to 21. We applied a face composite task and a spatial manipulation task including stimulus inversion. Immediate and delayed face memory were assessed as covariates of configural face perception. Content specificity in configural face perception was tested by analogous tasks with houses as stimuli. In addition, we measured working memory and fluid intelligence. Our results show that there are large individual differences in configural face perception across the entire age range from six to 21 years. Supporting theories of early maturation, configural face perception was almost adult-like already at age six. Individual differences in configural face perception were related with immediate and delayed face memory and fluid intelligence across the whole age range. In sum, we provide novel evidence on large individual differences in configural face and object perception already in middle childhood, complementing findings from aging studies and providing new perspectives for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Petrakova
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany; Department of Psychology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Werner Sommer
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Junge
- Institute of Community Medicine, University Medicine of Greifswald, Germany
| | - Andrea Hildebrandt
- Department of Psychology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, Germany
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12
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Abstract
Boundary extension is a common false memory error, in which people confidently remember
seeing a wider angle view of the scene than was viewed. Previous research found that
boundary extension is scene-specific and did not examine this phenomenon in nonscenes. The
present research explored boundary extension in cropped face images. Participants
completed either a short-term or a long-term condition of the task. During the encoding,
they observed photographs of faces, cropped either in a forehead or in a chin area, and
subsequently performed face recognition through a forced-choice selection. The recognition
options represented different degrees of boundary extension and boundary restriction
errors. Eye-tracking and performance data were collected. The results demonstrated
boundary extension in both memory conditions. Furthermore, previous literature reported
the asymmetry in amounts of expansion at different sides of an image. The present work
provides the evidence of asymmetry in boundary extension. In the short-term condition,
boundary extension errors were more pronounced for forehead, than for chin face areas.
Finally, this research examined the relationships between the measures of boundary
extension, imagery, and emotion. The results suggest that individual differences in
emotional ability and object, but not spatial, imagery could be associated with boundary
extension in face processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olesya Blazhenkova
- Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Sabancı University, Istanbul, Turkey
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Development of Neural Sensitivity to Face Identity Correlates with Perceptual Discriminability. J Neurosci 2017; 36:10893-10907. [PMID: 27798143 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1886-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Face perception is subserved by a series of face-selective regions in the human ventral stream, which undergo prolonged development from childhood to adulthood. However, it is unknown how neural development of these regions relates to the development of face-perception abilities. Here, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to measure brain responses of ventral occipitotemporal regions in children (ages, 5-12 years) and adults (ages, 19-34 years) when they viewed faces that parametrically varied in dissimilarity. Since similar faces generate lower responses than dissimilar faces due to fMRI adaptation, this design objectively evaluates neural sensitivity to face identity across development. Additionally, a subset of subjects participated in a behavioral experiment to assess perceptual discriminability of face identity. Our data reveal three main findings: (1) neural sensitivity to face identity increases with age in face-selective but not object-selective regions; (2) the amplitude of responses to faces increases with age in both face-selective and object-selective regions; and (3) perceptual discriminability of face identity is correlated with the neural sensitivity to face identity of face-selective regions. In contrast, perceptual discriminability is not correlated with the amplitude of response in face-selective regions or of responses of object-selective regions. These data suggest that developmental increases in neural sensitivity to face identity in face-selective regions improve perceptual discriminability of faces. Our findings significantly advance the understanding of the neural mechanisms of development of face perception and open new avenues for using fMRI adaptation to study the neural development of high-level visual and cognitive functions more broadly. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Face perception, which is critical for daily social interactions, develops from childhood to adulthood. However, it is unknown what developmental changes in the brain lead to improved performance. Using fMRI in children and adults, we find that from childhood to adulthood, neural sensitivity to changes in face identity increases in face-selective regions. Critically, subjects' perceptual discriminability among faces is linked to neural sensitivity: participants with higher neural sensitivity in face-selective regions demonstrate higher perceptual discriminability. Thus, our results suggest that developmental increases in face-selective regions' sensitivity to face identity improve perceptual discrimination of faces. These findings significantly advance understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying the development of face perception and have important implications for assessing both typical and atypical development.
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Li J, Huang L, Song Y, Liu J. Dissociated neural basis of two behavioral hallmarks of holistic face processing: The whole-part effect and composite-face effect. Neuropsychologia 2017; 102:52-60. [PMID: 28552781 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Revised: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
It has been long proposed that our extraordinary face recognition ability stems from holistic face processing. Two widely-used behavioral hallmarks of holistic face processing are the whole-part effect (WPE) and composite-face effect (CFE). However, it remains unknown whether these two effects reflect similar or different aspects of holistic face processing. Here we investigated this question by examining whether the WPE and CFE involved shared or distinct neural substrates in a large sample of participants (N=200). We found that the WPE and CFE showed hemispheric dissociation in the fusiform face area (FFA), that is, the WPE was correlated with face selectivity in the left FFA, while the CFE was correlated with face selectivity in the right FFA. Further, the correlation between the WPE and face selectivity was largely driven by the FFA response to faces, whereas the association between the CFE and face selectivity resulted from suppressed response to objects in the right FFA. Finally, we also observed dissociated correlation patterns of the WPE and CFE in other face-selective regions and across the whole brain. These results suggest that the WPE and CFE may reflect different aspects of holistic face processing, which shed new light on the behavioral dissociations of these two effects demonstrated in literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Lijie Huang
- Research Center for Brain-inspired Intelligence, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Yiying Song
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China.
| | - Jia Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China.
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Baker KA, Laurence S, Mondloch CJ. How does a newly encountered face become familiar? The effect of within-person variability on adults' and children's perception of identity. Cognition 2017; 161:19-30. [PMID: 28092773 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2016.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Revised: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 12/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Adults and children aged 6years and older easily recognize multiple images of a familiar face, but often perceive two images of an unfamiliar face as belonging to different identities. Here we examined the process by which a newly encountered face becomes familiar, defined as accurate recognition of multiple images that capture natural within-person variability in appearance. In Experiment 1 we examined whether exposure to within-person variability in appearance helps children learn a new face. Children aged 6-13years watched a 10-min video of a woman reading a story; she was filmed on a single day (low variability) or over three days, across which her appearance and filming conditions (e.g., camera, lighting) varied (high variability). After familiarization, participants sorted a set of images comprising novel images of the target identity intermixed with distractors. Compared to participants who received no familiarization, children showed evidence of learning only in the high-variability condition, in contrast to adults who showed evidence of learning in both the low- and high-variability conditions. Experiment 2 highlighted the efficiency with which adults learn a new face; their accuracy was comparable across training conditions despite variability in duration (1 vs. 10min) and type (video vs. static images) of training. Collectively, our findings show that exposure to variability leads to the formation of a robust representation of facial identity, consistent with perceptual learning in other domains (e.g., language), and that the development of face learning is protracted throughout childhood. We discuss possible underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen A Baker
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St Catharines, Canada
| | - Sarah Laurence
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St Catharines, Canada; School of Psychology, Keele University, UK
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16
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Abstract
Expertise in recognizing facial identity, and, in particular, sensitivity to subtle differences in the spacing among facial features, improves into adolescence. To assess the influence of experience, we tested adults and 8-year-olds with faces differing only in the spacing of facial features. Stimuli were human adult, human 8-year-old, and monkey faces. We show that adults' expertise is shaped by experience: They were 9% more accurate in seeing differences in the spacing of features in upright human faces than in upright monkey faces. Eight-year-olds were 14% less accurate than adults for both human and monkey faces (Experiment 1), and their accuracy for human faces was not higher for children's faces than for adults'faces (Experiment 2). The results indicate that improvements in face recognition after age 8 are not related to experience with human faces and may be related to general improvements in memory or in perception (e.g., hyperacuity and spatial integration).
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17
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Neil L, Cappagli G, Karaminis T, Jenkins R, Pellicano E. Recognizing the same face in different contexts: Testing within-person face recognition in typical development and in autism. J Exp Child Psychol 2016; 143:139-53. [PMID: 26615971 PMCID: PMC4722798 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2015.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2015] [Revised: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Unfamiliar face recognition follows a particularly protracted developmental trajectory and is more likely to be atypical in children with autism than those without autism. There is a paucity of research, however, examining the ability to recognize the same face across multiple naturally varying images. Here, we investigated within-person face recognition in children with and without autism. In Experiment 1, typically developing 6- and 7-year-olds, 8- and 9-year-olds, 10- and 11-year-olds, 12- to 14-year-olds, and adults were given 40 grayscale photographs of two distinct male identities (20 of each face taken at different ages, from different angles, and in different lighting conditions) and were asked to sort them by identity. Children mistook images of the same person as images of different people, subdividing each individual into many perceived identities. Younger children divided images into more perceived identities than adults and also made more misidentification errors (placing two different identities together in the same group) than older children and adults. In Experiment 2, we used the same procedure with 32 cognitively able children with autism. Autistic children reported a similar number of identities and made similar numbers of misidentification errors to a group of typical children of similar age and ability. Fine-grained analysis using matrices revealed marginal group differences in overall performance. We suggest that the immature performance in typical and autistic children could arise from problems extracting the perceptual commonalities from different images of the same person and building stable representations of facial identity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Neil
- Centre for Research in Autism and Education (CRAE), UCL Institute of Education, University College London, London WC1H 0NU, UK.
| | - Giulia Cappagli
- Centre for Research in Autism and Education (CRAE), UCL Institute of Education, University College London, London WC1H 0NU, UK; Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 16163 Genova, Italy
| | - Themelis Karaminis
- Centre for Research in Autism and Education (CRAE), UCL Institute of Education, University College London, London WC1H 0NU, UK
| | - Rob Jenkins
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Elizabeth Pellicano
- Centre for Research in Autism and Education (CRAE), UCL Institute of Education, University College London, London WC1H 0NU, UK; School of Psychology, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia
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That’s my teacher! Children’s ability to recognize personally familiar and unfamiliar faces improves with age. J Exp Child Psychol 2016; 143:123-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2015.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Revised: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Abstract
Extensive studies have demonstrated that face recognition performance does not reach adult levels until adolescence. However, there is no consensus on whether such prolonged improvement stems from development of general cognitive factors or face-specific mechanisms. Here, we used behavioral experiments and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to evaluate these two hypotheses. With a large cohort of children (n = 379), we found that the ability of face-specific recognition in humans increased with age throughout childhood and into late adolescence in both face memory and face perception. Neurally, to circumvent the potential problem of age differences in task performance, attention, or cognitive strategies in task-state fMRI studies, we measured the resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) between the occipital face area (OFA) and fusiform face area (FFA) in human brain and found that the OFA-FFA RSFC increased until 11-13 years of age. Moreover, the OFA-FFA RSFC was selectively impaired in adults with developmental prosopagnosia (DP). In contrast, no age-related changes or differences between DP and normal adults were observed for RSFCs in the object system. Finally, the OFA-FFA RSFC matured earlier than face selectivity in either the OFA or FFA. These results suggest the critical role of the OFA-FFA RSFC in the development of face recognition. Together, our findings support the hypothesis that prolonged development of face recognition is face specific, not domain general.
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Joseph JE, DiBartolo MD, Bhatt RS. Developmental changes in analytic and holistic processes in face perception. Front Psychol 2015; 6:1165. [PMID: 26300838 PMCID: PMC4528094 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Although infants demonstrate sensitivity to some kinds of perceptual information in faces, many face capacities continue to develop throughout childhood. One debate is the degree to which children perceive faces analytically versus holistically and how these processes undergo developmental change. In the present study, school-aged children and adults performed a perceptual matching task with upright and inverted face and house pairs that varied in similarity of featural or 2(nd) order configural information. Holistic processing was operationalized as the degree of serial processing when discriminating faces and houses [i.e., increased reaction time (RT), as more features or spacing relations were shared between stimuli]. Analytical processing was operationalized as the degree of parallel processing (or no change in RT as a function of greater similarity of features or spatial relations). Adults showed the most evidence for holistic processing (most strongly for 2(nd) order faces) and holistic processing was weaker for inverted faces and houses. Younger children (6-8 years), in contrast, showed analytical processing across all experimental manipulations. Older children (9-11 years) showed an intermediate pattern with a trend toward holistic processing of 2(nd) order faces like adults, but parallel processing in other experimental conditions like younger children. These findings indicate that holistic face representations emerge around 10 years of age. In adults both 2(nd) order and featural information are incorporated into holistic representations, whereas older children only incorporate 2(nd) order information. Holistic processing was not evident in younger children. Hence, the development of holistic face representations relies on 2(nd) order processing initially then incorporates featural information by adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane E. Joseph
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SCUSA
| | - Michelle D. DiBartolo
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SCUSA
| | - Ramesh S. Bhatt
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KYUSA
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Wang Z, Quinn PC, Tanaka JW, Yu X, Sun YHP, Liu J, Pascalis O, Ge L, Lee K. An other-race effect for configural and featural processing of faces: upper and lower face regions play different roles. Front Psychol 2015; 6:559. [PMID: 26005427 PMCID: PMC4424811 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined whether Asian individuals would show differential sensitivity to configural vs. featural changes to own- and other-race faces and whether such sensitivity would depend on whether the changes occurred in the upper vs. lower regions of the faces. We systematically varied the size of key facial features (eyes and mouth) of own-race Asian faces and other-race Caucasian faces, and the configuration (spacing) between the eyes and between the nose and mouth of the two types of faces. Results revealed that the other-race effect (ORE) is more pronounced when featural and configural spacing changes are in the upper region than in the lower region of the face. These findings reveal that information from the upper vs. lower region of the face contributes differentially to the ORE in face processing, and that processing of face race is influenced more by information location (i.e., upper vs. lower) than by information type (i.e., configural vs. featural).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Wang
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, HangzhouChina
| | - Paul C. Quinn
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DEUSA
| | - James W. Tanaka
- Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, Vancouver, BCCanada
| | - Xiaoyang Yu
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, HangzhouChina
| | - Yu-Hao P. Sun
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, HangzhouChina
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jiangang Liu
- School of Computer and Information Technology, Beijing Jiaotong University, BeijingChina
| | - Olivier Pascalis
- Laboratoire de Psychologie et Neurocognition, Université Grenoble Alpes, ParisFrance
| | - Liezhong Ge
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, HangzhouChina
| | - Kang Lee
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
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Kocher K, Kowalski P, Kolokitha OE, Katsaros C, Fudalej PS. Judgment of Nasolabial Esthetics in Cleft Lip and Palate Is Not Influenced by Overall Facial Attractiveness. Cleft Palate Craniofac J 2015; 53:e45-52. [PMID: 25932752 DOI: 10.1597/14-019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine whether judgment of nasolabial esthetics in cleft lip and palate (CLP) is influenced by overall facial attractiveness. DESIGN Experimental study. SETTING University of Bern, Switzerland. SUBJECTS AND METHODS Seventy-two fused images (36 of boys, 36 of girls) were constructed. Each image comprised (1) the nasolabial region of a treated child with complete unilateral CLP (UCLP) and (2) the external facial features, i.e., the face with masked nasolabial region, of a noncleft child. Photographs of the nasolabial region of six boys and six girls with UCLP representing a wide range of esthetic outcomes, i.e., from very good to very poor appearance, were randomly chosen from a sample of 60 consecutively treated patients in whom nasolabial esthetics had been rated in a previous study. Photographs of external facial features of six boys and six girls without UCLP with various esthetics were randomly selected from patients' files. Eight lay raters evaluated the fused images using a 100-mm visual analogue scale. Method reliability was assessed by reevaluation of fused images after >1 month. A regression model was used to analyze which elements of facial esthetics influenced the perception of nasolabial appearance. RESULTS Method reliability was good. A regression analysis demonstrated that only the appearance of the nasolabial area affected the esthetic scores of fused images (coefficient = -11.44; P < .001; R(2) = 0.464). The appearance of the external facial features did not influence perceptions of fused images. CONCLUSION Cropping facial images for assessment of nasolabial appearance in CLP seems unnecessary. Instead, esthetic evaluation can be performed on images of full faces.
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Abstract
The current study tested fine discrimination of upright and inverted faces and objects in adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) as compared to age- and IQ-matched controls. Discrimination sensitivity was tested using morphed faces and morphed objects, and all stimuli were equated in low-level visual characteristics (luminance, contrast, spatial frequency make-up). Participants with ASD exhibited slight, non-significant impairments in discrimination sensitivity for faces, yet significantly enhanced discrimination sensitivity for objects. The ASD group also showed a protracted development of face and object inversion effects. Finally, for ASD participants, face sensitivity improved with increasing IQ while object sensitivity improved with age. By contrast, for controls, face sensitivity improved with age, but neither face nor object sensitivity was influenced by IQ. These findings suggest that individuals with ASD follow a qualitatively different path in the development of face and object processing abilities.
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Hu C, Wang Q, Fu G, Quinn PC, Lee K. Both children and adults scan faces of own and other races differently. Vision Res 2014; 102:1-10. [PMID: 24929225 PMCID: PMC4152410 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2014.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2013] [Revised: 05/27/2014] [Accepted: 05/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Extensive behavioral and neural evidence suggests that processing of own-race faces differs from that of other-race faces in both adults and infants. However, little research has examined whether and how children scan faces of own and other races differently for face recognition. In this eye-tracking study, Chinese children aged from 4 to 7 years and Chinese adults were asked to remember Chinese and Caucasian faces. None of the participants had any direct contact with foreign individuals. Multi-method analyses of eye-tracking data revealed that regardless of age group, proportional fixation duration on the eyes of Chinese faces was significantly lower than that on the eyes of Caucasian faces, whereas proportional fixation duration on the nose and mouth of Chinese faces was significantly higher than that on the nose and mouth of Caucasian faces. In addition, the amplitude of saccades on Chinese faces was significantly lower than that on Caucasian faces, potentially reflecting finer-grained processing for own-race faces. Moreover, adults' fixation duration/saccade numbers on the whole faces, proportional fixation percentage on the nose, proportional number of saccades between AOIs, and accuracy in recognizing faces were higher than those of children. These results together demonstrate that an abundance of visual experience with own-race faces and a lack of it with other-race faces may result in differential facial scanning in both children and adults. Furthermore, the increased experience of processing faces may result in a more holistic and advanced scanning strategy in Chinese adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Hu
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China; Applied Psychology & Human Development Department, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Qiandong Wang
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China
| | - Genyue Fu
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China; Hangzhou Teachers College for Infant Children, Zhejiang Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Paul C Quinn
- Department of Psychology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Kang Lee
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China; Applied Psychology & Human Development Department, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
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25
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Dunham Y, Stepanova EV, Dotsch R, Todorov A. The development of race-based perceptual categorization: skin color dominates early category judgments. Dev Sci 2014; 18:469-83. [PMID: 25154647 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 06/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Prior research on the development of race-based categorization has concluded that children understand the perceptual basis of race categories from as early as age 4 (e.g. Aboud, 1988). However, such work has rarely separated the influence of skin color from other physiognomic features considered by adults to be diagnostic of race categories. In two studies focusing on Black-White race categorization judgments in children between the ages of 4 and 9, as well as in adults, we find that categorization decisions in early childhood are determined almost entirely by attention to skin color, with attention to other physiognomic features exerting only a small influence on judgments as late as middle childhood. We further find that when skin color cues are largely eliminated from the stimuli, adults readily shift almost entirely to focus on other physiognomic features. However, 6- and 8-year-old children show only a limited ability to shift attention to facial physiognomy and so perform poorly on the task. These results demonstrate that attention to 'race' in younger children is better conceptualized as attention to skin color, inviting a reinterpretation of past work focusing on children's race-related cognition.
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26
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Hellendoorn A. Understanding social engagement in autism: being different in perceiving and sharing affordances. Front Psychol 2014; 5:850. [PMID: 25136327 PMCID: PMC4120673 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 07/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In the current paper I will argue that the notion of affordances offers an alternative to theory of mind (ToM) approaches in studying social engagement in general and in explaining social engagement in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) specifically. Affordances are the possibilities for action offered by the environment. In contrast to ToM approaches, the concept of affordances implies the complementarity of person and environment and rejects the dualism of mind and behavior. In line with the Gibsonian idea that a child must eventually perceive the affordances of the environment for others as well for herself in order to become socialized, I will hypothesize that individuals with ASD often do not perceive the same affordances in the environment as other people do and have difficulties perceiving others’ affordances. This can lead to a disruption of interpersonal behaviors. I will further argue that the methods for studying social engagement should be adapted if we want to take interaction into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Hellendoorn
- Department of Special Education, Centre for Cognitive and Motor Disabilities, Utrecht University Utrecht, Netherlands
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27
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Tanaka JW, Quinn PC, Xu B, Maynard K, Huxtable N, Lee K, Pascalis O. The effects of information type (features vs. configuration) and location (eyes vs. mouth) on the development of face perception. J Exp Child Psychol 2014; 124:36-49. [PMID: 24747157 PMCID: PMC4055296 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2014.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2013] [Revised: 12/26/2013] [Accepted: 01/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The goal of the current study was to investigate the development of face processing strategies in a perceptual discrimination task. Children (7-12 years of age) and young adults were administered the Face Dimensions Task. In the Face Dimensions Task, participants were asked to judge whether two simultaneously presented faces were the "same" or "different". For the "same" trials, the two faces were identical. For the "different" trials, the faces differed in either the spacing between the eyes, the spacing between the nose and the mouth, the size of the eyes, or the size of the mouth. The main finding was that 7- to 10-year-old children showed no difference in their ability to discriminate differences in eye size and eye spacing but showed a poor ability to discriminate differences in nose and mouth spacing and, to a lesser extent, mouth size. The developmental lag between nose-mouth discriminations and the other featural and configural discriminations was reduced in older children and eliminated by young adulthood. These results indicate that the type of face information (i.e., configural vs. featural) and its location (i.e., eye vs. mouth) jointly contribute to the development of face perception abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Tanaka
- Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3P5, Canada.
| | - Paul C Quinn
- Department of Psychology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Buyun Xu
- Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3P5, Canada
| | - Kim Maynard
- Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3P5, Canada
| | - Natalie Huxtable
- Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3P5, Canada
| | - Kang Lee
- Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1V6, Canada
| | - Olivier Pascalis
- Laboratoire de Psychologie et Neurocognition, CNRS UMR 5105, Université Pierre Mendès France, 38040 Grenoble, France
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28
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Bate S, Bennetts RJ. The rehabilitation of face recognition impairments: a critical review and future directions. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:491. [PMID: 25100965 PMCID: PMC4107857 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
While much research has investigated the neural and cognitive characteristics of face recognition impairments (prosopagnosia), much less work has examined their rehabilitation. In this paper, we present a critical analysis of the studies that have attempted to improve face-processing skills in acquired and developmental prosopagnosia, and place them in the context of the wider neurorehabilitation literature. First, we examine whether neuroplasticity within the typical face-processing system varies across the lifespan, in order to examine whether timing of intervention may be crucial. Second, we examine reports of interventions in acquired prosopagnosia, where training in compensatory strategies has had some success. Third, we examine reports of interventions in developmental prosopagnosia, where compensatory training in children and remedial training in adults have both been successful. However, the gains are somewhat limited-compensatory strategies have resulted in labored recognition techniques and limited generalization to untrained faces, and remedial techniques require longer periods of training and result in limited maintenance of gains. Critically, intervention suitability and outcome in both forms of the condition likely depends on a complex interaction of factors, including prosopagnosia severity, the precise functional locus of the impairment, and individual differences such as age. Finally, we discuss future directions in the rehabilitation of prosopagnosia, and the possibility of boosting the effects of cognitive training programmes by simultaneous administration of oxytocin or non-invasive brain stimulation. We conclude that future work using more systematic methods and larger participant groups is clearly required, and in the case of developmental prosopagnosia, there is an urgent need to develop early detection and remediation tools for children, in order to optimize intervention outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Bate
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Bournemouth UniversityPoole, UK
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29
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Croydon A, Pimperton H, Ewing L, Duchaine BC, Pellicano E. The Cambridge Face Memory Test for Children (CFMT-C): a new tool for measuring face recognition skills in childhood. Neuropsychologia 2014; 62:60-7. [PMID: 25054837 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Revised: 06/21/2014] [Accepted: 07/10/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Face recognition ability follows a lengthy developmental course, not reaching maturity until well into adulthood. Valid and reliable assessments of face recognition memory ability are necessary to examine patterns of ability and disability in face processing, yet there is a dearth of such assessments for children. We modified a well-known test of face memory in adults, the Cambridge Face Memory Test (Duchaine & Nakayama, 2006, Neuropsychologia, 44, 576-585), to make it developmentally appropriate for children. To establish its utility, we administered either the upright or inverted versions of the computerised Cambridge Face Memory Test - Children (CFMT-C) to 401 children aged between 5 and 12 years. Our results show that the CFMT-C is sufficiently sensitive to demonstrate age-related gains in the recognition of unfamiliar upright and inverted faces, does not suffer from ceiling or floor effects, generates robust inversion effects, and is capable of detecting difficulties in face memory in children diagnosed with autism. Together, these findings indicate that the CFMT-C constitutes a new valid assessment tool for children's face recognition skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail Croydon
- Centre for Research in Autism and Education (CRAE), Institute of Education, University of London, London, UK
| | - Hannah Pimperton
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK
| | - Louise Ewing
- Department of Psychological Science, Birkbeck, London, UK; School of Psychology, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Brad C Duchaine
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Elizabeth Pellicano
- Centre for Research in Autism and Education (CRAE), Institute of Education, University of London, London, UK; School of Psychology, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.
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30
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Knowles MM, Hay DC. The role of inner and outer face parts in holistic processing: a developmental study. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2014; 149:106-16. [PMID: 24769272 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2013] [Revised: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 03/29/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of inner-outer feature interactions with unfamiliar faces were investigated in 6- and 10-year-old children and adults (20-30 years) to determine their contribution in holistic face vision. Participants completed a two-alternative forced-choice (2AFC) task under two conditions. The congruent condition used whole, inner-only, and outer-only stimuli. The incongruent condition used stimuli combining the inner features from one face with outer features from a novel face, or vice versa. Results yielded strong congruency effects which were moderated by pronounced feature-type asymmetries specific to developmental stage. Adults showed an inner-feature preference during congruent trials, but no asymmetry for incongruent trials. Children showed no asymmetry for congruent trials, but an outer-feature preference for incongruent trials. These findings concur with recent theoretical developments indicating that adults and children are likely to differ in the types of feature-specific information they preferentially encode in face perception, and that holistic effects are moderated differently in adults and children as a function of feature type.
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31
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Kehn A, Renken MD, Gray JM, Nunez NL. Developmental trends in the process of constructing own- and other-race facial composites. THE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2014; 148:287-304. [PMID: 24839728 DOI: 10.1080/00223980.2013.794122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study examined developmental differences from the age of 5 to 18 in the creation process of own- and other-race facial composites. In addition, it considered how differences in the creation process affect similarity ratings. Participants created two composites (one own- and one other-race) from memory. The complexity of the composite creation process was recorded during Phase One. In Phase Two, a separate group of participants rated the composites for similarity to the corresponding target face. Results support the cross-race effect, developmental differences (based on composite creators) in similarity ratings, and the importance of the creation process for own- and other-race facial composites. Together, these findings suggest that as children get older the process through which they create facial composites becomes more complex and their ability to create facial composites improves. Increased complexity resulted in higher rated composites. Results are discussed from a psycho-legal perspective.
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32
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de Heering A, Bracovic A, Maurer D. Starting School Improves Preschoolers' Ability to Discriminate Child Faces. ECOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/10407413.2014.874866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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33
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Bahrick LE, Krogh-Jespersen S, Argumosa MA, Lopez H. Intersensory redundancy hinders face discrimination in preschool children: evidence for visual facilitation. Dev Psychol 2014; 50:414-21. [PMID: 23795552 PMCID: PMC3913744 DOI: 10.1037/a0033476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Although infants and children show impressive face-processing skills, little research has focused on the conditions that facilitate versus impair face perception. According to the intersensory redundancy hypothesis (IRH), face discrimination, which relies on detection of visual featural information, should be impaired in the context of intersensory redundancy provided by audiovisual speech and enhanced when intersensory redundancy is absent. Evidence of this visual facilitation and intersensory interference was found in a recent study of 2-month-old infants (Bahrick, Lickliter, & Castellanos, in press). The present study is the first to extend tests of this principle of the IRH to children. Using a more difficult face recognition task in the context of a story, results from 4-year-old children paralleled those of infants and demonstrate that face discrimination in children is also facilitated by dynamic, visual-only exposure, in the absence of intersensory redundancy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Hassel Lopez
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University
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34
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Nakabayashi K, Liu CH. Developmental differences in holistic interference of facial part recognition. PLoS One 2013; 8:e77504. [PMID: 24204847 PMCID: PMC3814968 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0077504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2013] [Accepted: 09/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Research has shown that adults’ recognition of a facial part can be disrupted if the part is learnt without a face context but tested in a whole face. This has been interpreted as the holistic interference effect. The present study investigated whether children of 6- and 9–10-year-olds would show a similar effect. Participants were asked to judge whether a probe part was the same as or different from a test part whereby the part was presented either in isolation or in a whole face. The results showed that while all the groups were susceptible to a holistic interference, the youngest group was most severely affected. Contrary to the view that piecemeal processing precedes holistic processing in the cognitive development, our findings demonstrate that holistic processing is already present at 6 years of age. It is the ability to inhibit the influence of holistic information on piecemeal processing that seems to require a longer period of development into at an older and adult age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuyo Nakabayashi
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Chang Hong Liu
- School of Design, Engineering, and Computing, Bournemouth University, Dorset, United Kingdom
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35
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Kinnunen S, Korkman M, Laasonen M, Lahti-Nuuttila P. Development of Face Recognition in 5- to 15-Year-Olds. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/15248372.2012.689389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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36
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Development of face discrimination abilities, and relationship to magnocellular pathway development, between childhood and adulthood. Vis Neurosci 2013; 30:251-62. [DOI: 10.1017/s0952523813000217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
AbstractThe current study tested the development of face and object processing in young children (mean age = 5.24 years), adolescents (mean age = 15.8 years), and adults (mean age = 21.1 years) using stimuli that were equated for low-level visual characteristics (luminance, contrast, and spatial frequency make-up) and methods that equate for difficulty across ages. We also tested sensitivity to luminance and chromatic contrast (i.e., thought to be mediated primarily by the subcortical Magnocellular (M) and Parvocellular (P) pathways, respectively) to determine whether age-related improvements in face or object discrimination were driven by age-related changes in the M and/or P pathways. Results showed a selective age-related improvement in face sensitivity and a relationship between age-related increases in face sensitivity and luminance contrast sensitivity. These results add to the mounting evidence that the M pathway may influence face processing.
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Jerger S, Damian MF, Mills C, Bartlett J, Tye-Murray N, Abdi H. Effect of perceptual load on semantic access by speech in children. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2013; 56:388-403. [PMID: 22896045 PMCID: PMC3742031 DOI: 10.1044/1092-4388(2012/11-0186)] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To examine whether semantic access by speech requires attention in children. METHOD Children (N = 200) named pictures and ignored distractors on a cross-modal (distractors: auditory-no face) or multimodal (distractors: auditory-static face and audiovisual-dynamic face) picture word task. The cross-modal task had a low load, and the multimodal task had a high load (i.e., respectively naming pictures displayed on a blank screen vs. below the talker's face on his T-shirt). Semantic content of distractors was manipulated to be related vs. unrelated to the picture (e.g., picture "dog" with distractors "bear" vs. "cheese"). If irrelevant semantic content manipulation influences naming times on both tasks despite variations in loads, Lavie's (2005) perceptual load model proposes that semantic access is independent of capacity-limited attentional resources; if, however, irrelevant content influences naming only on the cross-modal task (low load), the perceptual load model proposes that semantic access is dependent on attentional resources exhausted by the higher load task. RESULTS Irrelevant semantic content affected performance for both tasks in 6- to 9-year-olds but only on the cross-modal task in 4- to 5-year-olds. The addition of visual speech did not influence results on the multimodal task. CONCLUSION Younger and older children differ in dependence on attentional resources for semantic access by speech.
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de Heering A, Schiltz C. Sensitivity to spacing information increases more for the eye region than for the mouth region during childhood. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT 2013. [DOI: 10.1177/0165025412467727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Sensitivity to spacing information within faces improves with age and reaches maturity only at adolescence. In this study, we tested 6–16-year-old children’s sensitivity to vertical spacing when the eyes or the mouth is the facial feature selectively manipulated. Despite the similar discriminability of these manipulations when they are embedded in inverted faces (Experiment 1), children’s sensitivity to spacing information manipulated in upright faces improved with age only when the eye region was concerned (Experiment 2). Moreover, children’s ability to process the eye region did not correlate with their selective visual attention, marking the automation of the mechanism (Experiment 2). In line with recent findings, we suggest here that children rely on a holistic/configural face processing mechanism to process the eye region, composed of multiple features to integrate, which steadily improves with age.
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Liu S, Anzures G, Ge L, Quinn PC, Pascalis O, Slater AM, Tanaka JW, Lee K. Development of Recognition of Face Parts from Unfamiliar Faces. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2013; 22:165-179. [PMID: 24009474 PMCID: PMC3760427 DOI: 10.1002/icd.1781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The present study examined developmental changes in the ability to recognize face parts. In Experiment 1, participants were familiarized with whole faces and given a recognition test with old and new eyes, noses, mouths, inner faces, outer faces, or whole faces. Adults were above chance in their recognition of the eye and mouth regions. However, children did not naturally encode and recognize face parts independently of the entire face. In addition, all age groups showed comparable inner and outer face recognition, except for 8- to 9-year-olds who showed a recognition advantage for outer faces. In Experiment 2, when participants were familiarized with eyes, noses, or mouths and tested with eyes, noses, or mouths, respectively, all ages showed above-chance recognition of eyes and mouths. Thirteen- to 14-year-olds were adult-like in their recognition of the eye region, but mouth recognition continued to develop beyond 14 years of age. Nose recognition was above chance among 13- to 14-year-olds, but recognition scores remained low even in adulthood. The present findings reveal unique developmental trajectories in the use of isolated facial regions in face recognition and suggest that featural cues (as a class) have a different ontogenetic course relative to holistic and configural cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaoying Liu
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Gizelle Anzures
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
| | - Liezhong Ge
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
| | | | - Olivier Pascalis
- Department of Psychology, Université Pierre Mendés France, Grenoble, France
| | | | - James W. Tanaka
- Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Kang Lee
- Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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McKone E, Davies AA, Darke H, Crookes K, Wickramariyaratne T, Zappia S, Fiorentini C, Favelle S, Broughton M, Fernando D. Importance of the inverted control in measuring holistic face processing with the composite effect and part-whole effect. Front Psychol 2013; 4:33. [PMID: 23382725 PMCID: PMC3562992 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2012] [Accepted: 01/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Holistic coding for faces is shown in several illusions that demonstrate integration of the percept across the entire face. The illusions occur upright but, crucially, not inverted. Converting the illusions into experimental tasks that measure their strength – and thus index degree of holistic coding – is often considered straightforward yet in fact relies on a hidden assumption, namely that there is no contribution to the experimental measure from secondary cognitive factors. For the composite effect, a relevant secondary factor is size of the “spotlight” of visuospatial attention. The composite task assumes this spotlight can be easily restricted to the target half (e.g., top-half) of the compound face stimulus. Yet, if this assumption were not true then a large spotlight, in the absence of holistic perception, could produce a false composite effect, present even for inverted faces and contributing partially to the score for upright faces. We review evidence that various factors can influence spotlight size: race/culture (Asians often prefer a more global distribution of attention than Caucasians); sex (females can be more global); appearance of the join or gap between face halves; and location of the eyes, which typically attract attention. Results from five experiments then show inverted faces can sometimes produce large false composite effects, and imply that whether this happens or not depends on complex interactions between causal factors. We also report, for both identity and expression, that only top-half face targets (containing eyes) produce valid composite measures. A sixth experiment demonstrates an example of a false inverted part-whole effect, where encoding-specificity is the secondary cognitive factor. We conclude the inverted face control should be tested in all composite and part-whole studies, and an effect for upright faces should be interpreted as a pure measure of holistic processing only when the experimental design produces no effect inverted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elinor McKone
- Research School of Psychology, Australian National University Canberra, ACT, Australia ; ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders, Australian National University Canberra, ACT, Australia
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Quinn PC, Tanaka JW, Lee K, Pascalis O, Slater AM. Are Faces Special to Infants? An Investigation of Configural and Featural Processing for the Upper and Lower Regions of Houses in 3- to 7-month-olds. VISUAL COGNITION 2013; 21:23-37. [PMID: 24093003 PMCID: PMC3786559 DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2013.764370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Three- to 7-month-olds were administered a house version of the Face Dimensions Test in which the featural and configural information of the upper and lower windows were systematically varied. The Dimensions Test has previously been used to study the processing of face features and their configurations by infants (Quinn & Tanaka, 2009). Just as was the case with faces, infants were shown to be sensitive to configural change in the upper and lower regions and to featural change in the upper region, but not to featural change in the lower region. The outcomes reflect either a face processing system that can generalize broadly to stimuli that are as different from faces as houses or a more general processing system with perceptual operations that can apply to both faces and houses.
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Piepers DW, Robbins RA. A Review and Clarification of the Terms "holistic," "configural," and "relational" in the Face Perception Literature. Front Psychol 2012; 3:559. [PMID: 23413184 PMCID: PMC3571734 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
It is widely agreed that the human face is processed differently from other objects. However there is a lack of consensus on what is meant by a wide array of terms used to describe this “special” face processing (e.g., holistic and configural) and the perceptually relevant information within a face (e.g., relational properties and configuration). This paper will review existing models of holistic/configural processing, discuss how they differ from one another conceptually, and review the wide variety of measures used to tap into these concepts. In general we favor a model where holistic processing of a face includes some or all of the interrelations between features and has separate coding for features. However, some aspects of the model remain unclear. We propose the use of moving faces as a way of clarifying what types of information are included in the holistic representation of a face.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel W Piepers
- School of Social Sciences and Psychology, University of Western Sydney Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Joseph JE, Swearingen JE, Clark JD, Benca CE, Collins HR, Corbly CR, Gathers AD, Bhatt RS. The changing landscape of functional brain networks for face processing in typical development. Neuroimage 2012; 63:1223-36. [PMID: 22906788 PMCID: PMC3637657 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Revised: 07/26/2012] [Accepted: 08/05/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Greater expertise for faces in adults than in children may be achieved by a dynamic interplay of functional segregation and integration of brain regions throughout development. The present study examined developmental changes in face network functional connectivity in children (5-12 years) and adults (18-43 years) during face-viewing using a graph-theory approach. A face-specific developmental change involved connectivity of the right occipital face area. During childhood, this node increased in strength and within-module clustering based on positive connectivity. These changes reflect an important role of the ROFA in segregation of function during childhood. In addition, strength and diversity of connections within a module that included primary visual areas (left and right calcarine) and limbic regions (left hippocampus and right inferior orbitofrontal cortex) increased from childhood to adulthood, reflecting increased visuo-limbic integration. This integration was pronounced for faces but also emerged for natural objects. Taken together, the primary face-specific developmental changes involved segregation of a posterior visual module during childhood, possibly implicated in early stage perceptual face processing, and greater integration of visuo-limbic connections from childhood to adulthood, which may reflect processing related to development of perceptual expertise for individuation of faces and other visually homogenous categories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane E Joseph
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA.
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Joseph JE, Gathers AD, Bhatt RS. Progressive and regressive developmental changes in neural substrates for face processing: testing specific predictions of the Interactive Specialization account. Dev Sci 2012; 14:227-41. [PMID: 21399706 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00963.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Face processing undergoes a fairly protracted developmental time course but the neural underpinnings are not well understood. Prior fMRI studies have only examined progressive changes (i.e., increases in specialization in certain regions with age), which would be predicted by both the Interactive Specialization (IS) and maturational theories of neural development. To differentiate between these accounts, the present study also examined regressive changes (i.e., decreases in specialization in certain regions with age), which is predicted by the IS but not maturational account. The fMRI results show that both progressive and regressive changes occur, consistent with IS. Progressive changes mostly occurred in occipital-fusiform and inferior frontal cortex whereas regressive changes largely emerged in parietal and lateral temporal cortices. Moreover, inconsistent with the maturational account, all of the regions involved in face viewing in adults were active in children, with some regions already specialized for face processing by 5 years of age and other regions activated in children but not specifically for faces. Thus, neurodevelopment of face processing involves dynamic interactions among brain regions including age-related increases and decreases in specialization and the involvement of different regions at different ages. These results are more consistent with IS than maturational models of neural development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane E Joseph
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky, Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536-0098, USA.
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McKone E, Crookes K, Jeffery L, Dilks DD. A critical review of the development of face recognition: experience is less important than previously believed. Cogn Neuropsychol 2012; 29:174-212. [PMID: 22360676 DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2012.660138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Historically, it has been argued that face individuation develops very slowly, not reaching adult levels until adolescence, with experience being the driving force behind this protracted improvement. Here, we challenge this view based on extensive review of behavioural and neural findings. Results demonstrate qualitative presence of all key phenomena related to face individuation (encoding of novel faces, holistic processing effects, face-space effects, face-selective responses in neuroimaging) at the earliest ages tested, typically 3-5 years of age and in many cases even infancy. Results further argue for quantitative maturity by early childhood, based on an increasing number of behavioural studies that have avoided the common methodological problem of restriction of range, as well as event-related potential (ERP), but not functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies. We raise a new possibility that could account for the discrepant fMRI findings-namely, the use of adult-sized head coils on child-sized heads. We review genetic and innate contributions to face individuation (twin studies, neonates, visually deprived monkeys, critical periods, perceptual narrowing). We conclude that the role of experience in the development of the mechanisms of face identification has been overestimated. The emerging picture is that the mechanisms supporting face individuation are mature early, consistent with the social needs of children for reliable person identification in everyday life, and are also driven to an important extent by our evolutionary history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elinor McKone
- Department of Psychology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
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Developmental changes in face recognition during childhood: Evidence from upright and inverted faces. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2011.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Jeffery L, Rhodes G. Insights into the development of face recognition mechanisms revealed by face aftereffects. Br J Psychol 2011; 102:799-815. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8295.2011.02066.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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48
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Sensitivity to spacing changes in faces and nonface objects in preschool-aged children and adults. J Exp Child Psychol 2011; 109:454-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2011.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2010] [Revised: 03/01/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Macchi Cassia V. Age biases in face processing: The effects of experience across development. Br J Psychol 2011; 102:816-29. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8295.2011.02046.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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50
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Robbins RA, Shergill Y, Maurer D, Lewis TL. Development of sensitivity to spacing versus feature changes in pictures of houses: Evidence for slow development of a general spacing detection mechanism? J Exp Child Psychol 2011; 109:371-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2011.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2010] [Revised: 02/03/2011] [Accepted: 02/04/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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