On the use of multiple probe insertions at the same site for repeated intracerebral microdialysis experiments in the nigrostriatal dopamine system of rats

A transient inhibition and permanent lack of catechol-O-methyltransferase have minor effects on feeding pattern of female rodents

Abnormal feeding behaviours have long been linked to disruptions in brain dopaminergic activity. Dopamine is metabolized, amongst others, by catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT). Normally, COMT only plays a subordinate role in dopamine metabolism. However, changes in COMT activity, especially in the prefrontal cortex, become more important during events that evoke dopamine release. The current study investigated the effect of acute COMT inhibition on feeding in Wistar rats and C57BL/6 mice using a selective, brain penetrating COMT inhibitor (OR-1139). Furthermore, the effect of a long-term lack of COMT on feeding behaviour was studied in COMT-deficient (COMT -/-) mice. Apart from following the gross feeding behaviour of fasted rats and mice, the first 4 hr of re-feeding were recorded with a video camera to allow a more detailed analysis of feeding microstructure. In the acute study, rats and mice received a single injection of OR-1139 (3, 10 or 30 mg/kg), just before the experiment. We found that rats and mice receiving OR-1139 had fewer very short meals but more long meals than the controls. Treated mice even ate more frequently than the controls, but other feeding parameters remained unchanged. Conversely, COMT -/- mice displayed an increased latency to initiate the first meal and spent less total time eating than wild-type mice. In conclusion, although decreased/lack of COMT activity did not robustly alter feeding behaviour of female rodents, we observed some alterations in the microstructure of feeding. However, these minor changes were highly dependent on the extent and fashion in which COMT was manipulated.

Reduction of neurovascular damage resulting from microelectrode insertion into the cerebral cortex using in vivo two-photon mapping

Penetrating neural probe technologies allow investigators to record electrical signals in the brain. The implantation of probes causes acute tissue damage, partially due to vasculature disruption during probe implantation. This trauma can cause abnormal electrophysiological responses and temporary increases in neurotransmitter levels, and perpetuate chronic immune responses. A significant challenge for investigators is to examine neurovascular features below the surface of the brain in vivo. The objective of this study was to investigate localized bleeding resulting from inserting microscale neural probes into the cortex using two-photon microscopy (TPM) and to explore an approach to minimize blood vessel disruption through insertion methods and probe design. 3D TPM images of cortical neurovasculature were obtained from mice and used to select preferred insertion positions for probe insertion to reduce neurovasculature damage. There was an 82.8 +/- 14.3% reduction in neurovascular damage for probes inserted in regions devoid of major (>5 microm) sub-surface vessels. Also, the deviation of surface vessels from the vector normal to the surface as a function of depth and vessel diameter was measured and characterized. 68% of the major vessels were found to deviate less than 49 microm from their surface origin up to a depth of 500 microm. Inserting probes more than 49 microm from major surface vessels can reduce the chances of severing major sub-surface neurovasculature without using TPM.

Activation of mesolimbic dopamine neurons during novel and daily limited access to palatable food is blocked by the opioid antagonist LY255582

An analog of the trans-3,4-dimethyl-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)piperidine series (LY255582) exhibits high in vitro binding affinity and antagonist potency for the μ-, δ-, and κ-opioid receptors. In vivo, LY255582 exhibits potent effects in reducing food intake and body weight in several rodent models of obesity. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of LY255582 to prevent the consumption of a highly palatable (HP) diet (a high-fat/high-carbohydrate diet) both when the food was novel and following daily limited access to the HP diet. Additionally, we examined the effects of consumption of the HP diet and of LY255582 treatment on mesolimbic dopamine (DA) signaling by in vivo microdialysis. Consumption of the HP diet increased extracellular DA levels within the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell. Increased DA in the NAc shell was not related to the quantity of the HP diet consumed, and the DA response did not habituate following daily scheduled access to the HP diet. Interestingly, treatment with LY255582 inhibited consumption of the HP diet and the HP diet-associated increase in NAc shell DA levels. Moreover, the increased HP diet consumption observed following daily limited access to the HP diet was completely prevented by LY255582 treatment. LY255582 may be a useful tool in understanding the neural mechanisms involved in the reinforcement mechanisms regulating food intake.

Microdialysis methods for in vivo neuropeptide measurement in the stalk-median eminence in the Rhesus monkey

Direct measurement of neuropeptides in the hypothalamus is essential for neuroendocrine studies. However, the small quantities of peptides released at their neuroterminals and relatively large molecular sizes make these measurements difficult. We have evaluated microdialysis probes with two membrane materials (polycarbonate and polyarylethersulfone, both: molecular cut off 20,000 Da) in vitro, and adapted the method for in vivo hypothalamic sample collection in non-human primates. The results of in vitro experiments showed that the polyarylethersulfone membrane yielded a several fold higher recovery rate than the polycarbonate membrane. In in vivo experiments, a guide cannula with stylet was inserted into the medial basal hypothalamus through the permanently implanted cranial pedestal under light sedation. The stylet was replaced by a microdialysis probe and artificial CSF was infused. The results indicated that the neuropeptide luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone was readily measurable in dialysates collected at 10 min-intervals, and responded to neuroactive substances applied through the probe. The animals were fully conscious except for the initial hour of sampling. After the experiment the animal was returned to the home cage, and later similarly examined during several additional experiments. Therefore, the microdialysis method described here is a highly useful tool for neuroendocrine studies in non-human primates.

Differential neurochemical and behavioral adaptation to cocaine after response contingent and noncontingent exposure in the rat

RATIONALE

In naive rats, passive administration of drugs of abuse preferentially increases extracellular dopamine (DA) in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell as compared to the core. Repeated exposure to the same drugs results in behavioral and biochemical sensitization characterized by stereotyped activity and reduction of the shell/core DA response ratio.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this work is to study the neurochemical and behavioral effects of response-contingent vs response-noncontingent drug administration in rats, who were bilaterally implanted with chronic intracerebral guide cannulae and trained to self-administer cocaine by nose poking in daily 1-h sessions for 3 weeks (5 days/week). Nose poking in the active hole by master rats resulted in intravenous injection of cocaine (0.25 mg/kg) in master rats and in rats yoked to them. Dialysate DA was monitored before, during, and for 30 min after cocaine availability on alternate days by inserting the probe into the NAc shell and core. Stereotyped and non-stereotyped behavior was recorded during the sessions.

RESULTS

In master rats, dialysate DA increased preferentially in the NAc shell during cocaine self-administration throughout the 3 weeks of cocaine exposure. In yoked rats, DA increased preferentially in the shell but to a lesser extent than in master rats. With continued exposure to cocaine, the shell/core ratio of DA changes decreased progressively and, on the third week, was reversed so that DA increased more in the core than in the shell. Yoked rats showed a progressive and faster increase in stereotyped behaviors than master rats.

CONCLUSIONS

Response-noncontingent cocaine administration is particularly prone, compared to response-contingent administration, to induce behavioral and biochemical sensitization.

Spatiotemporal pH dynamics following insertion of neural microelectrode arrays

Insertion trauma is a critical issue when assessing intracortical electrophysiological and neurochemical recordings. Previous reports document a wide variety of insertion techniques with speeds ranging from 10 microm/s to 10 m/s. We hypothesize that insertion speed has an effect on tissue trauma induced by implantation of a neural probe. In order to monitor the neural interface during and after probe insertion, we have developed a silicon-substrate array with hydrous iridium oxide microelectrodes for potentiometric recording of extracellular pH (pH(e)), a measure of brain homeostasis. Microelectrode sites were sensitive to pH in the super-Nernstian range (-85.9 mV/pH unit) and selective over other analytes including ascorbic acid, Na(+), K(+), Ca(2+), and Mg(2+). Following insertion, arrays recorded either triphasic or biphasic pH(e) responses, with a greater degree of prolonged acidosis for insertions at 50 microm/s than at 0.5 mm/s or 1.0 mm/s (p<0.05). Spatiotemporal analysis of the recordings also revealed micro-scale variability in the pH(e) response along the array, even when using the same insertion technique. Implants with more intense acidosis were often associated histologically with blood along the probe tract. The potentiometric microsensor array has implications not only as a useful tool to measure extracellular pH, but also as a feedback tool for delivery of pharmacological agents to treat surgical brain trauma.

Monitoring extracellular dopamine in the rat nucleus accumbens shell and core during acquisition and maintenance of intravenous WIN 55,212-2 self-administration

RATIONALE

WIN 55,212-2, a potent cannabinoid receptor 1 agonist, is self-administered by animals to evaluate abuse liability of cannabinoids, but to date no information is yet available about its effects on dopaminergic transmission during active response-contingent administration.

OBJECTIVES

This study monitored the changes of extracellular dopamine (DA) in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell and core during active intravenous WIN 55,212-2 self-administration (SA).

METHODS

Rats, implanted with a jugular catheter and bilateral intracerebral chronic cannulae, were trained for 3 weeks to self-administer WIN 55,212-2 (12.5 microg/kg) in single daily 1-h sessions under a fixed ratio 1 (FR 1) schedule, than switched to FR 2 for a further week. During SA sessions, microdialysis assays were performed every 3rd day, and then daily starting from the 13th session. Dialysate DA from the NAc shell and core was monitored before, during, and for 30 min after SA.

RESULTS

Dialysate DA increased during WIN 55,212-2 SA starting from the 1st week in the NAc shell and on the 2nd week in the core. The increase of dialysate DA in the NAc shell was larger than that in the core on all weeks. Dialysate DA did not change during extinction sessions in spite of active nose poking.

CONCLUSIONS

Response-contingent WIN 55,212-2 SA preferentially increases the NAc shell DA output as compared to that of the core independently from the duration of the WIN 55,212-2 exposure. Increase in NAc DA is strictly related to WIN 55,212-2 actions because it is not observed during extinction despite active responding.

Preferential increase of extracellular dopamine in the rat nucleus accumbens shell as compared to that in the core during acquisition and maintenance of intravenous nicotine self-administration

RATIONALE

It has been reported that passive administration of nicotine increases preferentially extracellular dopamine (DA) release in the shell as compared to that in the core of the nucleus accumbens (NAc). To date, no information is available if this also applies to active, response-contingent nicotine administration.

OBJECTIVE

This study was aimed to monitor the changes of extracellular DA in the NAc shell and core during active intravenous nicotine self-administration (SA).

METHODS

Rats were bilaterally implanted with chronic cannulae and were trained to self-administer nicotine (0.03 mg/kg, i.v.) in single daily 1-h session for 6 weeks, with an initial fixed ratio (FR) 1 schedule increased to FR 2. Dialysate DA from the NAc shell and core was monitored before and for 90 min after the start of SA.

RESULTS

Significant increases of active nose-pokes over inactive ones were found starting from the 16th SA session. No differences were found in basal extracellular DA in the NAc subdivisions. Data analysis showed (1) significant increases over basal of dialysate DA in the NAc subdivisions during nicotine SA, starting from the first week in the shell and from the second week in the core, (2) preferential increase of extracellular DA during nicotine SA in the shell (24-43%) compared to that in the core (10-23%) and (3) no change in dialysate DA in NAc subdivisions during extinction.

CONCLUSIONS

Response-contingent nicotine SA preferentially increases the DA output in the NAc shell as compared to that in the core, independently from the duration of the nicotine exposure. Increase in NAc DA is strictly related to nicotine action since is not observed during extinction in spite of active responding.

Microdialysis of dopamine interpreted with quantitative model incorporating probe implantation trauma

Although microdialysis is widely used to sample endogenous and exogenous substances in vivo, interpretation of the results obtained by this technique remains controversial. The goal of the present study was to examine recent criticism of microdialysis in the specific case of dopamine (DA) measurements in the brain extracellular microenvironment. The apparent steady-state basal extracellular concentration and extraction fraction of DA were determined in anesthetized rat striatum by the concentration difference (no-net-flux) microdialysis technique. A rate constant for extracellular clearance of DA calculated from the extraction fraction was smaller than the previously determined estimate by fast-scan cyclic voltammetry for cellular uptake of DA. Because the relatively small size of the voltammetric microsensor produces little tissue damage, the discrepancy between the uptake rate constants may be a consequence of trauma from microdialysis probe implantation. The trauma layer has previously been identified by histology and proposed to distort measurements of extracellular DA levels by the no-net-flux method. To address this issue, an existing quantitative mathematical model for microdialysis was modified to incorporate a traumatized tissue layer interposed between the probe and surrounding normal tissue. The tissue layers are hypothesized to differ in their rates of neurotransmitter release and uptake. A post-implantation traumatized layer with reduced uptake and no release can reconcile the discrepancy between DA uptake measured by microdialysis and voltammetry. The model predicts that this trauma layer would cause the DA extraction fraction obtained from microdialysis in vivo calibration techniques, such as no-net-flux, to differ from the DA relative recovery and lead to an underestimation of the DA extracellular concentration in the surrounding normal tissue.

Characterization of probe and tissue factors that influence interpretation of quantitative microdialysis experiments for dopamine

Two quantitative methods, the Lönnroth (no-net-flux) and variation of perfusion flow rate methods, were used to investigate the influence of the probe and tissue on dopamine microdialysis measurements. In vivo measurements were made in the nucleus accumbens of awake, freely moving rats on two consecutive days of dialysis. The results of the no-net-flux study showed that there was no statistically significant difference in extraction fraction at a perfusion flow rate of 2.0 microl/min between in vitro in a well-stirred solution and in vivo measured during 2 days of continuous dialysis. Also, varying the perfusate flow rate over the range 0.25-2.0 microl/min produced a variation in the extraction fraction that was the same in vitro and in vivo. These results indicate that the extraction fraction for dopamine over the 2 days was dominated by the properties of the probe. The negligible influence of the tissue on dopamine extraction fraction was probably due to the high basal activity of the dopamine transporter in vivo. Therefore, the extraction fraction is unlikely to be sensitive to increases in dopamine uptake in the vicinity of the probe. The apparent extracellular dopamine concentration increased by 37% on the second day of dialysis while the calcium-dependence of basal dialysate dopamine levels declined by 20%. These findings are consistent with a decrease in physiological viability of the dopamine nerve terminals surrounding the probe during a long-term experiment.

In vivo microdialysis in the visual cortex of awake cat. III: histological verification

In vivo microdialysis sampling extracellular excitatory and inhibitory amino acids from the striate cortex of mammals will provide important information for visual system research. To facilitate the interpretation of microdialysis results, this protocol critically examines: (1) the location of probe implantation in the visual cortex using Nissl staining; (2) the morphological changes after probe implantation by visualization of neurons containing glutamate; (3) the morphological changes after probe implantation by visualization of gliosis using glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunocytochemistry; (4) the implantation of the probe in sensory-deprived versus non-deprived cortical regions by visualization of neurons containing c-Fos protein after limited retinal lesion. The histochemical and immunocytochemical methods of Glu, GFAP and c-Fos used are described.

In vivo microdialysis in the visual cortex of awake cat. I: surgery, animal training and sampling

Sampling and monitoring release of excitatory and inhibitory amino acids in the striate cortex of mammals will provide important information for visual system research. A method allowing repeated microdialysis in the cortical layers of area 17 of the awake cat is described. Under visual control through a surgical microscope and using a stereotactic instrument, four probe guides are permanently implanted in area 17 of one hemisphere of the anesthetized animal and two fixation bars are mounted on the skull to allow fixation of the cat in a stereotactic frame. The implantation of four probe guides in the same hemisphere allows simultaneous sampling from different cortical regions subserving different parts of the visual field. A removable transparent cover protects the probe guides. After recovery from surgery the awake cats are trained to adapt to a fixation in a stereotaxic apparatus. Once adapted to that situation, the cats are used for 5 h in vivo microdialysis experiments without anesthesia.

Neuromodulation of the prefrontal cortex during sleep: a microdialysis study in rats

To test the hypothesis that biogenic amines of the prefrontal cortex are involved in state-dependent cortical and behavioural activation, changes in extracellular levels of serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA), and noradrenaline (NA) were determined during the sleep-wake cycle in freely moving rats using microdialysis probes with parallel EEG recording. Serotonin gradually increased up to 450% during wakefulness (W) as compared to slow wave sleep (SWS), before decreasing toward stable levels during the next episode of SWS. Dopamine and its metabolite homovanillic acid (HVA) were reduced during W as compared to SWS. Although contradictory with the generally admitted enhancement of DA activity related to vigilance, this may be due to the particular role of DA neurons in the prefrontal cortex. However, DA and HVA showed dramatic changes announcing the transition between SWS and W. During paradoxical sleep (PS), DA and 5-HT showed complex changes, the direction of which depended on whether PS was followed by SWS or W. Biogenic amines of the prefrontal cortex are probably involved in cortical and behavioural activation.

Sampling extracellular aspartate, glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid in striate cortex of awake cat by in vivo microdialysis: surgical and methodological aspects

A method which permits repeated microdialysis in the cortical layers of area 17 of the awake cat is described. Under visual control through a surgical microscope and using a stereotactic instrument, four probe guides are permanently implanted in area 17 of one hemisphere of the anesthetized animal and two fixation bars are mounted on the skull to allow fixation of the cat in a stereotactic frame. The implantation of four probe guides in the same hemisphere allows simultaneous sampling from different cortical regions serving different parts of the visual field. A removable transparent cover protects the probe guides. After recovery from surgery the awake cats are trained to adapt to a fixation of 5 h in a stereotaxic apparatus. Once adapted to that situation, the cats are ready for microdialysis experiments without anesthesia. The day of the experiment, the awake animal was fixed in the stereotactic frame and the probes inserted into the guides. To test the validity of the method, the basal efflux and the depolarization efflux, triggered by the addition of 65 mM K(+) to the artificial cerebrospinal fluid, of the amino acids aspartate, glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid are measured by two HPLC-electrochemical detection methods. The exact localization of the probes and the reaction of the surrounding tissue is studied using immunocytochemistry for glutamate and glial fibrilary acidic protein. Our neurochemical and morphological results suggest the feasibility of multiple and repeated probe insertions for microdialysis experiments in the cerebral cortex of awake and behaving cat. This method provides a new tool to investigate the cortical plasticity.

Declines in stimulated striatal dopamine release over the first 32 h following microdialysis probe insertion: generalization across releasing mechanisms

In a recent paper [R.R. Holson, J.F. Bowyer, P. Clausing, B. Gough, Methamphetamine-stimulated striatal dopamine release declines rapidly over time following microdialysis probe insertion, Brain Res. 739 (1996) 301-307] we reported that methamphetamine-stimulated striatal dopamine release declined rapidly over the first eight hours following microdialysis probe insertion. This decline was strictly a function of time post-probe implantation, and not due to tolerance or desensitization. To further examine this phenomenon, we subjected rats to three brief pulses of several DA-releasing compounds at 2, 4 and 6 h post-probe insertion, and compared these results to those caused by a single pulse 6 h post-insertion, or in some cases to pulses given more than 24 h post-insertion. We found that when buproprion, a dopamine reuptake blocker, was infused briefly into the striatum via the microdialysis probe, there was a pronounced drop in the amount of dopamine released at 6 h vs. 2 h post-insertion; this drop was not due to repeated exposure, since dopamine release at 6 h post-insertion was the same for a single pulse, or when preceded by two earlier pulses. Twenty-four hours later, buproprion-stimulated dopamine release was still lower, but did not appear to drop further thereafter. Potassium-stimulated dopamine release, on the other hand, dropped rapidly over the first 8 h post-insertion, and this decline continued throughout the 24-32 h interval post-insertion. Similarly, a single i.p. injection of 0.5 mg/kg haloperidol released three times as much dopamine when given two compared to six hours post-implantation. Both bupropion- and potassium-stimulated dopamine release were accompanied by declines in extracellular DOPAC concentrations, and these declines were the same 2 or 26 h post-insertion. In contrast, haloperidol exposure increased extracellular DOPAC, and this haloperidol-stimulated DOPAC increase was also greatly attenuated at 6 compared to 2 h post-insertion. We conclude that there is a general decline over time post-probe implantation in the ability of the striatal dopamine system to release dopamine, and perhaps to increase dopamine synthesis, in response to pharmacological challenges.

Simultaneous comparison of cerebral dialysis and push-pull perfusion in the brain of rats: a critical review

Over the last 30 years, studies of the in vivo activity of neurotransmitters and other endogenous factors in the brain have comprised a major effort in the neurosciences. Historically, the technology of push-pull perfusion was utilized as a major approach to investigations in this field. In the last 10 years, cerebral dialysis has been used as an alternative method essentially for the same scientific purpose, since the perfusion technique was viewed as difficult and excessively damaging to tissue. This review considers the representative literature in which both systems have been used to study local neurochemical responses to a drug or other chemical factor, a physiological condition or other situation. In addition, new experiments have been undertaken to compare, in the same animal and at the same time, the utility and properties inherent in the techniques of push-pull perfusion and cerebral dialysis in terms of the profile of a neurotransmitter activity and their local histopathological effects. A miniaturized 33/26 ga push-pull needle and a 24 ga dialysis probe were implanted simultaneously in the left and right caudate nuclei, respectively, in the anesthetized rat. An artificial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was perfused simultaneously through both devices at a rate of 10 microliters/min in the push-pull cannula and at 1.0 or 2.0 microliters/min in the dialysis probe. Within a series of 8-10 successive perfusions, excess K+ ions in a concentration of either 30 or 60 mM were incorporated in the CSF and delivered simultaneously to both the push-pull cannula and dialysis probe. Samples of perfusate and dialysate were assayed chromatographically by coulometric HPLC detector and quantitated in terms of the pg/min efflux of dopamine (DA), 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), homovanillic acid (HVA) and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA). The results showed that the resting level of DA was almost undetectable in dialysate samples from either structure; in push-pull perfusates the recovery of DA ranged between 7.0 to 10.0 pg/min, which was increased threefold by excess K+ ions. The recovery of DA and the three metabolites in samples of push-pull perfusate was two to four times that in samples of dialysate during the condition of excess K+ ions. Post-mortem histological analysis of the sites of perfusion and dialysis revealed little or no differences in the cytological damage induced by either the perfusion needle or dialysis probe. Finally, the advantages and limitations of each of these two experimental approaches to in vivo analysis of neurotransmitter efflux are reviewed in relation to the selection of an open or closed system for the on-line study of in vivo neurochemical events.

Acetylcholine determination of microdialysates of fetal neocortex grafts that induce recovery of learning

The microdialysis technique for acetylcholine (ACh) first became possible when sensitive and specific assays for ACh (pmol/sample range) were developed [G. Damsma, B.H.C. Westerink, P. de Boer, J.B. de Vries, A.S. Horn, Determination of basal acetylcholine release in freely moving rats by transstriatal dialysis coupled to on-line HPLC analysis: pharmacological aspects, Life Sci. 43 (1988) 1161-1168; G. Damsma, B.H.C. Westerink, A. Imperato, H. Rollema, J.B. de Vries, A. S. Horn, Automated brain dialysis of acetylcholine in freely moving rats: detection of basal acetylcholine, Life Sci. 41 (1987) 873-876; P.E. Potter, J.L. Meek, N.H. Neff, Acetylcholine and choline in neural tissue measured by HPLC with electrochemical detection, J. Neurochem. 41 (1983) 188-194; B.H.C. Westerink, G. Damsma, Determination of acetylcholine in microdialysates by HPLC and electrochemical detection, Neurosci. Protocols 20 (1993) 1-9.]. In the present protocol, the microdialysis technique was used to correlate ACh release with the recovery of the ability to acquire a conditioning taste aversion (CTA), by fetal brain grafts in insular cortex (IC) lesioned rats [M.I. Miranda, A.M. Lopez-Colome, F. Bermúdez Rattoni, Recovery of conditional taste aversion induced by fetal neocortex grafts. In vivo correlation of acetylcholine levels, Brain Res. 759 (1997) 141-148]. Three groups of IC lesioned rats showing disrupted CTA received cell suspension grafts of fetal tissue dissected from either the IC or occipital cortex (OC) of 16-day-old rat fetuses. One of the groups of IC-grafted animals was tested after 15 days post-graft; the other groups, IC- and OC-grafted animals, were tested after a recovery time of 45 days, as well as the groups of lesioned and unoperated animals used as control. After the CTA test, guide cannulas were stereotaxically implanted into the IC of all groups. Two days later, microdialysis was performed to determine the extracellular levels of ACh inside the graft. The dialysates were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography and electrochemical detection. The ACh was converted by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase to choline, and subsequently by choline oxidase to hydrogen peroxide [J.L. Meek, C. Eva, Enzymes adsorbed on an ion exchanger as a post-column reactor: application to acetylcholine measurement, J. Chromatogr. 317 (1984) 343-347.]. The reactor with these enzymes was placed between the analytical column and the electrochemical detector. The hydrogen peroxide produced was detected with a platinum electrode, and choline was determined concurrently. We believe that the application of free-moving microdialysis as a method to measure the cholinergic levels inside the transplant at two post-graft periods, is a good, direct technique to correlate the effects of ACh levels from the fetal grafts in lesioned rats.

Application of microdialysis in pharmacokinetic studies

The objective of this review is to survey the recent literature regarding the various applications of microdialysis in pharmacokinetics. Microdialysis is a relatively new technique for sampling tissue extracellular fluid that is gaining popularity in pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies, both in experimental animals and humans. The first part of this review discusses various aspects of the technique with regard to its use in pharmacokinetic studies, such as: quantitation of the microdialysis probe relative recovery, interfacing the sampling technique with analytical instrumentation, and consideration of repeated procedures using the microdialysis probe. The remainder of the review is devoted to a survey of the recent literature concerning pharmacokinetic studies that apply the microdialysis sampling technique. While the majority of the pharmacokinetic studies that have utilized microdialysis have been done in the central nervous system, a growing number of applications are being found in a variety of peripheral tissue types, e.g. skin, muscle, adipose, eye, lung, liver, and blood, and these are considered as well. Given the rising interest in this technique, and the ongoing attempts to adapt it to pharmacokinetic studies, it is clear that microdialysis sampling will have an important place in studying drug disposition and metabolism.

Effect of brain microdialysis on aminergic transmitter levels in repeated cerebral global transient ischemia in rat

The effect of repeated transient global ischemia and microdialysis on changes in aminergic neurotransmitter release was investigated using the rat four-vessel occlusion model of global ischemia. To examine the possible transient or permanent changes in neurotransmitter release, ischemia was induced at varying time points in 5 groups of rats. The first ischemia occurred either 24 h (groups I, II, IV, V) or 96 h (group III) following vertebral artery electro-coagulation and guide probe implantation(s), and the second ischemia was induced either 48 h (groups I, IV, V) or 72 h (group II) following the first ischemia. To assess the consequence of repeated microdialysis on the results, one group of rats (group IV) was not dialysed during the first ischemia and another group (group V) was bilaterally dialysed during the second ischemia. Finally, amphetamine-induced neurotransmitter release was also studied in rats submitted to ischemia and compared with that in normal rats. In each case, dopamine, serotonin and their main metabolites were measured by HPLC with electrochemical detection. Monoamine release was inhibited during the second episode of transient ischemia; this non-release was linked to the repeated microdialysis and not to the repeated ischemia. Although the results of chronic studies using brain microdialysis have been widely recognized as valid, the findings presented here indicate that combined with ischemia, probe reinsertion modifies the level of neurotransmitter release.

Methamphetamine-stimulated striatal dopamine release declines rapidly over time following microdialysis probe insertion

To investigate changes in striatal dopamine release over a series of brief methamphetamine (METH) exposures, METH was pulsed three times at 2-h intervals, with the first exposure occurring 2 h after microdialysis probe insertion. Whether METH was administered directly into the striatum via the microdialysate (20 microM of METH for 10 min), or via peripheral intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection (1 mg/kg METH, i.p.), the dopamine (DA) peak elicited by the third METH exposure was only 50% as large as that elicited by the first exposure, 4 h earlier. This decline in the magnitude of METH-induced DA release probably continued over at least 24 h, since the magnitude of a single peak 26 h after probe implantation was only one-seventh of that at 2 h. This reduction in the response to METH was a function of time post-probe insertion, and not of prior METH exposure. Thus, peak size was the same at 6 h post-implantation in animals which received two prior METH pulses or no prior METH pulses, and in both cases this 6-h peak was substantially lower than that at 2 h post-implantation. Circadian influences were also excluded as a factor, because size of the initial METH-induced DA peak did not vary as a function of time of probe implantation. It is concluded that METH-stimulated striatal DA release declines rapidly over time post-probe insertion. When METH exposures occur repeatedly at short intervals, this decline can mimic, but is not caused by, desensitization or depletion in response to prior METH exposure.

Evaluation of stearate-graphite paste electrodes for chronic measurement of extracellular dopamine concentrations in the mammalian brain

Chronoamperometric procedures, in combination with pharmacological treatments, were used to verify whether stearate-modified graphite paste recording electrodes (SGEs) could measure basal extracellular dopamine (DA) concentrations in the striatum of awake rats over a 3-week period of implantation. Baseline chronoamperometric signals were unaffected by systemic injections of ascorbate (AA) or the monoamine oxidase inhibitor pargyline, or by intraventricular infusions of the AA degrading enzyme AA-oxidase. In contrast, systemic injections of d-amphetamine or nomifensine increased, and gamma-butyrolactone decreased, the signal in a reproducible fashion over a similar test period. In addition, 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the nigrostriatal DA pathway attenuated the ability of d-amphetamine to increase, and gamma-butyrolactone to decrease, the chronoamperometric signal. In separate studies, reverse microdialysis, performed with dialysis probes implanted directly adjacent to SGEs in the striatum, permitted the assessment of electrode selectivity, sensitivity, response linearity, and detection limits to DA. Perfusion of the probe with normal Ringer solution (5 microliters/min) decreased the baseline chronoamperometric signal by 10 nA. Comparable decreases in the baseline signal were observed after systemic injections of gamma-butyrolactone or medial forebrain bundle infusions of tetrodotoxin, suggesting these decreases reflected depletion of extracellular DA to levels below the electrode's detection limit. Reverse dialysis with high concentrations of AA, DOPAC, 5-HT, or 5-HIAA, failed to reverse the decrease in the chronoamperometric signal induced by dialysis. In contrast, reverse dialysis with a physiologically relevant range of DA concentrations, in rats pretreated with the DA uptake blocker nomifensine, increased the chronoamperometric signal in a linear fashion with a detection threshold of < 20 nM. Combined, these results indicate that the baseline chronoamperometric signals recorded at +0.20 V in the striatum with SGEs do not reflect changes in extracellular concentrations of AA, DA metabolites, or indoles, but rather represent neuronally mediated nanomolar changes in extracellular DA concentrations, even after extended periods of implantation in brain tissue.

Dopamine release during cocaine self-administration in rats: effect of SCH23390

This experiment tested the hypotheses that: (1) self-administration of cocaine would produce an increase in dopamine (DA) oxidation current in the nucleus accumbens (n. acc.); and (2) a faster rate of cocaine intake in the presence of a D1 receptor antagonist would produce a greater increase in DA levels. Rats trained to self-administer cocaine under a fixed-ratio 2 schedule were implanted with stearate-modified graphite paste electrodes bilaterally in the n. acc. The effect of pretreatment with the D1 receptor antagonist, SCH23390, on the DA oxidation current associated with self-administration of cocaine (1 mg/inj.) or saline was investigated using chronoamperometry. Pretreatment with SCH23390 produced a 2-fold increase in the amount of cocaine intake. This in turn resulted in a 2-fold increase in the DA oxidation current recorded in the n. acc. Pretreatment with SCH23390 did not, however, produce any significant change in either the number of saline injections received or the DA oxidation current recorded during saline self-administration. These findings show that cocaine increases DA oxidation currents in the n. acc., and that both the rate of cocaine self-administration and the magnitude of these currents increase even further following SCH23390. The results also imply that the baseline rate of cocaine self-administration does not result in the occupation of all possible DA transporter sites.

Chronic clozapine selectively decreases prefrontal cortex dopamine as shown by simultaneous cortical, accumbens, and striatal microdialysis in freely moving rats

We used microdialysis to study the acute and chronic effects of clozapine on the metabolism of dopamine (DA) in terminal areas of the mesocortical, mesolimbic, and nigrostriatal systems simultaneously. In the acute experiment, groups of four rats received the following doses: 0 (vehicle), 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg of clozapine subcutaneously, which resulted in a dose-related increase in extracellular DA, 3,4-dihydroxyphenalacetic acid (DOPAC), and homovanillic acid (HVA) in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). In the nucleus accumbens (NAC) and striatum (STR), no significant changes were observed at any dose. In the chronic experiment, six rats received 20 mg/kg of clozapine and a control group received vehicle daily for 30 days. After 30 days of treatment, DA, DOPAC, and HVA were significantly lower in the PFC, and unchanged in the NAC or STR. The 30th clozapine injection failed to increase DA, DOPAC, or HVA in any of the three regions. We conclude that clozapine acted selectively on the mesocortical system, and that this may underlie clozapine's therapeutic, antipsychotic effect.

On the significance of brain extracellular uric acid detected with in-vivo monitoring techniques: a review

The concentration of uric acid [UA] in the extracellular fluid (ECF) estimated with in-vivo voltammetry and microdialysis data is compared for probes of different diameters from the day of implantation (acute) to several days (chronic) or even months after surgery. For small probes (diameter < 160 microns) the acute [UA] of ca. 5 microM decreased significantly to ca. 1 microM under chronic conditions. For larger probes (e.g., 320-microns diameter) the acute [UA] was also ca. 5 microM, but this value significantly increased to ca. 50 microM under chronic conditions. Associated with this difference in [UA], there were parallel differences in the extent of gliosis around the probes. These findings are discussed in terms of possible sources of extracellular UA and their implications for in-vivo monitoring techniques in behaving animals.

Chronic food deprivation decreases extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens: implications for a possible neurochemical link between weight loss and drug abuse

In rats reduced to 80% of normal body weight (n = 9), the basal levels of extracellular dopamine (DA) in the nucleus accumbens (NAC), as determined by microdialysis, decreased significantly to 33% (mean +/- SEM) of their normal baseline (p < 01). Basal extracellular DA did not change significantly over a matching 3-week period in controls (n = 7). No changes were observed in NAC serotonin after weight reduction. These results indicate that parts of the mesolimbic DA system are depressed in underweight rats. The observed decrease in basal DA may be responsible for a variety of behavioral changes observed in undernourished humans and animals including the tendency to eat and gain weight when food becomes available. Given that DA can be released in the NAC when rats self-inject drugs of abuse, the present findings may help explain why animals increase drug intake when they are underweight.

Brain microdialysis and its application for the study of animal behaviour

Microdialysis is a sampling method that is used to determine the extracellular concentration of neurotransmitters in the brain. The method can be applied to conscious and unrestrained animals and is very suitable for the study of the chemistry of endogenous behaviour. This article reviews the contribution that microdialysis made to our understanding of the chemistry of behaviour. Methodological and practical considerations such as the implantation time and the use of guide cannulas are reviewed. The question whether neurotransmitters and related metabolites in dialysates reflect true synaptic release is critically discussed. There is much evidence that dopamine, noradrenaline, acetylcholine and serotonin in dialysates are related to neurotransmission, but there is serious doubt whether this is the case with amino acid transmitters such as GABA, glutamate and aspartate. Until now far over 100 papers appeared that used microdialysis in behavioural studies. Behavioural activation, the sleep-awake cycle and diurnal rhythms were subject of several of these studies. Various workers have described neurochemical changes in the brain that are related to feeding. Other studies were concerned with sexual behaviour and the sexual cycle in females. Parturition, maternal behaviour and offspring recognition have been studied in a series of microdialysis studies carried out in sheep. An overview is given of the microdialysis studies that were carried out to understand the biochemistry of stress. In this respect dopamine and noradrenaline have received much attention. A great number of microdialysis studies dealt with the role of dopamine in self-stimulation, reward and aversive emotions. It is concluded that microdialysis is at presently the most versatile and practical method to study the chemistry of behaviour and it is to be expected that it will soon be a routine methodology in behavioural research. Finally, perspectives and possible future developments of the methods are discussed.

Neurochemical correlates of sexual exhaustion and recovery as assessed by in vivo microdialysis

The extracellular levels of the dopamine (DA) metabolites dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid (HVA) and the serotonin metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) in the medial preoptic area (MPOA) of male rats were monitored during unrestricted copulation, the ensuing state of sexual refractoriness and the resumption of mating activity. MPOA dialysates were collected from the same animal during four consecutive days. In the first day the subjects were allowed to copulate until reaching a satiation criterion. That was associated with a marked increase in the dialysate levels of the three metabolites assessed. During the next two days the animals remained sexually inactive when exposed to receptive females. Their basal levels of DOPAC and HVA were elevated, whereas those of 5-HIAA remained as low as in the first session. During the non-mating exposure to receptive females there were only minor changes in the three metabolites. By the fourth day, just before the animals resumed copulation, the basal levels of the DA metabolites, especially HVA, had decreased to values closer to those found in the first day. When they mated again to exhaustion the levels of DOPAC, HVA, and 5-HIAA increased as in the first session. The neurochemical changes found during the intervening state of sexual inactivity (i.e. increased levels of DA metabolites) are reminiscent of the effects of DA receptor blockers, which suggests a possible neurochemical mechanism for sexual refractoriness.

Continuous systemic interleukin-1 alpha infusion suppresses food intake without increasing lateral hypothalamic dopamine activity

In addition to its immunomodulatory action, interleukin-1 (IL-1 alpha) induces anorexia centrally. Whether IL-1-induced anorexia is mediated by dopaminergic activity in the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) was investigated by using microdialysis in freely moving rats. After recovery from jugular vein catheterization and LHA cannulation, rats had a microdialysis probe inserted into the LHA. Microdialysis samples were continuously collected in control rats not infused, and in IL-1-treated rats during and after a 24 h continuous systemic infusion of 6 micrograms IL-1 alpha. IL-1 alpha significantly suppressed food intake from 13.6 +/- 0.1 g to 4.3 +/- 0.8 g (p < 0.001), but there was no significant difference in dopamine concentration in the LHA dialysates before, during and after IL-1 alpha infusion relative to controls. Although IL-1 alpha has been shown to act centrally, our results suggest that the anorexic effect of IL-1 alpha is not mediated through dopaminergic activity in the LHA.

Microbore high-performance liquid chromatographic method for the measurement of dopamine and its metabolites: recommendations for optimal sample collection and storage

A microbore high-performance liquid chromatographic method with electrochemical detection was developed for the measurement of small quantities of dopamine and its metabolites, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid and homovanillic acid, in microdialysis samples from rat striatum. The limit of detection of dopamine was in the low nmol/l range (10 fmol/40 microliters dialysate). Standard mixtures of dopamine and its metabolites were stored in tubes made of polypropylene, soda-lime glass or borosilicate glass. Dopamine and homovanillic acid were stable in all three types of container for 24 h providing they were kept at an acidic pH. However, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid was only stable in tubes made of polypropylene or borosilicate glass. Basal levels of dopamine in the dialysate obtained from rats which had been chronically implanted with a microdialysis probe in the anterior striatum were stable for one to three days following probe implantation. However, the levels of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid and homovanillic acid in the dialysate decreased rapidly with time after the first day. This indicates that the synthesizing capacity of the neurons is compromised by the microdialysis probe after day one, and that microdialysis experiments in freely moving animals should be confined to the day immediately following probe implantation.

Electrical kindling is associated with increases in amygdala acetylcholine levels: an in vivo microdialysis study

Using brain microdialysis, acetylcholine (Ach) levels were assessed in the nucleus amygdaloideus lateralis of electrically kindled rats using a cholinesterase inhibitor in the perfusion fluid to prevent Ach breakdown. During kindling development, when the animals displayed afterdischarges lasting more than 30 s but no seizures, a significant increase in Ach levels (+66%) was observed after electrical stimulation. Ach levels were also elevated after a stage 5 kindled seizure (+48%), with no additional increment compared to rats experiencing only afterdischarges. Chronic diazepam administration prevented kindling development and the increment in Ach overflow; however, diazepam itself (following acute administration) tended to decrease Ach levels in the amygdala. These findings are convergent with pharmacological data suggesting that changes in the cholinergic function may be important especially during amygdaloid kindling development.

A previous potassium stimulation enhances the increases of striatal extracellular dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine during global ischaemia under simulated penumbral conditions

The effect of a previous K+ stimulation on striatal extracellular monoamine levels during global ischaemia, under simulated penumbral conditions, was investigated. Rats were implanted with microdialysis probes in both striata, monoamine release was stimulated unilaterally by adding K+ (100 mM, 20 min) to the artificial CSF perfused through one probe, and bilateral partial ischaemia was imposed after monoamine levels had returned to basal values or below. Resultant increases in dialysate levels of dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine were markedly and significantly greater on the side previously exposed to K+, even though electrophysiological measurements indicated similarly severe ischaemia on both sides. Associated monoamine metabolite changes did not differ significantly between the two sides. There was no evidence of greater neuronal loss in the K(+)-stimulated striata 7 days after ischaemia. However, striatal tissue probably exposed to the highest concentrations of K+ could not be examined because of extensive gliosis around the probe.

Striatal tissue preparation facilitates early sampling in microdialysis and reveals an index of neuronal damage

Injury-induced efflux of dopamine was compared between two microdialysis preparations. Rats were implanted with guide cannulae 5-10 days prior to microdialysis experiments. In one group, ventral striatal tissue was punctured with stainless steel obturators that remained in place until the day of the experiment. In the other group, the tissue was not punctured until the microdialysis probes were inserted. Rats from each group were dialyzed with calcium-free artificial extracellular fluid or tetrodotoxin 4 h after probe insertion. In the rats with previously punctured tissue, calcium depletion reduced dialysate dopamine concentrations to 8% of baseline. Dialysis with tetrodotoxin reduced dopamine concentrations to less than 1% of baseline. In the rats with freshly punctured tissue, dopamine concentrations were reduced only to 50% of baseline levels by calcium depletion and to 30% during dialysis with tetrodotoxin. Thus, penetration of the tissue prior to testing can significantly reduce the acute injury-induced efflux of dopamine. Further, a significant correlation was found between baseline 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid/dopamine ratios and the efficacy of tetrodotoxin in reducing dialysate dopamine concentrations. Thus, basal 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid/dopamine ratios appear to provide an index of the amount of injury-induced dopamine efflux following probe insertion.

Effects of acute and chronic lithium treatment on amphetamine-induced dopamine increase in the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex in rats as studied by microdialysis

The effects of acute and chronic administration of lithium (Li) on the basal levels of dopamine (DA), dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), homovanillic acid (HVA) and 5-hydroxy-indoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), and the amphetamine-induced DA increase were assessed in the Nucleus Accumbens (NAC) and Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) by brain dialysis in freely-moving rats. Acute Li (2 meq/L) was locally administered by reverse dialysis. Chronic Li (2 meq/kg) was intragastrically administered for 14 days. No effect was observed after acute Li administration. However, after chronic Li administration, the basal levels of DOPAC and the amphetamine-induced DA increase in the NAC were significantly higher in the Li-treated rats than in the saline-treated controls. In the PFC, while the amphetamine-induced DA increase was not affected by chronic Li, the basal levels of DA and DOPAC were significantly decreased after Li administration. The effects of chronic Li in the NAC could be due to increased synthesis and/or decreased release of DA, whereas in the PFC the effects could be due to a decreased synthesis of DA. The absence of effects of acute Li administration is in agreement with the therapeutic inefficacy of the acute use of the cation. The changes observed after chronic treatment in the NAC and the PFC could be related to the effects of Li on mood disorders and cognitive functions, respectively.

Carbamazepine attenuates cocaine-induced increases in dopamine in the nucleus accumbens: an in vivo dialysis study

Carbamazepine's effects on cocaine-induced increases in dopamine overflow in the nucleus accumbens were studied using in vivo microdialysis in anesthetized rats. Rats were chronically treated with a diet containing carbamazepine or no drug for one week prior to microdialysis procedures. The basal levels of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens did not differ between groups; however, the increases in dopamine following cocaine administration (4 mg/kg i.v.) were significantly reduced by carbamazepine. In addition, basal levels of dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid (DOPAC) were significantly diminished in the carbamazepine group and a trend in the same direction was observed for homovanilic acid (HVA). These results are consistent with reports that carbamazepine might decrease dopamine synthesis. Further studies are required to determine the mechanism of carbamazepine's inhibition of cocaine-induced dopamine overflow and its potential clinical implications.

Corticotropin-releasing factor stimulates catecholamine release in hypothalamus and prefrontal cortex in freely moving rats as assessed by microdialysis

In vivo microdialysis was used to measure changes in extracellular concentrations of catecholamines and indoleamines in freely moving rats in response to administration of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). Dialysis probes were placed stereotaxically in either the medial hypothalamus or the medial prefrontal cortex. We used a repeated-measures design in which each rat received artificial CSF or one dose of CRF 3-4 h apart, and each subject was retested with the same treatments in the reverse order 5-7 days later. With the dialysis probe in the hypothalamus, intracerebroventricular administration of CRF (17 or 330 pmol) dose-dependently increased dialysate concentrations of norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), and all their measurable catabolites except normetanephrine. The effects on NE were substantially greater than those on DA. Dialysate concentrations of serotonin could not be measured reliably, but those of its catabolite, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, were also elevated. Concentrations of NE and DA were elevated within the first one or two (20 min) collection periods, with a peak response at approximately 1-2 h. Dialysate concentrations of catecholamines and metabolites normally returned to baseline within 3 h. Similar data were obtained with dialysis probes in the medial prefrontal cortex after intracerebroventricular administration of 17 or 167 pmol of CRF, except that the increases in DA exceeded those of NE in this region. Intraperitoneal administration of CRF (1 nmol) similarly elevated dialysate concentrations of NE, DA, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and all catecholamine catabolites except normetanephrine in both medial hypothalamus and medial prefrontal cortex. These results support earlier neurochemical data suggesting that CRF administered both centrally and peripherally stimulates the release of both DA and NE in the brain.