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Tolpinrud A, Tadepalli M, Stenos J, Lignereux L, Chaber AL, Devlin JM, Caraguel C, Stevenson MA. Tissue distribution of Coxiella burnetii and antibody responses in macropods co-grazing with livestock in Queensland, Australia. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0303877. [PMID: 38771828 PMCID: PMC11108133 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0303877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, is a zoonotic bacteria of global public health significance. The organism has a complex, diverse, and relatively poorly understood animal reservoir but there is increasing evidence that macropods play some part in the epidemiology of Q fever in Australia. The aim of this cross-sectional survey was to estimate the animal- and tissue-level prevalence of coxiellosis amongst eastern grey (Macropus giganteus) and red (Osphranter rufus) kangaroos co-grazing with domestic cattle in a Q fever endemic area in Queensland. Serum, faeces and tissue samples from a range of organs were collected from 50 kangaroos. A total of 537 tissue samples were tested by real-time PCR, of which 99 specimens from 42 kangaroos (84% of animals, 95% confidence interval [CI], 71% to 93%) were positive for the C. burnetii IS1111 gene when tested in duplicate. Twenty of these specimens from 16 kangaroos (32%, 95% CI 20% to 47%) were also positive for the com1 or htpAB genes. Serum antibodies were present in 24 (57%, 95% CI 41% to 72%) of the PCR positive animals. There was no statistically significant difference in PCR positivity between organs and no single sample type consistently identified C. burnetii positive kangaroos. The results from this study identify a high apparent prevalence of C. burnetii amongst macropods in the study area, albeit seemingly with an inconsistent distribution within tissues and in relatively small quantities, often verging on the limits of detection. We recommend Q fever surveillance in macropods should involve a combination of serosurveys and molecular testing to increase chances of detection in a population, noting that a range of tissues would likely need to be sampled to confirm the diagnosis in a suspect positive animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Tolpinrud
- Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mythili Tadepalli
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, University Hospital Geelong, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - John Stenos
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, University Hospital Geelong, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Louis Lignereux
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia
| | - Anne-Lise Chaber
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia
| | - Joanne M. Devlin
- Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Charles Caraguel
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia
| | - Mark A. Stevenson
- Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Hou KW, Firestone SM, Stevenson MA. Scenario tree modelling to inform surveillance design for maintaining freedom from Coxiella burnetii infection in Australian commercial dairy goat herds. Prev Vet Med 2023; 219:106024. [PMID: 37738752 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2023.106024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
We used scenario tree methods to determine how different disease detection methods might be used to provide quantitative evidence that Australian dairy goat herds are free of coxiellosis. The aim of our proposed C. burnetii surveillance programme is to find evidence of the absence of antigen as well as evidence of an absence of an immune response to C. burnetii infection in individual dairy goat herds. We defined a C. burnetii infected dairy goat herd as a herd in which at least one doe was showing evidence of either active infection or past C. burnetii exposure using four candidate surveillance system components (SSCs): (1) testing of individual doe whole blood using the C. burnetii com1 PCR; (2) testing of individual doe whole blood using the C. burnetii ELISA; (3) testing bulk tank milk (BTM) using the com1 PCR and the C. burnetii ELISA; and (4) investigations of abortions and stillborn kids submitted to a diagnostic laboratory for testing. Of eight candidate surveillance strategies (combinations of the SSCs listed above) individual doe ELISAs every six months combined with monthly BTM PCR and ELISA testing returned the highest surveillance system sensitivity of 0.963 (95% probability interval [PI] 0.911-0.982) for the lowest cost, at AUD 28.94 (95% PI 28.38-30.59) over a 12-month period, for every one percent increase in surveillance system sensitivity. Assuming a probability of disease freedom of 0.10 at the start of the surveillance program and a probability of C. burnetii introduction per month of 0.01 we estimate that 95% confidence that C. burnetii was absent from a herd could be achieved after a single round of individual doe ELISAs followed by period of 6 consecutive monthly BTM PCR and ELISA tests. The results of this study show that selection of the most efficient combination of surveillance system components requires a good understanding of initial herd C. burnetii status and the probability of introduction of infection and how this may change over time. Scenario tree analyses results have provided insight into the key determinants of C. burnetii detection ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- K W Hou
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010 Victoria, Australia
| | - S M Firestone
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010 Victoria, Australia
| | - M A Stevenson
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010 Victoria, Australia.
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Mathews KO, Norris JM, Phalen D, Malikides N, Savage C, Sheehy PA, Bosward KL. Factors associated with Q fever vaccination in Australian wildlife rehabilitators. Vaccine 2023; 41:201-210. [PMID: 36424259 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.10.082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Australian wildlife rehabilitators (AWR) are at risk of contracting Q fever, a serious zoonotic disease caused by Coxiella burnetii. Despite Australian government recommendations for AWR to receive Q fever vaccination (QFV), and the availability of a safe and effective vaccine in Australia, shortfalls in vaccine uptake have been observed in AWR. This study aimed to determine factors associated with QFV status and describe AWR attitudes and potential barriers towards QFV. Data were obtained from a nationwide, online, cross-sectional survey of AWR undertaken in 2018. Approximately-three quarters (200/265; 75.5 %) of those that had heard of Q fever were also aware of the Q fever vaccine, and of those, 25.5 % (51/200) were vaccinated. Barriers to QFV, among unvaccinated respondents who had also heard of Q fever and the vaccine (149/200; 74.5 %), included concerns regarding the safety, efficacy, and importance of the Q fever vaccine. Complacency toward vaccination, convenience of vaccination, and a lack of Q fever knowledge were also notable barriers. Only 27.7 % (41/148) of respondents reported having had vaccination recommended to them. Multivariable logistic regression identified that vaccinated AWR were more likely to be aged ≤ 50 years (OR 4.51, 95 % CI: 2.14-10.11), have had a university level education (OR 2.78, 95 % CI: 1.39-5.73), have resided in New South Wales/Australian Capital Territory and Queensland than in other Australian jurisdictions (OR 2.9, 95 % CI: 1.10-8.83 and OR 4.82, 95 % CI: 1.64-16.00 respectively) and have attended an animal birth (OR 2.14, 95 % CI: 1.02-4.73). Knowledge gaps regarding Q fever and QFV in AWR demonstrated the need for interventions to raise the awareness of the potential health consequences of C. burnetii exposure and Q fever prevention. Education programs to allow AWR to develop an informed perspective of Q fever and QFV, coupled with improvements in vaccine affordability and the implementation of programs to enhance accessibility, may also increase vaccine uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen O Mathews
- The University of Sydney, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, Camden, NSW, Australia
| | - Jacqueline M Norris
- The University of Sydney, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, Camden, NSW, Australia; Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, New South Wales, Australia
| | - David Phalen
- The University of Sydney, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, Camden, NSW, Australia
| | | | | | - Paul A Sheehy
- The University of Sydney, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, Camden, NSW, Australia
| | - Katrina L Bosward
- The University of Sydney, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, Camden, NSW, Australia; Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, New South Wales, Australia.
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Performance Evaluation and Validation of Air Samplers To Detect Aerosolized Coxiella burnetii. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0065522. [PMID: 36073825 PMCID: PMC9602806 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00655-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii, the etiological agent of Q fever, is an intracellular zoonotic pathogen transmitted via the respiratory route. Once released from infected animals, C. burnetii can travel long distances through air before infecting another host. As such, the ability to detect the presence of C. burnetii in air is important. In this study, three air samplers, AirPort MD8, BioSampler, and the Coriolis Micro, were assessed against a set of predetermined criteria in the presence of three different aerosolized C. burnetii concentrations. Two liquid collection media, phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and alkaline polyethylene glycol (Alk PEG), were tested with devices requiring a collection liquid. Samples were tested by quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay (qPCR) targeting the single-copy com1 gene or multicopy insertion element IS1111. All air samplers performed well at detecting airborne C. burnetii across the range of concentrations tested. At high nebulized concentrations, AirPort MD8 showed higher, but variable, recovery probabilities. While the BioSampler and Coriolis Micro recovered C. burnetii at lower concentrations, the replicates were far more repeatable. At low and intermediate nebulized concentrations, results were comparable in the trials between air samplers, although the AirPort MD8 had consistently higher recovery probabilities. In this first study validating air samplers for their ability to detect aerosolized C. burnetii, we found that while all samplers performed well, not all samplers were equal. It is important that these results are further validated under field conditions. These findings will further inform efforts to detect airborne C. burnetii around known point sources of infection. IMPORTANCE Coxiella burnetii causes Q fever in humans and coxiellosis in animals. It is important to know if C. burnetii is present in the air around putative sources as it is transmitted via inhalation. This study assessed air samplers (AirPort MD8, BioSampler, and Coriolis Micro) for their efficacy in detecting C. burnetii. Our results show that all three devices could detect aerosolized bacteria effectively; however, at high concentrations the AirPort performed better than the other two devices, showing higher percent recovery. At intermediate and low concentrations AirPort detected at a level higher than or similar to that of other samplers. Quantification of samples was hindered by the limit of quantitation of the qPCR assay. Compared with the other two devices, the AirPort was easier to handle and clean in the field. Testing air around likely sources (e.g., farms, abattoirs, and livestock saleyards) using validated sampling devices will help better estimate the risk of Q fever to nearby communities.
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Fu M, He P, OuYang X, Yu Y, Wen B, Zhou D, Xiong X, Yuan Q, Jiao J. Novel genotypes of Coxiella burnetii circulating in rats in Yunnan Province, China. BMC Vet Res 2022; 18:204. [PMID: 35624449 PMCID: PMC9137106 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-022-03310-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Coxiella burnetii (Cb) is the causative agent of the zoonotic disease Q fever which is distributed worldwide. Molecular typing of Cb strains is essential to find out the infectious source and prevent Q fever outbreaks, but there has been a lack of typing data for Cb strains in China. The aim of this study was to investigate the genotypes of Cb strains in wild rats in Yunnan Province, China. RESULTS Eighty-six wild rats (Rattus flavipectus) were collected in Yunnan Province and 8 of the 86 liver samples from the wild rats were positive in Cb-specific quantitative PCR (qPCR). The Cb strains from the 8 rats were then typed into 3 genotypes using 10-spacer multispacer sequence typing (MST), and 2 of the 3 genotypes were recognized as novel ones. Moreover, the Cb strains in the wild rats were all identified as genotype 1 using 6-loci multilocus variable number of tandem repeat analysis (MLVA). CONCLUSIONS This is the first report of genotypic diversity of Cb strains from wild rats in China. Further studies are needed to explore the presence of more genotypes and to associate the genotypes circulating in the wildlife-livestock interaction with those causing human disease to further expand on the epidemiological aspects of the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengjiao Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Peisheng He
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuan OuYang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yonghui Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Bohai Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongsheng Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaolu Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Qinghong Yuan
- Yunnan Institute of Endemic Diseases Control and Prevention, Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Natural Focal Disease Control and Prevention, Yunnan, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jun Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, People's Republic of China.
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Hou KW, Wiethoelter AK, Stevenson MA, Soares Magalhaes RJ, Lignereux L, Caraguel C, Stenos J, Vincent G, Aleri JW, Firestone SM. A cross-sectional survey of risk factors for the presence of Coxiella burnetii in Australian commercial dairy goat farms. Aust Vet J 2022; 100:296-305. [PMID: 35582949 PMCID: PMC9543512 DOI: 10.1111/avj.13163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The largest Australian farm‐based outbreak of Q fever originated from a dairy goat herd. We surveyed commercial dairy goat farms across Australia by testing bulk tank milk (BTM) samples using a commercial indirect enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay and two quantitative polymerase chain reactions (PCRs). Of the 66 commercial dairy goat herds on record, managers from 61 herds were contacted and 49 provided BTM samples. Five of the surveyed herds were positive on at least one of the diagnostic tests, thus herd‐level apparent prevalence was 10% (95% confidence interval [CI] 4 to 22). True prevalence was estimated to be 3% (95% credible interval: 0 to 18). Herd managers completed a questionnaire on herd management, biosecurity and hygiene practices and risk factors were investigated using multivariable logistic regression. Herds with >900 milking does (the upper quartile) were more likely to be Coxiella burnetii positive (odds ratio = 6.75; 95% CI 1.65 to 27.7) compared with farms with ≤900 milking does. The odds of BTM positivity increased by a factor of 2.53 (95% CI 1.51 to 4.22) for each order of magnitude increase in the number of goats per acre. C. burnetii was not detected in samples from the majority of the Australian dairy goat herds suggesting there is an opportunity to protect the industry and contain this disease with strengthened biosecurity practices. Intensification appeared associated with an increased risk of positivity. Further investigation is required to discriminate the practices associated with an increased risk of introduction to disease‐free herds, from practices associated with maintenance of C. burnetii infection in infected dairy goat herds.
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Affiliation(s)
- K W Hou
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - A K Wiethoelter
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - M A Stevenson
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - R J Soares Magalhaes
- UQ Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, 4343, Australia
| | - L Lignereux
- School of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, Roseworthy Campus, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia, 5371, Australia
| | - C Caraguel
- School of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, Roseworthy Campus, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia, 5371, Australia
| | - J Stenos
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Barwon Health, Geelong, Victoria, 3220, Australia
| | - G Vincent
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Barwon Health, Geelong, Victoria, 3220, Australia
| | - J W Aleri
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, Western Australia, 6150, Australia.,Centre for Animal Production and Health, Future Foods Institute, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, Western Australia, 6150, Australia
| | - S M Firestone
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
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Huang HHH, Power RI, Mathews KO, Ma GC, Bosward KL, Šlapeta J. Cat fleas ( Ctenocephalides felis clade 'Sydney') are dominant fleas on dogs and cats in New South Wales, Australia: Presence of flea-borne Rickettsia felis, Bartonella spp. but absence of Coxiella burnetii DNA. CURRENT RESEARCH IN PARASITOLOGY & VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES 2022; 1:100045. [PMID: 35284882 PMCID: PMC8906117 DOI: 10.1016/j.crpvbd.2021.100045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis) is the most common flea species parasitising both domestic cats and dogs globally. Fleas are known vectors of zoonotic pathogens such as vector-borne Rickettsia spp. and Bartonella spp. and could theoretically transmit Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever. A total of 107 fleas were collected from 21 cats and 14 dogs in veterinary clinics, a feline rescue organisation and a grooming salon in New South Wales, Australia, to undergo PCR detection of Bartonella spp., Rickettsia spp. and C. burnetii DNA. Morphological identification confirmed that the cat flea (C. felis) is the most common flea in New South Wales, Australia, with only a single stick fast flea, Echidnophaga gallinacea recorded. The examined fleas (n = 35) at the cox1 locus revealed five closely related C. felis haplotypes (inter-haplotype distance < 0.5%). Multiplex TaqMan qPCR targeting the gltA (Rickettsia spp.) and ssrA (Bartonella spp.) genes was positive in 22.9% (95% CI: 11.8–39.3%) and 11.4% (95% CI: 3.9–26.6%) of samples, respectively. None of the DNA isolated from fleas was positive on TaqMan qPCRs targeting the C. burnetii IS1111, Com1 and htpAB genes. Co-infection of C. felis with Bartonella henselae and Bartonella clarridgeiae was demonstrated using gltA and ssrA Illumina next-generation amplicon sequencing. These findings reinforce the importance of flea control on domestic dogs and cats to effectively control the transmission of Rickettsia felis and Bartonella spp. The flea, however, is unlikely to be a vector of C. burnetii between companion animals and humans. The cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis) is the flea species on cats and dogs in New South Wales Australia. Absence of Coxiella burnetii DNA in flea extract, but presence of Rickettsia felis. Detection of Bartonella DNA using gltA and ssrA Illumina next-generation amplicon sequencing.
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Clune T, Besier S, Hair S, Hancock S, Lockwood A, Thompson A, Jelocnik M, Jacobson C. Chlamydia pecorum detection in aborted and stillborn lambs from Western Australia. Vet Res 2021; 52:84. [PMID: 34116730 PMCID: PMC8196467 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-021-00950-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Lamb survival is an important welfare and productivity issue for sheep industries worldwide. Lower lamb survival has been reported for primiparous ewes, but the causes of this are not well studied. The aim of this study was to determine causes of perinatal deaths for lambs born to primiparous ewes in Western Australia, and identify if infectious diseases are implicated. Lamb mortality from birth to marking were determined for 11 primiparous ewe flocks on 10 farms in Western Australia. Lamb mortality from birth to marking averaged 14% for single-born and 26% for multiple-born lambs. Lamb necropsies (n = 298) identified starvation–mismosthering–exposure (34%), dystocia (24%) and stillbirth (15%) as the most common causes of perinatal lamb death. There was no evidence of exotic abortigenic pathogens in aborted and stillborn lambs (n = 35). Chlamydia pecorum was detected by qPCR in 15/35 aborted and stillborn lambs on 5/6 farms. Preliminary molecular characterisation of C. pecorum detected in samples from aborted and stillborn lambs (n = 8) using both Multilocus Sequence Typing and ompA genotyping indicated all strains were genetically identical to previously described pathogenic livestock strains, denoted ST23, and dissimilar to gastrointestinal strains. High frequency of detection of a pathogenic C. pecorum strains ST23 associated with ovine abortion and stillbirth on multiple farms located across a wide geographic area has not been previously reported. Chlamydia pecorum may contribute to reproductive wastage for primiparous sheep in Western Australia. Further investigation to understand C. pecorum epidemiology and impact on sheep reproduction is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Clune
- Centre for Animal Production and Health, Murdoch University, South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
| | - Shane Besier
- Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, South Perth, WA, 6151, Australia
| | - Sam Hair
- Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, South Perth, WA, 6151, Australia
| | - Serina Hancock
- Centre for Animal Production and Health, Murdoch University, South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
| | - Amy Lockwood
- Centre for Animal Production and Health, Murdoch University, South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
| | - Andrew Thompson
- Centre for Animal Production and Health, Murdoch University, South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
| | - Martina Jelocnik
- Genecology Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, 90 Sippy Downs Drive, Sippy Downs, QLD, 4557, Australia
| | - Caroline Jacobson
- Centre for Animal Production and Health, Murdoch University, South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia.
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9
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Muleme M, Devlin JM, Campbell A, Vincent G, Benham PJ, Sprohnle C, Stent A, Cameron A, Islam A, Graves S, Wilks C, Stenos J, Firestone SM. A randomised controlled trial of the immunogenicity and safety of a formaldehyde-inactivated Coxiella burnetii vaccine in 8-week-old goats. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2021; 236:110253. [PMID: 33940537 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2021.110253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii causes Q fever in individuals exposed to infected ruminants. Vaccination in 3-4-month-old goats, has been reported to result in significantly greater reduction in C. burnetii shedding compared to goats vaccinated one month before breeding, the most commonly used strategy of controlling Q fever on infected intensively-managed herds. It is possible that an even greater reduction in the number of animals shedding C. burnetii could be achieved if vaccination were administered shortly after protection from colostrum antibodies wanes and animals become susceptible to infection with C. burnetii. This study aimed to evaluate the immunogenicity and safety of a formaldehyde-inactivated phase 1 C. burnetii vaccine in 8-week-old goats. Two injections, four weeks apart, elicited specific IgM and IgG responses in all vaccinated goats (n = 6), while no antibodies were detected in two control groups (n = 12). Swelling at the site of inoculation was observed in all the vaccinated and in 10/11 of the placebo-treated goats but receded after 3 weeks. Weight change and rectal temperatures were also comparable between vaccinated and control goats. The data indicated that this vaccine could be suitable for immunising 8-week-old goats, although further trials to determine level of protection against challenge are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Muleme
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.
| | - Joanne M Devlin
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Angus Campbell
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Gemma Vincent
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Paul John Benham
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Cleide Sprohnle
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Andrew Stent
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Alexander Cameron
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Aminul Islam
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Stephen Graves
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Colin Wilks
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - John Stenos
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Simon M Firestone
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
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10
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Hussain-Yusuf H, Stenos J, Vincent G, Shima A, Abell S, Preece ND, Tadepalli M, Hii SF, Bowie N, Mitram K, Graves S. Screening for Rickettsia, Coxiella and Borrelia Species in Ticks from Queensland, Australia. Pathogens 2020; 9:E1016. [PMID: 33276564 PMCID: PMC7761571 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9121016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick bites in Australia are linked to the transmission of a variety of infectious diseases in humans, livestock and wildlife. Despite this recognition, little is currently known about the variety of potential pathogens that are carried and transmitted by Australian ticks. In this study, we attempted to expand knowledge of Australian tick-borne bacterial pathogens by analyzing various tick species from the state of Queensland for potential human pathogens belonging to the Rickettsia, Coxiella and Borrelia genera. A total of 203 ticks, comprising of four genera and nine different tick species, were screened by specific qPCR assays. An overall Rickettsia qPCR positivity of 6.4% (13/203) was detected with rickettsial DNA found in four tick species (Ixodes holocyclus, I. tasmani, Amblyommatriguttatum, and Haemaphysalis longicornis). Amplification and analysis of several rickettsial genes from rickettsial qPCR positive samples identified sequences closely related to but genetically distinct from several previously described cultured and uncultured rickettsial species in the Rickettsia spotted fever subgroup. No ticks were positive for either Coxiella or Borrelia DNA. This work suggests that a further diversity of rickettsiae remain to be described in Australian ticks with the full importance of these bacteria to human and animal health yet to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazizul Hussain-Yusuf
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong University Hospital, Geelong 3216, Victoria, Australia; (H.H.-Y.); (G.V.); (M.T.); (S.F.H.); (S.G.)
| | - John Stenos
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong University Hospital, Geelong 3216, Victoria, Australia; (H.H.-Y.); (G.V.); (M.T.); (S.F.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Gemma Vincent
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong University Hospital, Geelong 3216, Victoria, Australia; (H.H.-Y.); (G.V.); (M.T.); (S.F.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Amy Shima
- Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science, James Cook University, Townsville 4611, Queensland, Australia; (A.S.); (N.D.P.)
| | - Sandra Abell
- Centre for Tropical Biodiversity and Climate Change, James Cook University, Townsville 4611, Queensland, Australia; (S.A.); (N.B.); (K.M.)
| | - Noel D. Preece
- Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science, James Cook University, Townsville 4611, Queensland, Australia; (A.S.); (N.D.P.)
- Research Institute for Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin 0815, Northern Territory, Australia
| | - Mythili Tadepalli
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong University Hospital, Geelong 3216, Victoria, Australia; (H.H.-Y.); (G.V.); (M.T.); (S.F.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Sze Fui Hii
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong University Hospital, Geelong 3216, Victoria, Australia; (H.H.-Y.); (G.V.); (M.T.); (S.F.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Naomi Bowie
- Centre for Tropical Biodiversity and Climate Change, James Cook University, Townsville 4611, Queensland, Australia; (S.A.); (N.B.); (K.M.)
| | - Kate Mitram
- Centre for Tropical Biodiversity and Climate Change, James Cook University, Townsville 4611, Queensland, Australia; (S.A.); (N.B.); (K.M.)
| | - Stephen Graves
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong University Hospital, Geelong 3216, Victoria, Australia; (H.H.-Y.); (G.V.); (M.T.); (S.F.H.); (S.G.)
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Nepean Hospital, NSW Health Pathology, Penrith 2747, New South Wales, Australia
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11
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Zhang P, Jiao J, Zhao Y, Fu M, Wang J, Song Y, Zhou D, Wang Y, Wen B, Yang R, Xiong X. Development and evaluation of an up-converting phosphor technology-based lateral flow assay for rapid and quantitative detection of Coxiella burnetii phase I strains. BMC Microbiol 2020; 20:251. [PMID: 32787788 PMCID: PMC7425161 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-020-01934-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium that causes a zoonotic disease commonly called Q fever globally. In this study, an up-converting phosphor technology-based lateral flow (UPT-LF) assay was established for the rapid and specific detection of phase I strains of C. burnetii. Results Specific monoclonal antibodies (10B5 and 10G7) against C. burnetii phase I strains were prepared and selected for use in the UPT-LF assay by the double-antibody-sandwich method. The detection sensitivity of the Coxiella-UPT-LF was 5 × 104 GE/ml for a purified C. burnetii phase I strain and 10 ng/ml for LPS of C. burnetii Nine Mile phase I (NMI). Good linearity was observed for C. burnetii phase I and NMI LPS quantification (R2 ≥ 0.989). The UPT-LF assay also exhibited a high specificity to C. burnetii, without false-positive results even at 108 GE/ml of non-specific bacteria, and good inclusivity for detecting different phase I strains of C. burnetii. Moreover, the performance of the Coxiella-UPT-LF assay was further confirmed using experimentally and naturally infected samples. Conclusions Our results indicate that Coxiella-UPT-LF is a sensitive and reliable method for rapid screening of C. burnetii, suitable for on-site detection in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pingping Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of POCT for Bio-emergency and Clinic (No.BZ0329), Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Jun Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of POCT for Bio-emergency and Clinic (No.BZ0329), Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Yong Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of POCT for Bio-emergency and Clinic (No.BZ0329), Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Mengjiao Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of POCT for Bio-emergency and Clinic (No.BZ0329), Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Jin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of POCT for Bio-emergency and Clinic (No.BZ0329), Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Yajun Song
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of POCT for Bio-emergency and Clinic (No.BZ0329), Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Dongsheng Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of POCT for Bio-emergency and Clinic (No.BZ0329), Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Yongqiang Wang
- Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Bohai Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of POCT for Bio-emergency and Clinic (No.BZ0329), Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Ruifu Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China. .,Beijing Key Laboratory of POCT for Bio-emergency and Clinic (No.BZ0329), Beijing, P. R. China.
| | - Xiaolu Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, P. R. China. .,Beijing Key Laboratory of POCT for Bio-emergency and Clinic (No.BZ0329), Beijing, P. R. China.
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12
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Ma GC, Norris JM, Mathews KO, Chandra S, Šlapeta J, Bosward KL, Ward MP. New insights on the epidemiology of Coxiella burnetii in pet dogs and cats from New South Wales, Australia. Acta Trop 2020; 205:105416. [PMID: 32105667 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Q fever is considered one of the most important zoonoses in Australia. Whilst ruminants are the primary reservoirs for Coxiella burnetii, and the major source of human infection, human cases have also been reported following contact with pet dogs and cats. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of seropositivity to, and bacterial shedding of, C. burnetii by pet dogs and cats in a region with a high human Q fever incidence and explore risk factors for C. burnetii exposure. Samples (serum, whole blood, reproductive tissue, reproductive swabs) and questionnaires (completed by the pet's owner) were collected from dogs and cats from eight communities across remote New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Overall 86/330 dogs (26.1%, 95% CI 21.3-30.8%) and 19/145 cats (13.1%, 95% CI 7.6-18.6%) were seropositive to C. burnetii. Seroprevalence varied significantly between communities and was highest in communities within 150 km of a 2015 human Q fever outbreak. Feeding raw kangaroo was identified as a risk factor for seropositivity (adjusted OR 3.37, 95% CI 1.21-9.43). Coxiella burnetii DNA was not detected from any dog or cat whole blood, reproductive tissue or vaginal/preputial swab using qPCR targeting the IS1111 and com1 genes. Our findings suggest that companion animals are frequently exposed to C. burnetii in western NSW. Geographical variation in C. burnetii seroprevalence amongst companion animals - which corresponds with a human Q fever outbreak - suggests a shared environmental source of infection is likely with important consequences for public and animal health. The lack of detection of C. burnetii DNA from healthy companion animals suggests that pet dogs and cats are not an important reservoir for human Q fever infection outside a narrow periparturient window.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma C Ma
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, the University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
| | - Jacqueline M Norris
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, the University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Karen O Mathews
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, the University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Shona Chandra
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, the University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jan Šlapeta
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, the University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Katrina L Bosward
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, the University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Michael P Ward
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, the University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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13
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Shapiro A, Bosward K, Mathews K, Vincent G, Stenos J, Tadepalli M, Norris J. Molecular detection of Coxiella burnetii in raw meat intended for pet consumption. Zoonoses Public Health 2020; 67:443-452. [PMID: 32347659 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The discovery of antibodies against Coxiella burnetii in cattery-confined breeding cats indicating prior or current exposure (Shapiro et al., 2015) prompted an investigation into possible sources of infection. One hypothesis was that raw meat diets containing reservoir species may provide a source of C. burnetii transmission. The aim of this pilot study was to determine whether C. burnetii DNA was present in raw meat sold exclusively for companion animal consumption. The sample population consisted of raw meat packages (n = 58) of primarily kangaroo origin, with three to four aliquots (50-120 mg) randomly selected from each package. Genomic DNA was extracted from whole tissue in each of these aliquots using a modified protocol. Three quantitative PCR assays were used for the detection of C. burnetii targeting the IS1111 gene, the heat shock operon htpAB and the C. burnetii outer membrane protein-coding gene, com1. Coxiella burnetii DNA was detected in 25/58 samples (43%) using the IS1111, htpAB and/or com1 PCR assays and confirmed by DNA sequencing. All samples amplifying a product in the com1 assay also amplified a product in the htpAB and IS1111 assays. A total of 17/58 (29%) packets were positive with all three genes, 4/58 (7%) were positive with two genes (IS1111 and htpAB) and 4/58 (7%) were positive with the IS1111 gene only. Coxiella burnetii DNA was five times more likely to be found in offal than skeletal muscle meat samples. All meat samples in which C. burnetii DNA was found were from kangaroo tissues, while samples labelled as non-kangaroo meat (n = 4) were negative. Multi-locus variable number of tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) identified three different genotypes of C. burnetii that have all been identified previously from Australian human clinical Q fever cases. Further investigations are required to determine the potential role of certain raw meats in the transmission of C. burnetii to cats and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Shapiro
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Katrina Bosward
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Karen Mathews
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Gemma Vincent
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong, Vic., Australia
| | - John Stenos
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong, Vic., Australia
| | - Mythili Tadepalli
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Geelong, Vic., Australia
| | - Jacqueline Norris
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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14
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Cornejo J, Araya P, Ibáñez D, Hormazabal JC, Retamal P, Fresno M, Herve LP, Lapierre L. Identification of Coxiella burnetii in Tank Raw Cow Milk: First Findings from Chile. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2019; 20:228-230. [PMID: 31765291 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2019.2535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii causes Q fever, an important zoonotic disease, and exposure is mainly associated with inhalation of contaminated aerosols. In South America, no systematic studies have been carried out. In Chile, the only official record of Q fever has been an outbreak of occupational context occurring in 1998 with eight confirmed human cases, all workers in the Agriculture and Livestock Service. Recently, in 2017 a Q fever outbreak was reported from dairy farm workers in two regions in southern Chile. This study determined the presence of C. burnetii in bulk tank milk samples from dairy farms obtained during this outbreak. A duplex real time quantitative PCR assay with primers and probes targeting two different gene sequences, IS1111 and com1, was used for diagnosis. C. burnetii was detected in 2 of 105 samples analyzed (2.1%). These results pose a potential public health risk as the milk from these farms was sold to the local human population. This is the first report on detecting C. burnetii in raw tank milk samples in Chile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javiera Cornejo
- Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Pamela Araya
- Bacteriology Laboratory, Public Health Institute of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Daniel Ibáñez
- Bacteriology Laboratory, Public Health Institute of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Patricio Retamal
- Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Research Network for Emerging and Re-emerging Zoonosis, Santiago, Chile
| | - Marcela Fresno
- Research Network for Emerging and Re-emerging Zoonosis, Santiago, Chile.,Nucleus of Applied Research in Veterinary and Agronomic Sciences, Universidad de las Américas, Santiago, Chile
| | - Luis Pablo Herve
- Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Lisette Lapierre
- Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Research Network for Emerging and Re-emerging Zoonosis, Santiago, Chile
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15
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Evaluation of the Possibility of C. Burnetii Transmission by the Alimentary Route in a Guinea Pig Model. J Vet Res 2019; 63:311-315. [PMID: 31572809 PMCID: PMC6749735 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2019-0055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Q fever (coxiellosis) is an infectious disease of animals and humans, caused by.C. burnetii and widely distributed throughout the world. It is known that people and animals acquire the disease predominantly.via inhalation of infectious aerosols. The possibility of transmission of the pathogen by the alimentary route is still a matter of debate and remains controversial. Therefore the aim of this study was to fill the gaps in knowledge of oral transmission of.C. burnetii by conducting biological tests on the guinea pig model. Material and Methods Guinea pigs, divided into five groups comprising a negative control and four experimental groups, received specified concentrations of.C. burnetii per os. To determine the presence of specific antibodies, blood samples were tested using CFT. Also, internal organs collected during necropsy were screened by a real-time PCR targeting I.1111. Additionally, histopathological evaluation of the tissues was performed. Results The presence of antibodies and pathogen DNA in caecum was confirmed in one guinea pig from experimental group IV..C. burnetii was also detected in testicular tissue collected from one animal of experimental group II. Conclusions The presence of pathogen DNA in the testicular tissue indicates that infection spreads haematogenously. In the majority of experimental animals specific antibodies and genetic material of.C. burnetii were not detected. This fact suggests that development of infection depends on many factors, such as animal immune status.
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16
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Islam A, Stenos J, Vincent G, Graves S. A Short Report on the Lack of a Pyrogenic Response of Australian Genomic Group IV Isolates of Coxiella burnetii in Guinea Pigs. Trop Med Infect Dis 2019; 4:tropicalmed4010018. [PMID: 30691029 PMCID: PMC6473353 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed4010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2018] [Revised: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This small study reports on a non-pyrogenic response of five different Australian isolates of Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii). They were all members of Genomic Group IV and obtained from three cases of acute human infection, one case of chronic human infection and one case of goat abortion. The guinea pigs infected with these isolates did not develop fever (temperature ≥ 40.0 °C), which is consistent with other members of this genomic group that were isolated from elsewhere in the world. In contrast, guinea pigs infected with the classical USA tick isolate, Nine Mile phase 1 (RSA 493) of Genomic Group I, experienced a four-day febrile period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aminul Islam
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, University Hospital Geelong, Geelong, Victoria 3220, Australia.
| | - John Stenos
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, University Hospital Geelong, Geelong, Victoria 3220, Australia.
| | - Gemma Vincent
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, University Hospital Geelong, Geelong, Victoria 3220, Australia.
| | - Stephen Graves
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, University Hospital Geelong, Geelong, Victoria 3220, Australia.
- New South Wales Health Pathology, Nepean Hospital, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia.
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17
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González-Barrio D, Ruiz-Fons F. Coxiella burnetii in wild mammals: A systematic review. Transbound Emerg Dis 2018; 66:662-671. [PMID: 30506629 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is a multi-host bacterium that causes Q fever in humans, a zoonosis that is emerging worldwide. The ecology of C. burnetii in wildlife is still poorly understood and the influence of host, environmental and pathogen factors is almost unknown. This study gathers current published information on different aspects of C. burnetii infection in wildlife, even in species with high reservoir potential and a high rate of interaction with livestock and humans, in order to partially fill the existing gap and highlight future needs. Exposure and/or infection by C. burnetii has, to date, been reported in 109 wild mammal species. The limited sample size of most of the existing studies could suggest an undervalued prevalence of C. burnetii infection. Knowledge on the clinical outcome of C. burnetii infection in wildlife is also very limited, but currently includes reproductive failure in waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), roan antelope (Hippotragus niger), dama gazelle (Nanger dama) and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and placentitis in the Pacific harbor seal (Phoca vitulina richardsi), Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). The currently available serological tests need to be optimised and validated for each wildlife species. Finally, there is a huge gap in the research on C. burnetii control in wildlife, despite of the increasing evidence that wildlife is a source of C. burnetii for both livestock and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- David González-Barrio
- Health & Biotechnology (SaBio) Group, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (CSIC-UCLM-JCCM), Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Francisco Ruiz-Fons
- Health & Biotechnology (SaBio) Group, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (CSIC-UCLM-JCCM), Ciudad Real, Spain
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18
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Canevari JT, Firestone SM, Vincent G, Campbell A, Tan T, Muleme M, Cameron AWN, Stevenson MA. The prevalence of Coxiella burnetii shedding in dairy goats at the time of parturition in an endemically infected enterprise and associated milk yield losses. BMC Vet Res 2018; 14:353. [PMID: 30453951 PMCID: PMC6245909 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-018-1667-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background This was a panel study of the prevalence of C. burnetii infection in does in an endemic dairy goat enterprise in Victoria, Australia. Our first objective was to determine the prevalence of does shedding C. burnetii at the time of parturition and to quantify the concentration of genome equivalents (GE) present in each C. burnetii positive sample. Our second objective was to determine the proportion of positive does that were persistent shedders. Our final objective was to quantify the association between C. burnetii qPCR status at the time of kidding and daily milk volumes produced during the subsequent lactation. Results Vaginal swabs (n= 490) were collected from does at the time of kidding and analysed using a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay. Shedding of C. burnetii was detected in 15% (95% CI: 12% to 18%) of the sampled does. Does were classified as qPCR-negative, qPCR-positive low and qPCR-positive high based on the estimated concentration of GE from the qPCR. Persistent shedding at relatively low concentrations was detected in 20% (95% CI: 10% to35%) of shedding does sampled again at their subsequent parturition. After controlling for possible confounders and adjusting for variation in daily milk yields at the individual doe level, daily milk yields for qPCR-positive high does were reduced by 17% (95% CI: 3% to 32%) compared to qPCR-negative does (p= 0.02). Conclusions Shedding concentrations of C. burnetii were highly skewed, with a relatively small group of does shedding relatively high quantities of C. burnetii. Further, high shedding does had reduced milk yields compared to qPCR-negative does. Early detection and culling of high shedding does would result in increased farm profitability and reduce the risk of Q fever transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- José T Canevari
- Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Corner Park Drive and Flemington Road, Parkville Victoria, 3010, Australia. .,Instituto de Investigación Animal del Chaco Semiárido, INTA, Leales, Tucumán, 4113, Argentina.
| | - Simon M Firestone
- Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Corner Park Drive and Flemington Road, Parkville Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Gemma Vincent
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Ballerine Street, Geelong Victoria, 3220, Australia
| | - Angus Campbell
- Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Corner Park Drive and Flemington Road, Parkville Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Tabita Tan
- Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Corner Park Drive and Flemington Road, Parkville Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Michael Muleme
- Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Corner Park Drive and Flemington Road, Parkville Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | | | - Mark A Stevenson
- Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Corner Park Drive and Flemington Road, Parkville Victoria, 3010, Australia
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19
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Chalada MJ, Stenos J, Vincent G, Barker D, Bradbury RS. A Molecular Survey of Tick-Borne Pathogens from Ticks Collected in Central Queensland, Australia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2018; 18:151-163. [PMID: 29336689 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2017.2182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Central Queensland (CQ) is a large and isolated, low population density, remote tropical region of Australia with a varied environment. The region has a diverse fauna and several species of ticks that feed upon that fauna. This study examined 518 individual ticks: 177 Rhipicephalus sanguineus (brown dog tick), 123 Haemaphysalis bancrofti (wallaby tick), 102 Rhipicephalus australis (Australian cattle tick), 47 Amblyomma triguttatum (ornate kangaroo tick), 57 Ixodes holocyclus (paralysis tick), 9 Bothriocroton tachyglossi (CQ short-beaked echidna tick), and 3 Ornithodoros capensis (seabird soft tick). Tick midguts were pooled by common host or environment and screened for four genera of tick-borne zoonoses by PCR and sequencing. The study examined a total of 157 midgut pools of which 3 contained DNA of Coxiella burnetii, 13 Rickettsia gravesii, 1 Rickettsia felis, and 4 other Rickettsia spp. No Borrelia spp. or Babesia spp. DNA were recovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Judith Chalada
- 1 School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University , North Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia
| | - John Stenos
- 2 Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory , Barwon Health, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Gemma Vincent
- 2 Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory , Barwon Health, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Dayana Barker
- 3 School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland , Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Richard Stewart Bradbury
- 1 School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University , North Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia
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20
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Muleme M, Campbell A, Stenos J, Devlin JM, Vincent G, Cameron A, Graves S, Wilks CR, Firestone S. A longitudinal study of serological responses to Coxiella burnetii and shedding at kidding among intensively-managed goats supports early use of vaccines. Vet Res 2017; 48:50. [PMID: 28915918 PMCID: PMC5603018 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-017-0452-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccination against Coxiella burnetii, the cause of Q fever, is reportedly the only feasible strategy of eradicating infection in ruminant herds. Preventive vaccination of seronegative goats is more effective in reducing shedding of C. burnetii than vaccinating seropositive goats. The age at which goats born on heavily-contaminated farms first seroconvert to C. burnetii has not yet been documented. In a 16-month birth cohort study, the age at which goats seroconverted against C. burnetii was investigated; 95 goats were bled every 2 weeks and tested for antibodies against C. burnetii. Risk factors for seroconversion were explored and goats shedding C. burnetii were identified by testing vaginal swabs taken at the goats' first kidding using a com1 polymerase chain reaction assay. The first surge in the number of goats with IgM to C. burnetii was observed at week 9. Thus, a first vaccination not later than 8 weeks of age to control C. burnetii in highly contaminated environments is indicated. The odds of seroconversion were 2.0 times higher [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2, 3.5] in kids born by does with serological evidence of recent infection (IgM seropositive) compared to kids born by IgM seronegative does, suggesting either in utero transmission or peri-parturient infection. The rate of seroconversion was 4.5 times higher (95% CI 2.1, 9.8) during than outside the kidding season, highlighting the risk posed by C. burnetii shed during kidding, even to goats outside the kidding herd. Shedding of C. burnetii at kidding was detected in 15 out of 41 goats infected before breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Muleme
- Asia–Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Angus Campbell
- The Mackinnon Project, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, VIC 3010 Australia
| | - John Stenos
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Barwon Health, Geelong, VIC Australia
| | - Joanne M. Devlin
- Asia–Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Gemma Vincent
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Barwon Health, Geelong, VIC Australia
| | - Alexander Cameron
- Asia–Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Stephen Graves
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Barwon Health, Geelong, VIC Australia
| | - Colin R. Wilks
- Asia–Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Simon Firestone
- Asia–Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
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Mori M, Mertens K, Cutler SJ, Santos AS. Critical Aspects for Detection of Coxiella burnetii. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2017; 17:33-41. [PMID: 28055578 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2016.1958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is a globally distributed zoonotic γ-proteobacterium with an obligatory intracellular lifestyle. It is the causative agent of Q fever in humans and of coxiellosis among ruminants, although the agent is also detected in ticks, birds, and various other mammalian species. Requirements for intracellular multiplication together with the necessity for biosafety level 3 facilities restrict the cultivation of C. burnetii to specialized laboratories. Development of a novel medium formulation enabling axenic growth of C. burnetii has facilitated fundamental genetic studies. This review provides critical insights into direct diagnostic methods currently available for C. burnetii. It encompasses molecular detection methods, isolation, and propagation of the bacteria and its genetic characterization. Differentiation of C. burnetii from Coxiella-like organisms is an essential diagnostic prerequisite, particularly when handling and analyzing ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcella Mori
- 1 Bacterial Zoonoses of Livestock, Operational Directorate Bacterial Diseases, Veterinary and Agrochemical Research Centre, CODA-CERVA , Brussels, Belgium .,2 Belgian Reference Centre for Coxiella burnetii and Bartonella , Brussels, Belgium
| | - Katja Mertens
- 3 Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute for Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses , Jena, Germany
| | | | - Ana Sofia Santos
- 5 Centre for Vector and Infectious Diseases Research, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge , Águas de Moura, Portugal
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22
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Muleme M, Stenos J, Vincent G, Wilks CR, Devlin JM, Campbell A, Cameron A, Stevenson MA, Graves S, Firestone SM. Peripartum dynamics of Coxiella burnetii infections in intensively managed dairy goats associated with a Q fever outbreak in Australia. Prev Vet Med 2017; 139:58-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2017.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2016] [Revised: 02/05/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Vincent G, Stenos J, Latham J, Fenwick S, Graves S. Novel genotypes of Coxiella burnetii identified in isolates from Australian Q fever patients. Int J Med Microbiol 2016; 306:463-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2016.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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BOND KA, VINCENT G, WILKS CR, FRANKLIN L, SUTTON B, STENOS J, COWAN R, LIM K, ATHAN E, HARRIS O, MACFARLANE-BERRY L, SEGAL Y, FIRESTONE SM. One Health approach to controlling a Q fever outbreak on an Australian goat farm. Epidemiol Infect 2016; 144:1129-41. [PMID: 26493615 PMCID: PMC4825098 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268815002368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Revised: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A recent outbreak of Q fever was linked to an intensive goat and sheep dairy farm in Victoria, Australia, 2012-2014. Seventeen employees and one family member were confirmed with Q fever over a 28-month period, including two culture-positive cases. The outbreak investigation and management involved a One Health approach with representation from human, animal, environmental and public health. Seroprevalence in non-pregnant milking goats was 15% [95% confidence interval (CI) 7-27]; active infection was confirmed by positive quantitative PCR on several animal specimens. Genotyping of Coxiella burnetii DNA obtained from goat and human specimens was identical by two typing methods. A number of farming practices probably contributed to the outbreak, with similar precipitating factors to the Netherlands outbreak, 2007-2012. Compared to workers in a high-efficiency particulate arrestance (HEPA) filtered factory, administrative staff in an unfiltered adjoining office and those regularly handling goats and kids had 5·49 (95% CI 1·29-23·4) and 5·65 (95% CI 1·09-29·3) times the risk of infection, respectively; suggesting factory workers were protected from windborne spread of organisms. Reduction in the incidence of human cases was achieved through an intensive human vaccination programme plus environmental and biosecurity interventions. Subsequent non-occupational acquisition of Q fever in the spouse of an employee, indicates that infection remains endemic in the goat herd, and remains a challenge to manage without source control.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. A. BOND
- Communicable Disease Prevention and
Control, Department of Health,
Victoria, Australia
- Department of Infectious Diseases,
Austin Health, Australia
| | - G. VINCENT
- The Australian Rickettsial Reference
Laboratory, Australia
| | - C. R. WILKS
- Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health,
Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The
University of Melbourne, Australia
| | - L. FRANKLIN
- Communicable Diseases Epidemiology and
Surveillance, Department of Health,
Victoria, Australia
| | - B. SUTTON
- Communicable Disease Prevention and
Control, Department of Health,
Victoria, Australia
| | - J. STENOS
- The Australian Rickettsial Reference
Laboratory, Australia
| | - R. COWAN
- Department of Infectious Diseases,
Barwon Health, Australia
- St John of God Pathcare,
Geelong, Australia
| | - K. LIM
- Department of Infectious Diseases,
Barwon Health, Australia
| | - E. ATHAN
- Department of Infectious Diseases,
Barwon Health, Australia
- School of Medicine, Deakin
University, Australia
- Department of Medicine,
University of Melbourne, Australia
| | - O. HARRIS
- St John of God Pathcare,
Geelong, Australia
| | - L. MACFARLANE-BERRY
- Office of the Chief Veterinary
Officer, Department of Environment and Primary
Industries, Victoria, Australia
| | - Y. SEGAL
- Office of the Chief Veterinary
Officer, Department of Environment and Primary
Industries, Victoria, Australia
| | - S. M. FIRESTONE
- Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health,
Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The
University of Melbourne, Australia
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Vincent GA, Graves SR, Robson JM, Nguyen C, Hussain-Yusuf H, Islam A, Fenwick SG, Stenos J. Isolation of Coxiella burnetii from serum of patients with acute Q fever. J Microbiol Methods 2015; 119:74-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2015.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Revised: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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26
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Islam A, Lockhart M, Stenos J, Graves S. The attenuated nine mile phase II clone 4/RSA439 strain of Coxiella burnetii is highly virulent for severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2013; 89:800-3. [PMID: 23958905 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.12-0653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
The Nine Mile phase II clone 4 (NMIIC4) strain of Coxiella burnetii is an attenuated phase II strain that has lost the genes for virulence determinant type 1 lipopolysaccharide. These bacteria were very virulent for severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice. The lethal dose 50 (LD50) was ~10 bacteria. Infected SCID mice died between Day 28 and Day 53 post-infection. At termination of the experiment (Day 60) only 5 of 24 mice had survived. The degree of splenomegaly was directly related to the bacterial load in the SCID mice spleens. The NMIIC4 was avirulent in immunocompetent wild mice and bacterial DNA copies in splenic tissue were extremely low. The SCID mice that were inoculated with high doses of heat inactivated NMIIC4 C. burnetii were all alive at Day 60 and without splenomegaly. It appears that the phase I lipopolysaccharide present in virulent Nine Mile phase I but not in attenuated NMIIC4 is not the only virulence factor for C. burnetii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aminul Islam
- Department of Microbiology, Pathology North-Hunter, NSW Health Pathology, John Hunter Hospital, Locked Bag 1, HRMC, Australia; Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia
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Tozer SJ, Lambert SB, Strong CL, Field HE, Sloots TP, Nissen MD. Potential Animal and Environmental Sources of Q Fever Infection for Humans in Queensland. Zoonoses Public Health 2013; 61:105-12. [DOI: 10.1111/zph.12051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. J. Tozer
- Queensland Paediatric Infectious Diseases Laboratory; Queensland Children's Medical Research Institute; Children's Health Queensland Hospitals and Health Service ; The University of Queensland; Brisbane Qld Australia
| | - S. B. Lambert
- Queensland Children's Medical Research Institute; Children's Health Queensland Hospitals and Health Service; The University of Queensland; Brisbane Qld Australia
- Immunisation Program, Communicable Diseases Branch; Queensland Health; Brisbane Qld Australia
| | - C. L. Strong
- Atmospheric Environment Research Centre; Griffith University; Brisbane Qld Australia
| | - H. E. Field
- Queensland Department of Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry; Queensland Centre for Emerging Infectious Diseases; Biosecurity; Brisbane Qld Australia
| | - T. P. Sloots
- Queensland Paediatric Infectious Diseases Laboratory; Queensland Children's Medical Research Institute; Children's Health Queensland Hospitals and Health Service ; The University of Queensland; Brisbane Qld Australia
| | - M. D. Nissen
- Queensland Paediatric Infectious Diseases Laboratory; Queensland Children's Medical Research Institute; Children's Health Queensland Hospitals and Health Service ; The University of Queensland; Brisbane Qld Australia
- Microbiology Division; Pathology Queensland Central Laboratory; Queensland Health; Brisbane Qld Australia
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28
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Lockhart MG, Islam A, Fenwick SG, Graves SR, Stenos J. Comparative sensitivity of four different cell lines for the isolation of Coxiella burnetii. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2012; 334:75-8. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2012.02617.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2012] [Revised: 05/26/2012] [Accepted: 06/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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29
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Lockhart M, Islam A, Graves S, Fenwick S, Stenos J. Detecting and measuring small numbers of viableCoxiella burnetii. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 64:61-5. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.2011.00898.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2011] [Revised: 10/12/2011] [Accepted: 10/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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