An intravascular ultrasound analysis in women experiencing chest pain in the absence of obstructive coronary artery disease: a substudy from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute-Sponsored Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE)

Single nucleotide polymorphisms: Implications in the early diagnosis and targeted intervention of coronary microvascular dysfunction

Coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD) is a clinical syndrome of myocardial ischemia caused by structural and/or functional abnormalities of pre-coronary arterioles and arterioles. While genetics and other factors play a role in CMD etiology, the key pathogenic mechanism remains unclear. Currently, the diagnostic procedure for CMD is still cumbersome, and there is a lack of effective targeted interventions. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) offer promise in addressing these issues. SNPs, reflecting common genetic variations, have garnered extensive investigation across multiple diseases. Several SNPs associated with CMD have been discovered, and some have the potential to be therapeutic targets. Nevertheless, studies on CMD-related SNPs are relatively nascent and limited in number. In this review, we summarize the previously reported CMD-associated SNPs, delineate their pathophysiological mechanisms, and predict potentially important CMD sites by analyzing the SNPs linked to diseases sharing similar pathogenetic mechanisms and risk factors, such as coronary artery disease. We aim to explore reliable genetic markers implicated in CMD risk and prognosis, thereby providing a novel approach for early diagnosis and gene-targeted interventions of CMD in subsequent studies.

TIMI Frame Count and Coronary Function in Women With Suspected Ischemia and Nonobstructed Coronary Arteries

BACKGROUND

Data have been inconsistent regarding the association between TIMI frame count (TFC) and coronary function, with data suggesting that the TFC measured after pharmacological stress could correlate better with coronary physiology.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the correlation of TFC after pharmacological stress with coronary function among women with suspected ischemia and no obstructed coronary arteries (INOCA).

METHODS

Women with suspected INOCA enrolled in the WISE-CVD (Women's Ischemic Syndrome Evaluation-Coronary Vascular Dysfunction) study (NCT00832702) underwent coronary angiography with coronary function testing, to measure coronary flow reserve to adenosine, change in coronary blood flow and diameter in response to acetylcholine, and change in coronary diameter in response to nitroglycerine (ΔNTG). In a randomly selected subgroup, TFC was quantified at baseline and after pharmacological stress. The association of TFC (postpharmacological stress, rest-to-stress ratio, and percentage change from rest to stress) with measurements of coronary function was assessed with linear regression.

RESULTS

TFC was quantified among 75 women, with a mean age of 54 ± 12 years. Among them, 29 (42%) had hypertension, 7 (10%) had diabetes, 34 (48%) had a previous smoking history, and 33 (49%) women had coronary atherosclerosis. Minor positive correlations were found linking higher TFC poststress with higher coronary flow reserve and higher ΔNTG (P < 0.05). Minor inverse correlations were found when using the TFC rest-to-stress ratio postacetylcholine and ΔNTG (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Among women with suspected INOCA, measuring the TFC poststress did not help in the identification of abnormal coronary physiology pathways. Other strategies should be developed to improve accessibility to coronary function testing in this population.

Microvascular Dysfunction Following Cardioplegic Arrest and Cardiopulmonary Bypass: Impacts of Diabetes and Hypertension

Cardioplegic arrest and cardiopulmonary bypass (CP/CPB) are known to engender microvascular dysfunction in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. These effects are significantly varied by patient comorbidities including diabetes and hypertension. Both diabetes and hypertension are associated with worse outcomes after cardiac surgery, partly related to increased microvascular complications. In this review, we examine several key facets of microvascular dysfunction after CP/CPB: microvascular endothelial and vasomotor dysfunction, altered gene and protein expression, endothelial adherens junction dysfunction, and programmed cell death as they relate to diabetes and hypertension. This review examines both classical techniques, including microvessel reactivity assays, and modern multiomic approaches to characterizing these microvascular changes.

Genetic Insights Into Coronary Microvascular Disease

Coronary microvascular disease (CMVD) affects the coronary pre-arterioles, arterioles, and capillaries and can lead to blood supply-demand mismatch and cardiac ischemia. CMVD can present clinically as ischemia or myocardial infarction with no obstructive coronary arteries (INOCA or MINOCA, respectively). Currently, therapeutic options for CMVD are limited, and there are no targeted therapies. Genetic studies have emerged as an important tool to gain rapid insights into the molecular mechanisms of human diseases. For example, coronary artery disease (CAD) genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have enrolled hundreds of thousands of patients and have identified > 320 loci, elucidating CAD pathogenic pathways and helping to identify therapeutic targets. Here, we review the current landscape of genetic studies of CMVD, consisting mostly of genotype-first approaches. We then present the hypothesis that CAD GWAS have enrolled heterogenous populations and may be better characterized as ischemic heart disease (IHD) GWAS. We discuss how several of the genetic loci currently associated with CAD may be involved in the pathogenesis of CMVD. Genetic studies could help accelerate progress in understanding CMVD pathophysiology and identifying putative therapeutic targets. Larger phenotype-first genomic studies into CMVD with adequate sex and ancestry representation are needed. Given the extensive CAD genetic and functional validation data, future research should leverage these loci as springboards for CMVD genomic research.

Unlocking the Secrets of Acute Coronary Syndromes Using Intravascular Imaging: From Pathophysiology to Improving Outcomes

Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) represents the most severe manifestation of coronary artery disease. Intravascular imaging, both intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) and optical coherence tomography (OCT), have played crucial roles for the impressive reduction in mortality of ACS. Intravascular imaging is useful for the detection of atherosclerotic mechanism (plaque rupture, calcified nodules, or plaque erosions) and for the evaluation of nonatherosclerotic and nonobstructive types of ACS. In addition, IVUS and OCT play a crucial role in the optimization of the PCI. The aim of the current review is to present the role of intravascular imaging in identifying the mechanisms of ACS and its prognostic role in future events, to review the current guidelines suggesting intravascular imaging use in ACS, to summarize its role in PCI in patients with ACS, and to compare IVUS and OCT.

A recurrent typical angina pectoris without any finding in coronary angiography: Microvascular angina

Key Clinical Message

Microvascular angina (MVA) can present with recurrent chest pain and normal coronary angiography. Recognizing MVA is crucial as it significantly impacts patient morbidity and mortality. Early diagnosis and management with antianginal medications are essential for improving outcomes and quality of life.

Abstract

Cardiovascular diseases are still the main cause of death in many parts of the world. Chest pain and dyspnea are always concerning due to the implications of cardiovascular disease. However, in patients with the involvement of the small coronary vessels (Microvascular Angina), symptoms might be recurrent and persistent despite the presence of normal coronary vessel evaluations. A 45-year-old man with a 25-year smoking history presented with recurrent chest pain, especially during physical activity, and mild shortness of breath. He was admitted, and a coronary angiography the next day appeared normal. However, a cardiac PET scan revealed the involvement of small coronary vessels not visible on angiography. The Patient was a 45-year-old man who presented with recurrent chest pain, more prominent during physical activity. He also had mild shortness of breath. The patient was admitted, and the next day, he underwent normal coronary angiography. The cardiac positron emission tomography (PET scan) showed the involvement of small coronary vessels that were not obvious on angiography.

Epicardial adipose tissue attenuation on computed tomography in women with coronary microvascular dysfunction: A pilot, hypothesis generating study

BACKGROUND

Patients with myocardial ischemia without obstructive coronary artery disease often have coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD) and associated increased risk of cardiovascular (CV) events and anginal hospitalizations. Epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) covers much of the myocardium and coronary arteries and when dysfunctional, secretes proinflammatory cytokines and is associated with CV events. While oxidative stress and systemic inflammation are associated with CMD, the relationship between EAT and CMD in women is not well known.

METHODS

Women diagnosed with CMD (n = 21) who underwent coronary computed tomography with coronary artery calcium (CAC) scoring were compared to a reference group (RG) of women referred for CAC screening for preventive risk assessment (n = 181). EAT attenuation (Hounsfield units (HU)) was measured adjacent to the proximal right coronary artery, along with subcutaneous adipose tissue (SCAT). Two-sample t-tests with unequal variances were utilized.

RESULTS

Mean age of the CMD group was 56 ± 8 years and body mass index (BMI) was 31.6 ± 6.8 kg/m2. CV risk factors in the CMD group were prevalent: 67 % hypertension, 44 % hyperlipidemia, and 33 % diabetes. Both CMD and RG had similar CAC score (25.86 ± 59.54 vs. 24.17 ± 104.6; p = 0.21. In the CMD group, 67 % had a CAC of 0. Minimal atherosclerosis (CAD-RADS 1) was present in 76 % of women with CMD. The CMD group had lower EAT attenuation than RG (-103.3 ± 6.33 HU vs. -97.9 ± 8.3 HU, p = 0.009, respectively). There were no differences in SCAT attenuation. Hypertension, smoking history, age, BMI, and CAC score did not correlate with EAT in either of the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Women with CMD have decreased EAT attenuation compared to RG women. EAT-mediated inflammation and changes in vascular tone may be a mechanistic contributor to abnormal microvascular reactivity. Clinical trials testing therapeutic strategies to decrease EAT may be warranted in the management of CMD.

Evaluating Ischemic Heart Disease in Women: Focus on Angina With Nonobstructive Coronary Arteries (ANOCA)

Ischemic heart disease (IHD) is common in women, and cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. While obstructive coronary artery disease is the most common form of IHD, millions of women suffer from angina with nonobstructive coronary arteries (ANOCA), an umbrella term encompassing multiple nonatherosclerotic disorders of the coronary tree. The underlying pathology leading to ischemia in these syndromes may be challenging to diagnose, leaving many women without a diagnosis despite persistent symptoms that impact quality of life and adversely affect long-term cardiovascular prognosis. In the last decade, there have been significant advances in the recognition and diagnostic evaluation of ANOCA. Despite these advances, the standard approach to evaluating suspected IHD in women continues to focus predominantly on the assessment of atherosclerotic coronary artery disease, leading to missed opportunities to accurately diagnose and treat underlying coronary vasomotor disorders. The goal of this review is to describe advances in diagnostic testing that can be used to evaluate angina in women and present a pragmatic diagnostic algorithm to guide evaluation of ANOCA in symptomatic patients. The proposed approach for the assessment of ANOCA is consistent with prior expert consensus documents and guidelines but is predicated on the medical interview and pretest probability of disease to inform a personalized diagnostic strategy.

Endogenous androgens, coronary atheroma and remodeling in women with suspected ischemic heart disease: A report from the Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE) study

Background

Women have smaller coronary size than men independent of body surface area. Female to male heart transplantation demonstrates coronary lumen enlargement.

Purpose

To investigate relationships between endogenous androgens and coronary luminal size in women with suspected ischemic heart disease (IHD).

Methods

We analyzed 69 women with available androgen levels.

Results

Group mean age was 54 ± 10 years with 64 % post-menopausal. Lumen cross-sectional area (CSA) and external elastic membrane (EEM) CSA positively correlated with free testosterone (FT) (r = 0.29, p = 0.049; r = 0.29, p = 0.01), respectively, and negatively correlated with SHBG (r = -0.26, p = 0.03; r = -0.29, p = 0.02), respectively. Atheroma CSA positively correlated with FT (r = 0.24. p = 0.05). These correlations became non-significant after adjusting for waist circumference.

Conclusions

In women with suspected ischemic heart disease, endogenous androgens, coronary atheroma and luminal size are related, and may be moderated by waist circumference.

Multimodality assessment of the coronary microvasculature with TIMI frame count versus perfusion PET highlights coronary changes characteristic of coronary microvascular disease

Background

The diagnosis of coronary microvascular disease (CMVD) remains challenging. Perfusion PET-derived myocardial blood flow (MBF) reserve (MBFR) can quantify CMVD but is not widely available. Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction (TIMI) frame count (TFC) is an angiography-based method that has been proposed as a measure of CMVD. Here, we compare TFC and PET-derived MBF measurements to establish the role of TFC in assessing for CMVD. We use coronary modeling to elucidate the relationship between MBFR and TFC and propose TFC thresholds for identifying CMVD.

Methods

In a cohort of 123 individuals (age 58 ± 12.1, 63% women, 41% Caucasian) without obstructive coronary artery disease who had undergone perfusion PET and coronary angiography for clinical indications, we compared TFC and perfusion PET parameters using Pearson correlation (PCC) and linear regression modeling. We used mathematical modeling of the coronary circulation to understand the relationship between these parameters and performed Receiver Operating Curve (ROC) analysis.

Results

We found a significant negative correlation between TFC and MBFR. Sex, race and ethnicity, and nitroglycerin administration impact this relationship. Coronary modeling showed an uncoupling between TFC and flow in epicardial vessels. In ROC analysis, TFC performed well in women (AUC 0.84-0.89) and a moderately in men (AUC 0.68-0.78).

Conclusions

We established an inverse relationship between TFC and PET-derived MBFR, which is affected by patient selection and procedural factors. TFC represents a measure of the volume of the epicardial coronary compartment, which is increased in patients with CMVD, and performs well in identifying women with CMVD.

Chemokine Fractalkine and Non-Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease-Is There a Link?

Non-obstructive coronary artery disease (NO-CAD) constitutes a heterogeneous group of conditions collectively characterized by less than 50% narrowing in at least one major coronary artery with a fractional flow reserve (FFR) of ≤0.80 observed in coronary angiography. The pathogenesis and progression of NO-CAD are still not fully understood, however, inflammatory processes, particularly atherosclerosis and microvascular dysfunction are known to play a major role in it. Chemokine fractalkine (FKN/CX3CL1) is inherently linked to these processes. FKN/CX3CL1 functions predominantly as a chemoattractant for immune cells, facilitating their transmigration through the vessel wall and inhibiting their apoptosis. Its concentrations correlate positively with major cardiovascular risk factors. Moreover, promising preliminary results have shown that FKN/CX3CL1 receptor inhibitor (KAND567) administered in the population of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), inhibits the adverse reaction of the immune system that causes hyperinflammation. Whereas the link between FKN/CX3CL1 and NO-CAD appears evident, further studies are necessary to unveil this complex relationship. In this review, we critically overview the current data on FKN/CX3CL1 in the context of NO-CAD and present the novel clinical implications of the unique structure and function of FKN/CX3CL1 as a compound which distinctively contributes to the pathomechanism of this condition.

Implementation of Microcirculation Examination in Clinical Practice-Insights from the Nationwide POL-MKW Registry

Background and Objectives: The assessment of coronary microcirculation may facilitate risk stratification and treatment adjustment. The aim of this study was to evaluate patients' clinical presentation and treatment following coronary microcirculation assessment, as well as factors associated with an abnormal coronary flow reserve (CFR) and index of microcirculatory resistance (IMR) values. Materials and Results: This retrospective analysis included 223 patients gathered from the national registry of invasive coronary microvascular testing collected between 2018 and 2023. Results: The frequency of coronary microcirculatory assessments in Poland has steadily increased since 2018. Patients with impaired IMR (≥25) were less burdened with comorbidities. Patients with normal IMR underwent revascularisation attempts more frequently (11.9% vs. 29.8%, p = 0.003). After microcirculation testing, calcium channel blockers (CCBs) and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors were added more often for patients with IMR and CFR abnormalities, respectively, as compared to control groups. Moreover, patients with coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD, defined as CFR and/or IMR abnormality), regardless of treatment choice following microcirculation assessment, were provided with trimetazidine (23.2%) and dihydropyridine CCBs (26.4%) more frequently than those without CMD who were treated conservatively (6.8%) and by revascularisation (4.2% with p = 0.002 and 0% with p < 0.001, respectively). Multivariable analysis revealed no association between angina symptoms and IMR or CFR impairment. Conclusions: The frequency of coronary microcirculatory assessments in Poland has steadily increased. Angina symptoms were not associated with either IMR or CFR impairment. After microcirculation assessment, patients with impaired microcirculation, expressed as either low CFR, high IMR or both, received additional pharmacotherapy treatment more often.

Ischemia but no obstructive coronary artery disease: more than meets the eye

Symptomatic women with angina are more likely to have ischemia with no obstructive coronary arteries (INOCA) compared to men. In both men and women, the finding of INOCA is not benign and is associated with adverse cardiovascular events, including myocardial infarction, heart failure and angina hospitalizations. Women with INOCA have more angina and a lower quality of life compared to men, but they are often falsely reassured because of a lack of obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD) and a perception of low risk. Coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD) is a key pathophysiologic contributor to INOCA, and non-invasive imaging methods are used to detect impaired microvascular flow. Coronary vasospasm is another mechanism of INOCA, and can co-exist with CMD, but usually requires invasive coronary function testing (CFT) with provocation testing for a definitive diagnosis. In addition to traditional heart disease risk factors, inflammatory, hormonal and psychological risk factors that impact microvascular tone are implicated in INOCA. Treatment of risk factors and use of anti-atherosclerotic and anti-anginal medications offer benefit. Increasing awareness and early referral to specialized centers that focus on INOCA management can improve patient-oriented outcomes. However, large, randomized treatment trials to investigate the impact on major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) are needed. In this focused review, we discuss the prevalence, pathophysiology, presentation, diagnosis and treatment of INOCA.

13N-ammonia positron emission tomography for diagnosis and monitoring of ischemia without obstructive coronary artery disease

BACKGROUND

Ischemia with no obstructive coronary arteries (INOCA), a chronic disorder with a poor prognosis, remains challenging to diagnose. 13N-ammonia positron emission tomography (13NH3 PET), which can quantify microcirculation, is its most reliable detection method. We aimed to investigate the differences in 13NH3 PET findings between INOCA and coronary artery disease (CAD).

METHODS

Overall, consecutive 433 patients with known or suspected CAD underwent adenosine-stress 13NH3 PET. Based on the European Society of Cardiology guidelines, INOCA was defined as typical angina without coronary stenosis (INOCA n = 45, CAD n = 293, no CAD n = 95). Papillary muscle ischemia (PMI) and global myocardial flow reserve (MFR) were examined as microvascular injuries using 13NH3 PET.

RESULTS

PMI was observed significantly more frequently in patients with INOCA than in those with CAD (40.0% vs. 11.6%, respectively; p = 0.02). Global MFR (1.84 ± 0.54 vs. 2.08 ± 0.66, respectively; p < 0.0001) and reactive hyperemia index were significantly lower in patients with INOCA than in those with CAD. Forty-five major adverse cardiac events (MACE) were recorded in a median follow-up time of 827 days. Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed that the survival rate worsened in patients with INOCA and PMI (log-rank test, p = 0.001). In the Cox proportional hazards model, PMI was an independent predictive factor for MACE (odds ratio, 4.16; 95% confidence interval, 2.13-8.15; p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

PMI presence and decreased MFR were 13NH3 PET findings characteristic of INOCA. 13NH3 PET can be used to monitor the treatment course.

Clinical aspects of ischemia with no obstructive coronary artery disease (INOCA)

Ischemia with no obstructive coronary arteries (INOCA) is defined as patients with evidence of myocardial ischemia without obstructive coronary artery disease. About 3-4 million people in the United States have INOCA, more commonly affecting women, and carries adverse morbidity, mortality, and relatively high healthcare costs. The pathophysiology of INOCA appears to be multi-factorial with a variety of contributing mechanisms. Diagnosis of INOCA is suggested by non-invasive or invasive testing consistent with myocardial ischemia. Due to the high prevalence of coronary risk factors and atherosclerosis in the INOCA population, current treatment strategies target angina, coronary atherosclerosis, and atherosclerotic risk factors, as well as burgeoning treatment of coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD). Ongoing clinical trials are assessing different options.

Global Longitudinal Strain as Predictor of Inducible Ischemia in No Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease in the CIAO-ISCHEMIA Study

BACKGROUND

Global longitudinal strain (GLS) is a sensitive marker for identifying subclinical myocardial dysfunction in obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD). Little is known about the relationship between GLS and ischemia in patients with myocardial ischemia and no obstructive CAD (INOCA).

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the relationship between resting GLS and ischemia on stress echocardiography (SE) in patients with INOCA.

METHODS

Left ventricular GLS was calculated offline on resting SE images at enrollment (n = 144) and 1-year follow-up (n = 120) in the CIAO-ISCHEMIA (Changes in Ischemia and Angina over One year in International Study of Comparative Health Effectiveness with Medical and Invasive Approaches trial screen failures with no obstructive CAD on computed tomography [CT] angiography) study, which enrolled participants with moderate or severe ischemia by local SE interpretation (≥3 segments with new or worsening wall motion abnormality and no obstructive (<50% stenosis) on coronary computed tomography angiography.

RESULTS

Global longitudinal strain values were normal in 83.3% at enrollment and 94.2% at follow-up. Global longitudinal strain values were not associated with a positive SE at enrollment (GLS = -21.5% positive SE vs GLS = -19.9% negative SE, P = .443) or follow-up (GLS = -23.2% positive SE vs GLS = -23.1% negative SE, P = .859). Significant change in GLS was not associated with positive SE in follow-up (P = .401). Regional strain was not associated with colocalizing ischemia at enrollment or follow-up. Changes in GLS and number of ischemic segments from enrollment to follow-up showed a modest but not clinically meaningful correlation (β = 0.41; 95% CI, 0.16, 0.67; P = .002).

CONCLUSIONS

In this cohort of INOCA patients, resting GLS values were largely normal and did not associate with the presence, severity, or location of stress-induced ischemia. These findings may suggest the absence of subclinical myocardial dysfunction detectable by echocardiographic strain analysis at rest in INOCA.

Familial risk of vasospastic angina: a nationwide family study in Sweden

OBJECTIVES

Vasospastic angina (VSA) is a complex coronary vasomotor disorder associated with an increased risk of myocardial infarction and sudden death. Despite considerable advances in understanding VSA pathophysiology, the interplay between genetic and environmental factors remains elusive. Accordingly, we aimed to determine the familial VSA risk among first-degree relatives of affected individuals.

METHODS

A population-based multigenerational cohort study was conducted, including full-sibling pairs born to Swedish parents between 1932 and 2018. Register-based diagnoses were ascertained through linkage to the Swedish Multigeneration Register and National Patient Register. Incidence rate ratios (IRRs) and adjusted HRs were calculated for relatives of individuals with VSA compared with relatives of individuals without VSA.

RESULTS

The total study population included 5 764 770 individuals. Overall, 3461 (0.06%) individuals (median age at disease onset 59 years, IQR: 63-76) were diagnosed with VSA. Of these, 2236 (64.61%) were women. The incidence rate of VSA for individuals with an affected sibling was 0.31 (95% CI: 0.24 to 0.42) per 1000 person-years compared with 0.04 (95% CI: 0.04 to 0.04) per 1000 person-years for those without an affected sibling, yielding an IRR of 7.58 (95% CI: 5.71 to 10.07). The risk of VSA for siblings with an affected sibling was significantly increased in the fully adjusted model (HR: 2.56; 95% CI: 1.73 to 3.79). No increased risk of VSA was observed in spouses of affected individuals (HR: 0.63; 95% CI: 0.19 to 2.09).

CONCLUSIONS

In this nationwide family study, we identified high familial risk for VSA independent of shared environmental risk factors. Our findings indicate that VSA tends to cluster in families, emphasising the need to explore genetic and non-genetic factors that may contribute.

The prognostic value of coronary flow reserve in patients with non-obstructive coronary artery disease and microvascular dysfunction: a systematic review and meta-analysis with focus on imaging modality and sex difference

To clarify prognosis of patients with non-obstructive coronary artery disease (NOCAD) and coronary microvascular disease (CMD) assessed as low coronary flow reserve (CFR) according to imaging modalities and sex difference. Comprehensive systematic literature review and meta-analyses were conducted. Risk of death and major adverse cardiac events (MACE) were pooled and compared in patients with abnormally low versus normal CFR using cut-off limits 2.0-2.5. Random effects model used for estimation of odds ratios (OR) and hazard ratios (HR) with 95% confidence interval (CI). Nineteen eligible observational studies provided data for death and MACE, publication bias was insignificant, p = 0.62. Risk of death and MACE were significantly higher in patients with low (n = 4.612, 29%) than normal CFR (n = 11.367, 71%): using transthoracal echocardiography (TTE) (OR 4.25 (95% CI 2.94, 6.15) p < 0.001) and (OR 6.98 (95% CI 2.56, 19.01) p < 0.001), positron emission tomography (PET) (OR 2.51 (CI 95%: 1.40, 4..49) p = 0.002) and (OR 2.87 (95% CI 2.16, 3.81) p < 0.001), and invasive intracoronary assessment (OR 2.23 (95% CI 1.15, 4.34) p < 0.018), and (OR 4.61 (95% CI 2.51, 8.48) p < 0.001), respectively. Pooled adjusted HR for death and MACE were (HR 2.45(95% CI 1.37, 3.53) p < 0.001) and (HR 2.08 (95% CI 1.54, 2.63) p < 0.001) respectively. Studies comparing men and women with abnormally low CFR demonstrated similar worse prognosis in both sexes. Low CFR is associated with poorer prognosis in patients with NOCAD regardless of sex. TTE may overestimate risk of death and MACE, while PET seems to be more appropriate. Future studies are needed to consolidate the current evidence.

Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Culprit Plaque Characteristics in Women With Acute Coronary Syndromes

Outcomes after myocardial infarction in women remain poor. The number of cardiovascular risk factors in women increase with age, however the relation between risk factors and culprit plaque characteristics in this population is poorly understood. The aim of the study was to investigate the relation between risk factors and culprit plaque characteristics in women with acute coronary syndrome (ACS). A total of 382 women who presented with ACS and underwent pre-intervention optical coherence tomography imaging of the culprit lesion were included in this analysis. The culprit plaques were categorized as plaque rupture, plaque erosion or calcified plaque, and then stratified by age and risk factors. The predominant pathology of ACS was plaque erosion in young patients (<60 years), which decreased with age (p <0.001). Current smokers had a high prevalence of plaque rupture (60%) and lipid plaque (79%). Women with diabetes tended to have more lipid plaque (70%) even at a young age. In women with hyperlipidemia, the prevalence of lipid plaques was modest in younger ages, but rose gradually with age (p <0.001). An increasing age trend for lipid plaque was also observed in women with hypertension (p = 0.03) and current smokers (p = 0.01). In conclusion, early treatment of risk factors such as diabetes in young women might be important before accelerated progression of atherosclerosis begins as age advances. Clinical trial registration: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov, NCT01110538, NCT03479723 and NCT02041650.

Sex differences in diagnostic modalities of coronary artery disease: Evidence from coronary microcirculation

Although atherosclerosis is usually considered a disease of the large arteries, risk factors for atherosclerosis also trigger structural and functional abnormalities at a microvascular level. In cardiac disease, microvascular dysfunction is especially relevant in women, among whom the manifestation of ischemic disease due to impaired coronary microcirculation is more common than in men. This sex-specific clinical phenotype has important clinical implications and, given the higher pre-test probability of coronary microvascular dysfunction in females, different diagnostic modalities should be used in women compared to men. In this review, we summarize invasive and non-invasive diagnostic modalities to assess coronary microvascular function, ranging from catheter-based evaluation of endothelial function to Doppler echocardiography and positron emission tomography. Moreover, we discuss different clinical settings in which microvascular disease plays an important role, underlining the importance of choosing the right diagnostic modality depending on the sex of the patients.

The role and mechanisms of microvascular damage in the ischemic myocardium

Following myocardial ischemic injury, the most effective clinical intervention is timely restoration of blood perfusion to ischemic but viable myocardium to reduce irreversible myocardial necrosis, limit infarct size, and prevent cardiac insufficiency. However, reperfusion itself may exacerbate cell death and myocardial injury, a process commonly referred to as ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, which primarily involves cardiomyocytes and cardiac microvascular endothelial cells (CMECs) and is characterized by myocardial stunning, microvascular damage (MVD), reperfusion arrhythmia, and lethal reperfusion injury. MVD caused by I/R has been a neglected problem compared to myocardial injury. Clinically, the incidence of microvascular angina and/or no-reflow due to ineffective coronary perfusion accounts for 5-50% in patients after acute revascularization. MVD limiting drug diffusion into injured myocardium, is strongly associated with the development of heart failure. CMECs account for > 60% of the cardiac cellular components, and their role in myocardial I/R injury cannot be ignored. There are many studies on microvascular obstruction, but few studies on microvascular leakage, which may be mainly due to the lack of corresponding detection methods. In this review, we summarize the clinical manifestations, related mechanisms of MVD during myocardial I/R, laboratory and clinical examination means, as well as the research progress on potential therapies for MVD in recent years. Better understanding the characteristics and risk factors of MVD in patients after hemodynamic reconstruction is of great significance for managing MVD, preventing heart failure and improving patient prognosis.

Women, lipids, and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a call to action from the European Atherosclerosis Society

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in women and men globally, with most due to atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Despite progress during the last 30 years, ASCVD mortality is now increasing, with the fastest relative increase in middle-aged women. Missed or delayed diagnosis and undertreatment do not fully explain this burden of disease. Sex-specific factors, such as hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, premature menopause (especially primary ovarian insufficiency), and polycystic ovary syndrome are also relevant, with good evidence that these are associated with greater cardiovascular risk. This position statement from the European Atherosclerosis Society focuses on these factors, as well as sex-specific effects on lipids, including lipoprotein(a), over the life course in women which impact ASCVD risk. Women are also disproportionately impacted (in relative terms) by diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and auto-immune inflammatory disease. All these effects are compounded by sociocultural components related to gender. This panel stresses the need to identify and treat modifiable cardiovascular risk factors earlier in women, especially for those at risk due to sex-specific conditions, to reduce the unacceptably high burden of ASCVD in women.

Pharmacotherapy in patients with vasomotor disorders

Background

Anginal symptoms in patients with non-obstructive coronary artery disease are frequently related to vasomotor disorders of the coronary circulation. Although frequently overlooked, a distinct diagnosis of different vasomotor disorders can be made by intracoronary function testing. Early detection and treatment seems beneficial, but little evidence is available for the medical treatment of these disorders. Nevertheless, there are several pharmacotherapeutic options available to treat these patients and improve quality of life.

Methods & findings

We performed an extensive yet non-systematic literature search to explore available pharmacotherapeutic strategies for addressing vasomotor disorders in individuals experiencing angina and non-obstructive coronary artery disease. This article presents a comprehensive overview of therapeutic possibilities for patients exhibiting abnormal vasoconstriction (such as spasm) and abnormal vasodilation (like coronary microvascular dysfunction).

Conclusion

Treatment of vasomotor disorders can be very challenging, but a general treatment algorithm based on the existing evidence and the best available current practice is feasible.

Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction: What Clinicians and Investigators Should Know

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Abnormal structure and function of the coronary microvasculature have been implicated in the pathophysiology of multiple cardiovascular disease processes. This article reviews recent research progress related to coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD) and salient clinical takeaways.

RECENT FINDINGS

CMD is prevalent in patients with signs and symptoms of ischemia and no obstructive epicardial coronary artery disease (INOCA), particularly in women. CMD is associated with adverse outcomes, including most frequently the development of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. It is also associated with adverse outcomes in patient populations including hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, dilated cardiomyopathy, and acute coronary syndromes. In patients with INOCA, stratified medical therapy guided by invasive coronary function testing to define the subtype of CMD leads to improved symptoms. There are invasive and non-invasive methodologies to diagnose CMD that provide prognostic information and mechanistic information to direct treatment. Available treatments improve symptoms and myocardial blood flow; ongoing investigations aim to develop therapy to improve adverse outcomes related to CMD.

Cardiac Imaging in Women with Ischemic Heart Disease

Cardiac diseases are the main cause of death for both sexes worldwide. Treatment varies widely according to the sex of a patient, as there are differences in physiopathology, epidemiology, clinical presentation and management. However, women have been largely excluded from research studies in this field. At present, differences are starting to be recognized and more attention is being paid to the identification of female-specific (or emergent) atherosclerotic risk factors. Diagnostic testing also merits attention because cardiac imaging offers important information to help diagnosis and guide cardiac disease management. In this sense, multimodal imaging should be used with the most cost-effective approach, integrating this information into the clinical sphere according to the pretest probability of the disease. In this review, we address sex-specific features of ischemic heart disease that should be considered in the clinical assessment of women, as well as the value of different imaging techniques (including technical and clinical aspects) for management of women with ischemic heart disease, and identify future areas of action concerning ischemic heart disease in women.

Coronary microvascular dysfunction and cardiovascular disease: Pathogenesis, associations and treatment strategies

Coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD) is a high-risk factor for a variety of cardiovascular events. Due to its complex aetiology and concealability, knowledge of the pathophysiological mechanism of CMD is still limited at present, which greatly restricts its clinical diagnosis and treatment. Studies have shown that CMD is closely related to a variety of cardiovascular diseases, can aggravate the occurrence and development of cardiovascular diseases, and is closely related to a poor prognosis in patients with cardiovascular diseases. Improving coronary microvascular remodelling and increasing myocardial perfusion might be promising strategies for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. In this paper, the pathogenesis and functional assessment of CMD are reviewed first, along with the relationship of CMD with cardiovascular diseases. Then, the latest strategies for the treatment of CMD and cardiovascular diseases are summarized. Finally, urgent scientific problems in CMD and cardiovascular diseases are highlighted and future research directions are proposed to provide prospective insights for the prevention and treatment of CMD and cardiovascular diseases in the future.

Very long-term outcomes after acute myocardial infarction in young men and women: Insights from the FAST-MI program

AIMS

Conflicting data exists about long-term outcomes in young women and men experiencing acute myocardial infarction (AMI).

METHODS

The FAST-MI program consists of three nationwide French surveys carried out 5years apart from 2005 to 2015, including consecutive patients with AMI over a 1-month period with up to 10-year follow-up. The present analysis focused on adults≤50 yo according to their gender.

RESULTS

Women accounted for 17.5% (335) of the 1912 patients under 50 yo and had a similar age as men (43.9±5.1 vs. 43.9±5.5years, P=0.92). They received less percutaneous coronary interventions (PCI) than men (85.9% vs. 91.3%, P=0.005), even in ST-elevation myocardial infarction (83.6% vs. 93.5%, P<0.001). Recommended secondary prevention medications were less frequently prescribed at discharge in women (40.6% vs. 52.8%, P<0.001), a trend that persisted in 2015 (59.1% vs. 72.8% in 2015, P<0.001). Still, ten-year survival was similar in men (90.5%) and women (92.3%) (crude HR: 0.86 [95% CI: 0.55-1.35], P=0.52, adjusted HR: 0.63 [95% CI: 0.38-1.07], P=0.09); similar results were found for ten-year survival among hospital survivors (91.2% in men vs. 93.7% in women, adjusted HR: 0.87 [95% CI: 0.45-1.66], P=0.66). Of the 1684 patients alive at hospital discharge with morbidity follow-up≥6months available, death, AMI or stroke at 8years occurred in 12.9% men and 11.2% in women (adjusted HR: 0.90 [95% CI: 0.60-1.33], P=0.59).

CONCLUSIONS

Young women with AMI undergo less cardiac interventions and are less often prescribed secondary prevention treatment than men, even when significant coronary artery disease is present, but keep a similar long-term prognosis after AMI. Optimal management of these young patients, regardless of gender, is necessary to ensure best outcomes after this major cardiovascular event.

Coronary Artery Spasm-Related Heart Failure Syndrome: Literature Review

Although heart failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome that becomes worse over time, certain cases can be reversed with appropriate treatments. While coronary artery spasm (CAS) is still underappreciated and may be misdiagnosed, ischemia due to coronary artery disease and CAS is becoming the single most frequent cause of HF worldwide. CAS could lead to syncope, HF, arrhythmias, and myocardial ischemic syndromes such as asymptomatic ischemia, rest and/or effort angina, myocardial infarction, and sudden death. Albeit the clinical significance of asymptomatic CAS has been undervalued, affected individuals compared with those with classic Heberden's angina pectoris are at higher risk of syncope, life-threatening arrhythmias, and sudden death. As a result, a prompt diagnosis implements appropriate treatment strategies, which have significant life-changing consequences to prevent CAS-related complications, such as HF. Although an accurate diagnosis depends mainly on coronary angiography and provocative testing, clinical characteristics may help decision-making. Because the majority of CAS-related HF (CASHF) patients present with less severe phenotypes than overt HF, it underscores the importance of understanding risk factors correlated with CAS to prevent the future burden of HF. This narrative literature review summarises and discusses separately the epidemiology, clinical features, pathophysiology, and management of patients with CASHF.

Ischemia With Nonobstructive Coronary Artery Disease: Concept, Assessment, and Management

In daily clinical practice, physicians often encounter patients with angina or those with evidence of myocardial ischemia from noninvasive tests but not having obstructive coronary artery disease. This type of ischemic heart disease is referred to as ischemia with nonobstructive coronary arteries (INOCA). INOCA patients often suffer from recurrent chest pain without adequate management and are associated with poor clinical outcomes. There are several endotypes of INOCA, and each endotype should be treated based on its specific underlying mechanism. Therefore, identifying INOCA and discriminating its underlying mechanisms are important issues and of clinical interest. Invasive physiologic assessment is the first step in the diagnosis of INOCA and discriminating the underlying mechanism; additional provocation tests help physicians identify the vasospastic component in INOCA patients. Comprehensive information acquired from these invasive tests can provide a template for mechanism-specific management for patients with INOCA.

Improved Performance of PET Myocardial Perfusion Imaging Compared to SPECT in the Evaluation of Suspected CAD

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) with single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) has played a central role in the non-invasive evaluation of patients with obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD) for decades. In this review, we discuss the key differences and advantages of positron emission tomography (PET) MPI over SPECT MPI as it relates to the diagnosis, prognosis, as well as clinical decision-making in patients with suspected CAD.

RECENT FINDINGS

Stress-induced perfusion abnormalities on SPECT help estimate presence, extent, and location of ischemia and flow-limiting obstructive CAD, help with risk stratification, and serve as a gatekeeper to identify patients who will benefit from downstream revascularization versus medical management. Some of the major limitations of SPECT include soft-tissue attenuation artifacts, underestimation of ischemia due to reliance on relative perfusion assessment, and longer protocols with higher radiation dose when performed with traditional equipment. PET MPI addresses most of these limitations and offers better quality images, higher diagnostic accuracy along with shorter protocols and lower radiation dose to the patient. A special advantage of PET scanning lies in the ability to quantify absolute myocardial blood flow and assess true extent of epicardial involvement along with identifying non-obstructive phenotypes of CAD such as diffuse atherosclerosis and microvascular dysfunction. In addition, stress acquisition at/near peak stress with PET allows us to measure left ventricular ejection fraction reserve and myocardial blood flow reserve, which help with identifying patients at a higher risk of future cardiac events and optimally select candidates for revascularization. The several technical advantages of PET MPI position as a superior method to diagnose obstructive and non-obstructive phenotypes of ischemic heart disease affecting the entirety of the coronary circulation offer incremental value for risk stratification and guide post-test management strategy for patients with suspected CAD.

ANOCA/INOCA/MINOCA: Open artery ischemia

Ischemic heart disease continues to represent a major health threat for death, disability, and poor quality of life as it also consumes enormous health-related resources. For over a century, the major clinical phenotype was taken to be obstructive atherosclerosis involving the larger coronary arteries (e.g., coronary artery disease [CAD]). However, evolving evidence now indicates that nonobstructive CAD is the predominant phenotype. Patients within this phenotype have been termed to have angina with no obstructive CAD (ANOCA), ischemia with no obstructive CAD (INOCA), or myocardial infarction with no obstructive coronary arteries (MINOCA). But as methods to assess cardiomyocyte injury evolve, these phenotypic distinctions have begun to merge, raising concern about their usefulness. Also, considerable evidence has suggested several endotypes that link to potential mechanisms. These include coronary microvascular dysfunction, augmented vasoreactivity (failure to relax appropriately, exaggerated constriction ["spasm"], etc.), nonobstructive atherosclerosis, pre-heart failure with preserved ejection fraction, hypercoagulable states, and several others, alone or in combination. This review summarizes these syndromes and their associated clinical outcomes with an emphasis on potential mechanistic signals. These involve the endothelium, the microvasculature, and cardiomyocyte function. Biomarkers of injury/dysfunction involving these structures are discussed along with a hypothetical construct for management being tested in an ongoing trial.

Clinical Value of Positron Emission Tomography Myocardial Perfusion Imaging and Blood Flow Quantification

Myocardial blood flow (MBF) and flow reserve (MFR) measurements by PET/computed tomography provide incremental diagnostic and prognostic information over traditional quantification of ischemia and scar by myocardial perfusion imaging. A normal stress MBF and MFR (>2.0) have a very high negative predictive value for excluding high-risk obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD). These flow measurements are also used for surveillance of coronary allograft vasculopathy after heart transplantation. A global normal MFR (>2.0) identifies patients at lower clinical risk, whereas a severely reduced MFR (<1.5) identifies patients at high risk for adverse events, even among patients without regional perfusion abnormalities.

Ischemia With Nonobstructive Coronary Arteries: Insights From the ISCHEMIA Trial

BACKGROUND

Ischemia with nonobstructive coronary arteries (INOCA) is common clinically, particularly among women, but its prevalence among patients with at least moderate ischemia and the relationship between ischemia severity and non-obstructive atherosclerosis severity are unknown.

OBJECTIVES

The authors investigated predictors of INOCA in enrolled, nonrandomized participants in ISCHEMIA (International Study of Comparative Health Effectiveness with Medical and Invasive Approaches), sex differences, and the relationship between ischemia and atherosclerosis in patients with INOCA.

METHODS

Core laboratories independently reviewed screening noninvasive stress test results (nuclear imaging, echocardiography, magnetic resonance imaging or nonimaging exercise tolerance testing), and coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA), blinded to results of the screening test. INOCA was defined as all stenoses <50% on CCTA in a patient with moderate or severe ischemia on stress testing. INOCA patients, who were excluded from randomization, were compared with randomized participants with ≥50% stenosis in ≥1 vessel and moderate or severe ischemia.

RESULTS

Among 3,612 participants with core laboratory-confirmed moderate or severe ischemia and interpretable CCTA, 476 (13%) had INOCA. Patients with INOCA were younger, were predominantly female, and had fewer atherosclerosis risk factors. For each stress testing modality, the extent of ischemia tended to be less among patients with INOCA, particularly with nuclear imaging. There was no significant relationship between severity of ischemia and extent or severity of nonobstructive atherosclerosis on CCTA. On multivariable analysis, female sex was independently associated with INOCA (odds ratio: 4.2 [95% CI: 3.4-5.2]).

CONCLUSIONS

Among participants enrolled in ISCHEMIA with core laboratory-confirmed moderate or severe ischemia, the prevalence of INOCA was 13%. Severity of ischemia was not associated with severity of nonobstructive atherosclerosis. (International Study of Comparative Health Effectiveness With Medical and Invasive Approaches [ISCHEMIA]; NCT01471522).

Cardiovascular Disease in Women: What the Radiologist Needs to Know

BACKGROUND

 Sex-specific disparities are well documented for cardiovascular disease (CVD). There are differences in physiology and pathophysiology, pain perception, spectrum of disease, risk, therapeutic aspects, prognosis, and outcome. CVD represents a broad spectrum of disorders. This review focuses on cardiovascular and cardiac pathology.

METHOD

 This review summarizes the current state of the literature on cardiovascular disease in women from a radiological viewpoint. It aims to provide a deeper understanding of these differences and thereby alerts the reader to the potential of CT and MRI for diagnosing CVD in women. Special attention is paid to disparities in the underlying physiological and pathophysiological processes, clinical presentation, and the quality of care to provide a deep understanding of the topic. Cardiovascular and cardiac pathologies with a sex-specific pattern of disease are presented and typical CT and MRI findings are arranged and illustrated with imaging findings.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

 Sex-specific differences are not only sex hormonal in nature but are rooted in the epigenome and encompass a multitude of physiological systems. In fact, cardiovascular disease shows sex-specific characteristics spanning from incidence to clinical presentation, course of disease, and prognosis. This is of significance regarding pretest probabilities, the power of tests, imaging strategies, and interpretation of imaging results. Key sex-specific issues encompass obstructive and non-obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD), microvascular angina, myocardial infarction with non-obstructive CAD, and coronary artery dissection. Sex-specific patterns are also noted in myocardial disease and heart failure such as pregnancy-related heart disease, Takotsubo syndrome, and anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity.

KEY POINTS

  · Cardiovascular diseases have sex-specific characteristics.. · Imaging strategies and interpretation of imaging results should be adjusted for women.. · Imaging helps in the improvement of the sex-specific management of cardiovascular disease..

Ischemia and no obstructive coronary arteries (INOCA): A narrative review

Myocardial ischemia with no obstructive coronary arteries (INOCA) is a chronic coronary syndrome condition that is increasingly being recognized as a substantial contributor to adverse cardiovascular mortality and outcomes, including myocardial infarction and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). While INOCA occurs in both women and men, women are more likely to have the finding of INOCA and are more adversely impacted by angina, with recurrent hospitalizations and a lower quality of life with this condition. Abnormal epicardial coronary vascular function and coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD) have been identified in a majority of INOCA patients on invasive coronary function testing. CMD can co-exist with obstructive epicardial coronary artery disease (CAD), diffuse non-obstructive epicardial CAD, and with coronary vasospasm. Epicardial vasospasm can also occur with normal coronary arteries that have no atherosclerotic plaque on intravascular imaging. While all predisposing factors are not clearly understood, cardiometabolic risk factors, and endothelium dependent and independent mechanisms that increase oxidative stress and inflammation are associated with microvascular injury, CMD and INOCA. Cardiac autonomic dysfunction has also been implicated in abnormal vasoreactivity and persistent symptoms. INOCA is under-recognized and under-diagnosed, partly due to the heterogenous patient populations and mechanisms. However, diagnostic testing methods are available to guide INOCA management. Treatment of INOCA is evolving, and focuses on cardiac risk factor control, improving ischemia, reducing atherosclerosis progression, and improving angina and quality of life. This review focuses on INOCA, relations to HFpEF, available diagnostics, current and investigational therapeutic strategies, and knowledge gaps in this condition.

Contemporary and future invasive coronary vasomotor function testing and treatment in patients with ischaemia with no obstructive coronary arteries

In the current review, we emphasize the importance of diagnostics and therapy in patients with ischaemia with no obstructive coronary arteries (INOCA). The importance of the diagnostic coronary function test (CFT) procedure is described, including future components including angiography-derived physiology and invasive continuous thermodilution. Furthermore, the main components of treatment are discussed. Future directions include the national registration ensuring a high quality of INOCA care, besides a potential source to improve our understanding of pathophysiology in the various phenotypes of coronary vascular dysfunction, the diagnostic CFT procedure, and treatment.

Updates on Pharmacologic Management of Microvascular Angina

Microvascular angina (MVA), historically called cardiac syndrome X, refers to angina with nonobstructive coronary artery disease. This female-predominant cardiovascular disorder adds considerable health-related costs due to repeated diagnostic angiography and frequent hospital admissions. Despite the high prevalence of this diagnosis in patients undergoing coronary angiography, it is still a therapeutic challenge for cardiologists. Unlike obstructive coronary artery disease, with multiple evidence-based therapies and management guidelines, little is known regarding the management of MVA. During the last decade, many therapeutic interventions have been suggested for the treatment of MVA. However, there is a lack of summarization tab and update of current knowledge about pharmacologic management of MVA, mostly due to unclear pathophysiology. In this article, we have reviewed the underlying mechanisms of MVA and the outcomes of various medications in patients with this disease. Contrary to vasospastic angina in which normal angiogram is observed as well, nitrates are not effective in the treatment of MVA. Beta-blockers and calcium channel blockers have the strongest evidence of improving the symptoms. Moreover, the use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers, statins, estrogen, and novel antianginal drugs has had promising outcomes. Investigations are still ongoing for vitamin D, omega-3, incretins, and n-acetyl cysteine, which have resulted in beneficial initial outcomes. We believe that the employment of the available results and results of the future large-scale trials into cardiac care guidelines would help reduce the global cost of cardiac care tremendously.

Coronary microvascular disease: The "Meeting Point" of Cardiology, Rheumatology and Endocrinology

BACKGROUND

Exertional chest pain/dyspnea or chest pain at rest are the main symptoms of coronary artery disease (CAD), which are traditionally attributed to insufficiency of the epicardial coronary arteries. However, 2/3 of women and 1/3 of men with angina and 10% of patients with acute myocardial infarction have no evidence of epicardial coronary artery stenosis in X-ray coronary angiography. In these cases, coronary microvascular disease (CMD) is the main causative factor.

AIMS

To present the pathophysiology of CMD in Cardiology, Rheumatology and Endocrinology.

MATERIALS-METHODS

The pathophysiology of CMD in Cardiology, Rheumatology and Endocrinology was evaluated. It includes impaired microvascular vasodilatation, which leads to inability of the organism to deal with myocardial oxygen needs and, hence, development of ischemic pain. CMD, observed in inflammatory autoimmune rheumatic and endocrine/metabolic disorders, brings together Cardiology, Rheumatology and Endocrinology. Causative factors include persistent systemic inflammation and endocrine/metabolic abnormalities influencing directly the coronary microvasculature. In the past, the evaluation of microcirculation was feasible only with the use of invasive techniques, such as coronary flow reserve assessment. Currently, the application of advanced imaging modalities, such as cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR), can evaluate CMD non-invasively and without ionizing radiation.

RESULTS

CMD may present with a variety of symptoms with 1/3 to 2/3 of them expressed as typical chest pain in effort, more commonly found in women during menopause than in men. Atypical presentation includes chest pain at rest or exertional dyspnea,but post exercise symptoms are not uncommon. The treatment with nitrates is less effective in CMD, because their vasodilator action in coronary micro-circulation is less pronounced than in the epicardial coronary arteries.

DISCUSSION

Although both classic and new medications have been used in the treatment of CMD, there are still many questions regarding both the pathophysiology and the treatment of this disorder. The potential effects of anti-rheumatic and endocrine medications on the evolution of CMD need further evaluation.

CONCLUSION

CMD is a multifactorial disease leading to myocardial ischemia/fibrosis alone or in combination with epicardial coronary artery disease. Endothelial dysfunction/vasospasm, systemic inflammation, and/or neuroendocrine activation may act as causative factors and bring Cardiology, Rheumatology and Endocrinology together. Currently, the application of advanced imaging modalities, and specifically CMR, allows reliable assessment of the extent and severity of CMD. These measurements should not be limited to "pure cardiac patients", as it is known that CMD affects the majority of patients with autoimmune rheumatic and endocrine/metabolic disorders.

NADPH oxidase 4 contributes to TRPV4-mediated endothelium-dependent vasodilation in human arterioles by regulating protein phosphorylation of TRPV4 channels

Impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation has been suggested to be a key component of coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD). A better understanding of endothelial pathways involved in vasodilation in human arterioles may provide new insight into the mechanisms of CMD. The goal of this study is to investigate the role of TRPV4, NOX4, and their interaction in human arterioles and examine the underlying mechanisms. Arterioles were freshly isolated from adipose and heart tissues obtained from 71 patients without coronary artery disease, and vascular reactivity was studied by videomicroscopy. In human adipose arterioles (HAA), ACh-induced dilation was significantly reduced by TRPV4 inhibitor HC067047 and by NOX 1/4 inhibitor GKT137831, but GKT137831 did not further affect the dilation in the presence of TRPV4 inhibitors. GKT137831 also inhibited TRPV4 agonist GSK1016790A-induced dilation in HAA and human coronary arterioles (HCA). NOX4 transcripts and proteins were detected in endothelial cells of HAA and HCA. Using fura-2 imaging, GKT137831 significantly reduced GSK1016790A-induced Ca²⁺ influx in the primary culture of endothelial cells and TRPV4-WT-overexpressing human coronary artery endothelial cells (HCAEC). However, GKT137831 did not affect TRPV4-mediated Ca²⁺ influx in non-phosphorylatable TRPV4-S823A/S824A-overexpressing HCAEC. In addition, treatment of HCAEC with GKT137831 decreased the phosphorylation level of Ser824 in TRPV4. Finally, proximity ligation assay (PLA) revealed co-localization of NOX4 and TRPV4 proteins. In conclusion, both TRPV4 and NOX4 contribute to ACh-induced dilation in human arterioles from patients without coronary artery disease. NOX4 increases TRPV4 phosphorylation in endothelial cells, which in turn enhances TRPV4-mediated Ca²⁺ entry and subsequent endothelium-dependent dilation in human arterioles.

Coronary Microvascular Angina: A State-of-the-Art Review

Up to 60–70% of patients, undergoing invasive coronary angiography due to angina and demonstrable myocardial ischemia with provocative tests, do not have any obstructive coronary disease. Coronary microvascular angina due to a dysfunction of the coronary microcirculation is the underlying cause in almost 50% of these patients, associated with a bad prognosis and poor quality of life. In recent years, progress has been made in the diagnosis and management of this condition. The aim of this review is to provide an insight into current knowledge of this condition, from current diagnostic methods to the latest treatments.

Molecular Hallmarks of Ischemia with Non-Obstructive Coronary Arteries: The "INOCA versus Obstructive CCS" Challenge

Up to 4 million patients with signs of myocardial ischemia have no obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD). The absence of precise guidelines for diagnosis and treatment in non-obstructive CAD encourages the scientific community to fill the gap knowledge, to provide non-invasive and less expensive diagnostic tools. The aim of our study was to explore the biological profile of Ischemia with Non-Obstructive Coronary Arteries (INOCA) patients with microvascular dysfunction compared to patients presenting with obstructive chronic coronary syndrome (ObCCS) in order to find specific hallmarks of each clinical condition. We performed a gene expression array from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from INOCA (n = 18) and ObCCS (n = 20) patients. Our results showed a significantly reduced gene expression of molecules involved in cell adhesion, signaling, vascular motion, and inflammation in INOCA as compared to the ObCCS group. In detail, we found lower expression of Platelet and Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecule 1 (CD31, p < 0.0001), Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1 (ICAM1, p = 0.0004), Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF p = 0.0003), Transferrin Receptor (TFRC, p = 0.002), and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A (VEGFA, p = 0.0006) in the INOCA group compared with ObCCS. Meanwhile, we observed an increased expression of Hyaluronidase (HYAL2, p < 0.0001) in INOCA patients in comparison to ObCCS. The distinct expression of molecular biomarkers might allow an early and non-invasive differential diagnosis between ObCCS and INOCA, improving clinical management and treatment options, in the era of personalized medicine.

A Left Ventricular Mechanical Dyssynchrony-Based Nomogram for Predicting Major Adverse Cardiac Events Risk in Patients With Ischemia and No Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease

Background

The risk stratification of patients with ischemia and no obstructive coronary artery disease (INOCA) remains suboptimal. This study aims to establish a left ventricular mechanical dyssynchrony (LVMD)-based nomogram to improve the present situation.

Methods

Patients with suspected coronary artery disease (CAD) were retrospectively enrolled and divided into three groups: normal (stenosis &lt;50%, without myocardial ischemia), INOCA (stenosis &lt;50%, summed stress score &gt;4, summed difference score ≥2), and obstructive CAD (stenosis ≥50%). LVMD was defined by ROC analysis. INOCA group were followed up for the occurrence of major adverse cardiac events (MACEs: cardiovascular death, non-fatal myocardial infarction, revascularization, stroke, heart failure, and hospitalization for unstable angina). Nomogram was established using multivariate Cox regression analysis.

Results

Among 334 patients (118 [35.3%] INOCA), LVMD parameters were significantly higher in INOCA group versus normal group but they did not differ between obstructive CAD groups. In INOCA group, 27 (22.9%) MACEs occurred during a 26-month median follow-up. Proportion of LVMD was significantly higher with MACEs under both stress (63.0% vs. 22.0%, P &lt; 0.001) and rest (51.9% vs. 20.9%, P = 0.002). Kaplan–Meier analysis revealed significantly higher rate of MACEs (stress log-rank: P = 0.002; rest log-rank: P &lt; 0.001) in LVMD patients. Multivariate Cox regression analysis showed that stress LVMD (HR: 3.82; 95% CI: 1.30–11.20; P = 0.015) was an independent predictor of MACEs. The internal bootstrap resampling approach indicates that the C-index of nomogram was 0.80 (95% CI: 0.71–0.89) and the AUC values for 1 and 3 years of risk prediction were 0.68 (95% CI: 0.46–0.89) and 0.84 (95% CI: 0.72–0.95), respectively.

Conclusion

LVMD-based nomogram might provide incremental prognostic value and improve the risk stratification in INOCA patients.

Nuclear Cardiology in Women and Underrepresented Minority Populations

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To outline sex-specific features of coronary artery disease (CAD) that should be considered in the assessment of women, including those from ethnic minority populations with suspected stable ischemic heart disease (IHD). Second, to determine the latest nuclear imaging tools available to assess microvascular CAD.

RECENT FINDINGS

Latest studies indicate that women are more likely to have ischemia with no obstructive coronary arteries (INOCA) and paradoxically have worse outcomes. Therefore, the evaluation of women with suspected IHD should include assessing microvascular and epicardial coronary circulation. The prevalence of CAD is increasing in younger women due to the increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk burden. CAD is often underrecognized in these patients. There is increasing recognition that INOCA is not benign and should be accurately diagnosed and managed. Nuclear imaging assesses the full spectrum of CAD from microvascular CAD to multivessel obstructive epicardial CAD. Further research on myocardial blood flow (MBF) assessment with PET MPI is needed.

Cardiac CT angiography in current practice: An American society for preventive cardiology clinical practice statement✰

In this clinical practice statement, we represent a summary of the current evidence and clinical applications of cardiac computed tomography (CT) in evaluation of coronary artery disease (CAD), from an expert panel organized by the American Society for Preventive Cardiology (ASPC), and appraises the current use and indications of cardiac CT in clinical practice. Cardiac CT is emerging as a front line non-invasive diagnostic test for CAD, with evidence supporting the clinical utility of cardiac CT in diagnosis and prevention. CCTA offers several advantages beyond other testing modalities, due to its ability to identify and characterize coronary stenosis severity and pathophysiological changes in coronary atherosclerosis and stenosis, aiding in early diagnosis, prognosis and management of CAD. This document further explores the emerging applications of CCTA based on functional assessment using CT derived fractional flow reserve, peri‑coronary inflammation and artificial intelligence (AI) that can provide personalized risk assessment and guide targeted treatment. We sought to provide an expert consensus based on the latest evidence and best available clinical practice guidelines regarding the role of CCTA as an essential tool in cardiovascular prevention - applicable to risk assessment and early diagnosis and management, noting potential areas for future investigation.

The Canadian Women's Heart Health Alliance Atlas on the Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Management of Cardiovascular Disease in Women - Chapter 5: Sex- and Gender-Unique Manifestations of Cardiovascular Disease

This Atlas chapter summarizes sex- and some gender-associated, and unique aspects and manifestations of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in women. CVD is the primary cause of premature death in women in Canada and numerous sex-specific differences related to symptoms and pathophysiology exist. A review of the literature was done to identify sex-specific differences in symptoms, pathophysiology, and unique manifestations of CVD in women. Although women with ischemic heart disease might present with chest pain, the description of symptoms, delay between symptom onset and seeking medical attention, and prodromal symptoms are often different in women, compared with men. Nonatherosclerotic causes of angina and myocardial infarction, such as spontaneous coronary artery dissection are predominantly identified in women. Obstructive and nonobstructive coronary artery disease, aortic aneurysmal disease, and peripheral artery disease have worse outcomes in women compared with men. Sex differences exist in valvular heart disease and cardiomyopathies. Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction is more often diagnosed in women, who experience better survival after a heart failure diagnosis. Stroke might occur across the lifespan in women, who are at higher risk of stroke-related disability and age-specific mortality. Sex- and gender-unique differences exist in symptoms and pathophysiology of CVD in women. These differences must be considered when evaluating CVD manifestations, because they affect management and prognosis of cardiovascular conditions in women.

Microvascular Angina: Diagnosis and Management

Recognition of suspected ischaemia with no obstructive coronary artery disease – termed INOCA – has increased over the past decades, with a key contributor being microvascular angina. Patients with microvascular angina are at higher risk for major adverse cardiac events including MI, stroke, heart failure with preserved ejection fraction and death but to date there are no clear evidence-based guidelines for diagnosis and treatment. Recently, the Coronary Vasomotion Disorders International Study Group proposed standardised criteria for diagnosis of microvascular angina using invasive and non-invasive approaches. The management strategy for remains empirical, largely due to the lack of high-levelevidence- based guidelines and clinical trials. In this review, the authors will illustrate the updated approach to diagnosis of microvascular angina and address evidence-based pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments for patients with the condition.

Syndrome of Nonobstructive Coronary Artery Diseases: A Comprehensive Overview of Open Artery Ischemia

Syndromes of cardiac ischemia with nonobstructive coronary arteries have been increasingly recognized as a clinical entity with heterogeneous clinical presentations, commonly encountered in women. Knowledge of pathophysiology and clinical risk factors is key to ensuring appropriate diagnostic evaluation and management for these often-neglected patients. In this review, we discuss the epidemiology, risk factors, and clinical presentations of these syndromes. We provide algorithms for diagnosis and management of these entities based on current scientific knowledge and highlight some of the key knowledge gaps and ongoing trials in this emerging field.