Revisiting the 'bank of microscopic forms' in macroalgal-dominated ecosystems

Connectivity enhances resilience of marine forests after an extreme event

The resilience of populations to extreme climatic events comprises the resistance to withstand and the ability to recover, which depends on factors such as remaining genetic diversity and population connectivity. In 2011, a MHW caused a 100 km range contraction of kelp (Ecklonia radiata) off Western Australia, but recently recovering kelp forests were discovered. To understand mechanisms of recovery and determine if recovering populations are survivors or immigrants, we used genotyping-by-sequencing to assess patterns of genetic diversity and connectivity. We found that two of the three recovering kelp forests (PG1 and 2) were likely survivors whereas a third smaller population (PGCr 1) was likely produced through re-colonisation from nearby surviving forests. Connectivity was high among populations and migration analysis identified one population (Horrocks) as the most important source for the recovering kelps. All recovering populations had higher neutral genetic diversity, and similar putative adaptive diversity to surrounding surviving populations, suggesting local adaptation. Our results elucidate how mixed processes can contribute to kelp forest resilience following MHWs but cryptic survival and maintenance of population connectivity is key to recovery.

The importance of integrating phycological research, teaching, outreach, and engagement in a changing world

The ecological, evolutionary, economic, and cultural importance of algae necessitates a continued integration of phycological research, education, outreach, and engagement. Here, we comment on several topics discussed during a networking workshop-Algae and the Environment-that brought together phycological researchers from a variety of institutions and career stages. We share some of our perspectives on the state of phycology by examining gaps in teaching and research. We identify action areas where we urge the phycological community to prepare itself to embrace the rapidly changing world. We emphasize the need for more trained taxonomists as well as integration with molecular techniques, which may be expensive and complicated but are important. An essential benefit of these integrative studies is the creation of high-quality algal reference barcoding libraries augmented with morphological, physiological, and ecological data that are important for studies of systematics and crucial for the accuracy of the metabarcoding bioassessment. We highlight different teaching approaches for engaging undergraduate students in algal studies and the importance of algal field courses, forays, and professional phycological societies in supporting the algal training of students, professionals, and citizen scientists.

Temporal variation in the structure, abundance, and composition of Laminaria hyperborea forests and their associated understorey assemblages over an intense storm season

Kelp species function as important foundation organisms in coastal marine ecosystems where they provide biogenic habitat and ameliorate environmental conditions, often facilitating the development of diverse understorey assemblages. The structure of kelp forests is influenced by a variety of environmental factors, changes in which can result in profound shifts in ecological structure and functioning. Intense storm-induced wave action in particular, can severely impact kelp forest ecosystems. Given that storms are anticipated to increase in frequency and intensity in response to anthropogenic climate change, it is critical to understand their potential impacts on kelp forest ecosystems. During the 2021/22 northeast Atlantic storm season, the United Kingdom (UK) was subject to several intense storms, of which the first and most severe was Storm Arwen. Due to the unusual northerly wind direction, the greatest impacts of Storm Arwen were felt along the northeast coast of the UK where wind gusts exceeded 90 km/h, and inshore significant wave heights of 7.2 m and wave periods of 9.3 s were recorded. Here, we investigated temporal and spatial variation in the structure of L. hyperborea forests and associated understorey assemblages along the northeast coast of the UK over the 2021/22 storm season. We found significant changes in the cover, density, length, biomass, and age structure of L. hyperborea populations and the composition of understorey assemblages following the storm season, particularly at our most north facing site. We suggest continuous monitoring of these systems to further our understanding of temporal variation and potential recovery trajectories, alongside enhanced management to promote resilience to future perturbations.

Dynamics of green macroalgal micro-propagules and the influencing factors in the southern Yellow Sea, China

Micro-propagules (banks of microscopic forms) play important roles in the expansion of green tides, which are spreading on eutrophic coasts worldwide. In particular, large-scale green tides (Yellow Sea Green Tide, YSGTs) have persisted in the Yellow Sea for over 15 years, but the dynamics and functions of micro-propagules in their development remain unclear. In the present study, year-round field surveys were conducted to identify the reservoirs and investigate the persistence mechanisms and associated biotic and abiotic factors driving the temporal and spatial variations of micro-propagules. Micro-propagules in the southern Yellow Sea (SYS) showed evident spatial heterogeneity in terms of seasonal patterns and major influencing factors. Offshore of the SYS, the micro-propagule population underwent ephemeral expansion along with a large-scale bloom of floating Ulva algae in late spring and early summer. The Subei Shoal, particularly the sediments in the central raft region, had the highest micro-propagule abundance (MA) and was a major reservoir. The pronounced seasonal variation of MA in the Subei Shoal was primarily associated with the attached Ulva algae on Neopyropia aquaculture rafts. Vast aquaculture rafts provided essential substrates for micro-propagules to complete their life cycle and replenish the seed bank, thereby sustaining persistent YSGTs. It implied that habitat modification has pronounced ecological impacts on this intertidal muddy flat. The unique environmental conditions (enriched nutrients, esp. nitrate, favourable seawater temperatures in spring, and strong tidal mixing) facilitated the abundance, seasonal variation and recruitment of micro-propagules in the Subei Shoal. Given the current mitigation measures implemented in the raft region, further research is required to monitor and investigate the physiological and ecological responses of micro-propagule populations to the complex hydrobiological, geochemical, and physical matrices.

Syncopation and synchrony: Phenological dynamics of Pyropia nereocystis (Bangiophyceae) in central California

Pyropia nereocystis is an annual northeastern Pacific-bladed bangialean species whose macroscopic stage epiphytized the annual canopy forming bull kelp Nereocystis luetkeana. I examined three in situ facets of these epiphyte-host dynamics in the central California region: (1) spatial and temporal variation in the presence of P. nereocystis epiphytes as a function of host density, (2) the relationship between individual host morphology and epiphytic P. nereocystis biomass, and (3) the ecophysiological growth ramifications for subtidal transplants of both life stages of P. nereocystis. Swath canopy surveys and whole host collections were conducted at five sites between November 2017 and February 2019. Additionally, transplants of P. nereocystis gametophytes and sporophytes were conducted across multiple subtidal depths. I observed temporal changes in the proportions of hosts epiphytized by P. nereocystis, with differences in seasonal persistence of P. nereocystis among sites and between years. Biomass of P. nereocystis was positively correlated with individual host stipe length, stipe surface area, and the primary principal component (PC) of stipe morphometrics denoted by principal component analysis (PCA). Gametogenesis in P. nereocystis epiphytes was spatially heterogeneous and limited for the 2018-2019 cohort due to comprehensive removal of hosts by the February 2019 sampling period. Transplants of P. nereocystis gametophytes yielded similar growth responses among depths, and sporophyte (conchocelis) transplant areal growth was positively correlated with transplant depth. These findings detail spatiotemporal complexity and multi-scale (individual, site, and whole region) phenological nuances for central Californian P. nereocystis epiphytes.

The eco-evolutionary importance of reproductive system variation in the macroalgae: Freshwater reds as a case study

The relative frequency of sexual versus asexual reproduction governs the distribution of genetic diversity within and among populations. Most studies on the consequences of reproductive variation focus on the mating system (i.e., selfing vs. outcrossing) of diploid-dominant taxa (e.g., angiosperms), often ignoring asexual reproduction. Although reproductive systems are hypothesized to be correlated with life-cycle types, variation in the relative rates of sexual and asexual reproduction remains poorly characterized across eukaryotes. This is particularly true among the three major lineages of macroalgae (green, brown, and red). The Rhodophyta are particularly interesting, as many taxa have complex haploid-diploid life cycles that influence genetic structure. Though most marine reds have separate sexes, we show that freshwater red macroalgae exhibit patterns of switching between monoicy and dioicy in sister taxa that rival those recently shown in brown macroalgae and in angiosperms. We advocate for the investigation of reproductive system evolution using freshwater reds, as this will expand the life-cycle types for which these data exist, enabling comparative analyses broadly across eukaryotes. Unlike their marine cousins, species in the Batrachospermales have macroscopic gametophytes attached to filamentous, often microscopic sporophytes. While asexual reproduction through monospores may occur in all freshwater reds, the Compsopogonales are thought to be exclusively asexual. Understanding the evolutionary consequences of selfing and asexual reproduction will aid in our understanding of the evolutionary ecology of all algae and of eukaryotic evolution generally.

Investigating seed bank potential of crustose coralline algae using DNA metabarcoding

To examine the potential for the autogenic ecosystem engineers, crustose coralline algae (CCA), to serve as seed banks or refugia for life stages of other species, it is critical to develop sampling protocols that reflect the diversity of life present. In this pilot study on two shallow water species of CCA collected from Raoul Island (Kermadec Islands; Rangitāhua) New Zealand, we investigated two preservation methods (ethanol vs. silica gel), sampled inner and outer regions of the crusts, and used DNA metabarcoding and seven genes/gene regions (16S rRNA, 18S rRNA, 23S rRNA, cox1, rbcL, and tufA genes and the ITS rRNA region) to develop a protocol for taxa identification. The results revealed immense diversity, with typically more taxa identified within the inner layers than the outer layers. As highlighted in other metabarcoding studies and in earlier work on rhodoliths (nodose coralline algae), reference databases are incomplete, and to some extent, the use of multiple markers mitigates this issue. Specifically, the 23S rRNA and rbcL genes are currently more suitable for identifying algae, while the cox1 gene fares better at capturing the diversity present inclusive of algae. Further investigation of these autogenic ecosystem engineers that likely act as marine seed banks is needed.

18S rDNA gene metabarcoding of microeukaryotes and epi-endophytes in the holobiome of seven species of large brown algae

Brown algae (Phaeophyceae) are habitat-forming species in coastal ecosystems and include kelp forests and seaweed beds that support a wide diversity of marine life. Host-associated microbial communities are an integral part of phaeophyte biology, and whereas the bacterial microbial partners have received considerable attention, the microbial eukaryotes associated with brown algae have hardly been studied. Here, we used broadly targeted "pan-eukaryotic" primers (metabarcoding) to investigate brown algal-associated eukaryotes (the eukaryome). Using this approach, we aimed to investigate the eukaryome of seven large brown algae that are important and common species in coastal ecosystems. We also aimed to assess whether these macroalgae harbor novel eukaryotic diversity and to ascribe putative functional roles to the host-associated eukaryome based on taxonomic affiliation and phylogenetic placement. We detected a significant diversity of microeukaryotic and algal lineages associated with the brown algal species investigated. The operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were taxonomically assigned to 10 of the eukaryotic major supergroups, including taxonomic groups known to be associated with seaweeds as epibionts, endobionts, parasites, and commensals. Additionally, we revealed previously unrecorded sequence types, including novel phaeophyte OTUs, particularly in the Fucus spp. samples, that may represent fucoid genomic variants, sequencing artifacts, or undescribed epi-/endophytes. Our results provide baseline data and technical insights that will be useful for more comprehensive seaweed eukaryome studies investigating the evidently lineage-rich and functionally diverse symbionts of brown algae.

Advances in the research on micropropagules and their role in green tide outbreaks in the Southern Yellow Sea

The green tide event that occurred in the Southern Yellow Sea in 2007 lasted for 16 years, causing serious economic losses and ecological damage to coastal cities. To address this problem, a series of studies were conducted. However, the contribution of micropropagules to green tide outbreaks remains poorly understood, and the relationship between micropropagules and green algae that are settled nearshore or floating at sea also needs to be further explored. The present study focuses on the identification of these micropropagules in the Southern Yellow Sea and uses the Citespace tool to quantitatively analyze current research hotspots, frontier trends, and development trends. In addition, it examines the micropropagules' life cycle and how it directly affects the green algal biomass and clarifies the temporal and spatial distribution of micropropagules in the entire Southern Yellow Sea. The study also discusses unresolved scientific problems and limitations in the current research on algal micropropagules and provides an outlook on future research directions. We expect to further analyze the contribution of micropropagules to green tide outbreaks and provide data to support comprehensive green tide management.

Reproductive phenology and morphology of Macrocystis pyrifera (Laminariales, Ochrophyta) from southern New Zealand in relation to wave exposure1

Macrocystis pyrifera is a major habitat forming kelp in coastal ecosystems of temperate regions of the northern and southern hemispheres. We investigated the seasonal occurrence of adult sporophytes, morphological characteristics, and reproductive phenology at two sites within a wave-protected harbour and two wave-exposed sites in southern New Zealand every 3-4 months between 2012 and 2013. Seasonality in reproduction was assessed via the number of sporophylls, the occurrence of sori on sporophylls, and non-sporophyllous laminae (fertile pneumatocyst-bearing blades and fertile apical scimitars), meiospore release, and germination. We found that M. pyrifera was present and reproductive year-round in three of the four sites, and patterns were similar for the wave-exposure conditions. Sori were found on pneumatocyst-bearing blades and apical scimitars in addition to the sporophylls, and viable meiospores were released from all three types of laminae. Morphological variations between sites with different wave exposure indicate that sporophytes from wave-protected sites have bigger blades and holdfasts and are longer than those from wave-exposed sites. We discuss the implications of these biological variables for the ecology of M. pyrifera inhabiting different wave exposure environments in southern New Zealand.

The role of seasonality in reproduction of multiannual delayed gametophytes of Saccharina latissima

Delayed gametophytes are able to grow vegetatively for prolonged periods of time. As such, they are potentially very valuable for kelp aquaculture given their great promise in opening up novel opportunities for kelp breeding and farming. However, large-scale application would require more in-depth understanding of how to control reproduction in delayed gametophytes. For newly formed gametophytes, many environmental factors for reproduction have been identified, with key drivers being light intensity, temperature, and the initial gametophyte density. However, the question of whether delayed gametophytes react similarly to these life cycle controls remains open for exploration. In this study, we performed a full factorial experiment on the influences of light intensity, temperature, and density on the reproduction of multiannual delayed gametophytes of Saccharina latissima, during which the number of sporophytes formed was counted. We demonstrate that delayed gametophytes of S. latissima can reliably reproduce sexually after more than a year of vegetative growth, depending on the effects between light intensity and temperature. Under higher light intensities (≥29 µmol photons · m-2 · s-1 ), optimal reproduction was observed at lower temperatures (10.2°C), while at lower light intensities (≤15 µmol photons · m-2 · s-1 ), optimal reproduction was observed at higher temperatures (≥12.6°C). Given the seasonal lag between solar radiation and sea surface temperature in natural systems, these conditions resemble those found during spring (i.e., increasing light intensity with low temperatures) and autumn (i.e., decreasing light intensity with higher temperatures). Seasonality can be used as an aquaculture tool to better control the reproduction of delayed gametophytes.

Predicting responses to marine heatwaves using functional traits

Marine heatwaves (MHWs), discrete but prolonged periods of anomalously warm seawater, can fundamentally restructure marine communities and ecosystems. Although our understanding of these events has improved in recent years, key knowledge gaps hinder our ability to predict how MHWs will affect patterns of biodiversity. Here, we outline a functional trait approach that enables a better understanding of which species and communities will be most vulnerable to MHWs, and how the distribution of species and composition of communities are likely to shift through time. Our perspective allows progress toward unifying extreme events and longer term environmental trends as co-drivers of ecological change, with the incorporation of species traits into our predictions allowing for a greater capacity to make management decisions.