Incidence, prevalence and mortality of autoimmune hepatitis in England 1997-2015. A population-based cohort study

Autoimmune hepatitis: Brighton Collaboration case definition and guidelines for data collection, analysis, and presentation of immunisation safety data

This report introduces a Brighton Collaboration (BC) case definition for autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), which has been classified as a priority adverse event of special interest (AESI), as there were possible cases seen following COVID-19 vaccination. The case definition was developed by a group of subject matter and BC process experts to facilitate safety data comparability across pre- and post-licensure clinical trials, as well as pharmacovigilance activities in multiple settings with diverse resources and healthcare access. The usual BC case definition development process was followed in an expedited manner, and took two months to complete, including finalising the manuscript for publication, instead of the usual 1 year development time. It includes a systematic review of the literature and an expert consensus to define levels of diagnostic certainty for AIH, and provides specific guidelines for data collection and analysis. Histology, serological and biochemical tests and exclusion of alternate diagnosis were considered necessary to define the levels of certainty (definitive, probable and possible). AEFI reports of suspected AIH were independently classified by the WG members to test its useability and these classifications were used to finalise the case definition. The document underwent peer review by external AIH experts and a Reference Group of vaccine safety stakeholders in high-, low- and middle-income countries to ensure case definition useability, applicability, and scientific integrity. The expedited process can be replicated for development of other standardised case definitions for priority AESIs for endemics and epidemics. While applicable to cases reported following immunisation, the case definition is independent of lapsed time following vaccination and, as such, can also be used to determine background incidence for vaccinated and unvaccinated control groups in studies of causal association. While use of this case definition is also appropriate for the study of safety of other products including drugs, it is not meant to guide clinical case management.

Lack of complete biochemical response in autoimmune hepatitis leads to adverse outcome: First report of the IAIHG retrospective registry

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group retrospective registry (IAIHG-RR) is a web-based platform with subjects enrolled with a clinical diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis (AIH). As prognostic factor studies with enough power are scarce, this study aimed to ascertain data quality and identify prognostic factors in the IAIHG-RR cohort.

METHODS

This retrospective, observational, multicenter study included all patients with a clinical diagnosis of AIH from the IAIHG-RR. The quality assessment consisted of external validation of completeness and consistency for 29 predefined variables. Cox regression was used to identify risk factors for liver-related death and liver transplantation (LT).

RESULTS

This analysis included 2559 patients across 7 countries. In 1700 patients, follow-up was available, with a completeness of individual data of 90% (range: 30-100). During a median follow-up period of 10 (range: 0-49) years, there were 229 deaths, of which 116 were liver-related, and 143 patients underwent LT. Non-White ethnicity (HR 4.1 95% CI: 2.3-7.1), cirrhosis (HR 3.5 95% CI: 2.3-5.5), variant syndrome with primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) (HR 3.1 95% CI: 1.6-6.2), and lack of complete biochemical response within 6 months (HR 5.7 95% CI: 3.4-9.6) were independent prognostic factors.

CONCLUSIONS

The IAIHG-RR represents the world's largest AIH cohort with moderate-to-good data quality and a relevant number of liver-related events. The registry is a suitable platform for patient selection in future studies. Lack of complete biochemical response to treatment, non-White ethnicity, cirrhosis, and PSC-AIH were associated with liver-related death and LT.

Smoking is a Risk Factor for Autoimmune Hepatitis: An English Registry-Based Case-Control Study

Purpose

Smoking is a risk factor for some autoimmune diseases, but its association with autoimmune hepatitis remains unknown. We conducted a population-based matched case-control study to examine the association between tobacco smoking and the risk of autoimmune hepatitis in England.

Patients and Methods

From the Clinical Practice Research Datalink and linked Hospital Episode Statistics, 2005-2017, we included 987 cases diagnosed with autoimmune hepatitis after age 18 years and up to 10 frequency-matched population controls per case. We used multiple logistic regression to estimate the odds ratio of autoimmune hepatitis in ever-smokers vs never-smokers, adjusting for sex, age, general practice, calendar time of registration with the general practice, and socioeconomic status.

Results

The autoimmune hepatitis cases were more likely to be ever-smokers than the controls (44% vs 37%). The ever-smokers had an increased risk of autoimmune hepatitis compared with the never-smokers (adjusted odds ratio = 1.20, 95% confidence interval 1.03-1.39).

Conclusion

Smoking was associated with an increased risk of autoimmune hepatitis.

A nationwide study of autoimmune liver diseases in the Faroe Islands: Incidence, prevalence, and causes of death 2004 - 2021

Background and aims: Autoimmune liver diseases are rare diseases, and population-based studies on the epidemiology of autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) are sparse. We aimed to assess the incidence of AIH, PBC, and PSC in the Faroe Islands.Methods: All cases of AIH, PBC, and PSC diagnosed in the Faroe Islands between January 1^st, 2004, and December 31^st, 2021, were included in this nationwide registry-based cohort study. In addition, we searched all medical records to assess diagnostic criteria and cause of death.Results: The incidences of AIH, PBC, and PSC in the Faroe Islands were 5.2, 2.5 and 0.7 per 100,000 population per year, respectively. Point prevalence per 100,000 population on December 31st 2021, was 71.8 for AIH, 38.5 for PBC, and 11.0 for PSC. Nine AIH patients died after a median of 3 years, three died of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and two died of liver failure. Five PBC patients died after a median of 7 years, one of HCC and one of liver failure. One PSC patient died of cholangiocarcinoma.Conclusion: The incidence and prevalence of AIH, PBC and PSC in the Faroe Islands are among the highest reported in population-based settings.

Global incidence and prevalence of autoimmune hepatitis, 1970-2022: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) varies significantly in incidence and prevalence across countries and regions. We aimed to examine global, regional, and national trends in incidence and prevalence of AIH from 1970 to 2022.

Methods

We conducted a thorough search of the PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, Google Scholar, and Cochrane databases from database inception to August 9, 2023, using the search term "autoimmune hepatitis" in combination with "incidence," "prevalence," or "trend." Only general population-based observational studies with larger samples sizes were considered for inclusion. Studies that recruited convenience samples, and those with fewer than 50 participants were excluded. Summary data were extracted from published reports. A random effects model was used and pooled estimates with 95% CI were used to calculate the incidence and prevalence of AIH. Heterogeneity was evaluated using the I2 statistic. The study protocol was registered with PROSPERO, CRD42023430138.

Findings

A total of 37 eligible studies, encompassing more than 239 million participants and 55,839 patients with AIH from 18 countries across five continents, were included in the analysis. Global pooled incidence and prevalence of AIH were found to be 1.28 cases per 100,000 inhabitant-years (95% CI, 1.01-1.63, I2 = 99·51%; number of studies, 33; sample population, 220,673,674) and 15.65 cases per 100,000 inhabitants (95% CI, 13.42-18.24, I2 = 99·75%; number of studies, 26; sample population, 217,178,684), respectively. The incidence of AIH was greater in countries with high Human Development Index (>0.92), in North America and Oceania (compared with Asia), among females, adults (compared with children), and high latitude (>45°). Similar patterns in AIH prevalence were observed. Pooled AIH prevalence increased gradually from 1970 to 2019 (1970-1999; 9.95 [4.77-15.13], I2 = 95·58% versus 2015-2022; 27.91 [24.86-30.96], I2 = 99·32%; cases per 100,000 inhabitants). The overall incidence and prevalence of AIH, as well as some subgroup analyses of the studies, displayed asymmetry in the funnel plots, suggesting potential evidence of publication bias.

Interpretation

AIH incidence and prevalence have increased significantly and exhibit substantial variation across regions worldwide. Further research is required to assess the incidence and prevalence of AIH, specifically in South America and Africa.

Funding

National Research Foundation of Korea.

Long-term Outcome of Autoimmune Hepatitis: Consecutive Patient Cohort and Data on the Second Twenty Years

BACKGROUND

Mortality rates for autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) vary. Data are lacking beyond 20 years follow-up.

AIMS

Analysis of a consecutively recruited large AIH cohort from a single non-transplant tertiary centre in England and an overlapping cohort, already followed for ≥ 20 years.

METHODS

We assessed 330 patients presenting 1987-2016 and 65 patients presenting 1971-96 already followed for 20 years.

RESULTS

Death/liver transplant rate was 51±4% (all-cause) and 21±4% (liver-related) over 20 years and was independently associated with: decompensation and lower serum ALT at diagnosis; and failure of serum ALT normalisation and higher relapse rate. There was excess mortality over the first year. Patients (n = 65) already followed for twenty years had similar subsequent rates of relapse, disease progression and mortality, to those followed from diagnosis. Azathioprine-intolerant patients (n = 23) switching to Mycophenolate did not have higher mortality over 4(1-17) years, than patients continuing Azathioprine. Following immunosuppression withdrawal (n = 26), six (23% patients) relapsed with no liver-related deaths over 2.3(0-23.1) years.

CONCLUSIONS

In this consecutive autoimmune hepatitis cohort, mortality was similar to that in national registry studies, disease progression continued after 20 years, and immunosuppression withdrawal did not compromise survival.

Juvenile Autoimmune Hepatitis: Recent Advances in Diagnosis, Management and Long-Term Outcome

Juvenile autoimmune hepatitis (JAIH) is severe immune-mediated necro-inflammatory disease of the liver with spontaneous progression to cirrhosis and liver failure if left untreated. The diagnosis is based on the combination of clinical, laboratory and histological findings. Prothrombin ratio is a useful prognostic factor to identify patients who will most likely require a liver transplant by adolescence or early adulthood. JAIH treatment consists of immune suppression and should be started promptly at diagnosis to halt inflammatory liver damage and ultimately prevent fibrosis and progression to end-stage liver disease. The risk of relapse is high especially in the setting of poor treatment compliance. Recent evidence however suggests that treatment discontinuation is possible after a prolonged period of normal aminotransferase activity without the need for liver biopsy prior to withdrawal.

Open challenges in the management of autoimmune hepatitis

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a rare autoimmune disease of the liver with many open questions as regards its etiopathogenesis, natural history and clinical management. The classical picture of AIH is chronic hepatitis with fluctuating elevation of serum transaminases and Immunoglobulin G levels, the presence of circulating autoantibodies and typical histological features. However, atypical presentations do occur and are not well captured by current diagnostic scores, with important consequences in terms of missed diagnoses and delayed treatments. AIH is treated with corticosteroids and immunosuppressive drugs but up to 40% of patients do not achieve full biochemical response and are at risk of progressing to cirrhosis and liver failure. Moreover, standard therapies are associated by significant side-effects which may impair the quality of life of patients living with AIH. However, advances in the understanding of the underlying immunology of AIH is raising the prospect of novel therapies and optimization of existing therapeutic approaches to reduce side-effect burdens and potentially restore immunological tolerance. In this review we outlined the clinical characteristics, etiopathogenesis and management of AIH and current challenges in the diagnosis and management of AIH and provided evidence underlying the evolution of diagnostic and clinical management protocols.

[Epidemiology of Autoimmune Liver Disease]

Autoimmune liver disease is an important immune-mediated pathologic entity involving the liver and intrahepatic bile duct, including autoimmune hepatitis, primary biliary cholangitis, and primary sclerosing cholangitis. Although it is necessary to ascertain its presence in acute or chronic liver disease without common causes, it is not easy to diagnose this disease straightforwardly because of its rarity. Recently, the incidence and prevalence of autoimmune hepatitis and primary biliary cholangitis have increased in several regions. In contrast, there is limited data dealing with the trend of the epidemiology of primary sclerosing cholangitis worldwide. Physicians should consider the epidemiologic characteristics of autoimmune liver disease because early diagnosis and proper treatment might prevent the progression of advanced liver disease. In addition, more sophisticated epidemiologic studies will be needed to elucidate the trend of these rare diseases nationwide.

Diagnosis and management of autoimmune hepatitis

Autoimmune hepatitis is an inflammatory disease of the liver of unknown cause that may progress to liver cirrhosis and end stage liver failure if diagnosis is overlooked and treatment delayed. The clinical presentation is often that of acute hepatitis, sometimes very severe; less frequently, it can be insidious or completely asymptomatic. The disease can affect people of any age and is more common in women; its incidence and prevalence seem to be on the rise worldwide. An abnormal immune response targeting liver autoantigens and inducing persistent and self-perpetuating liver inflammation is the pathogenic mechanism of the disease. A specific set of autoantibodies, increased IgG concentrations, and histological demonstration of interface hepatitis and periportal necrosis are the diagnostic hallmarks of autoimmune hepatitis. Prompt response to treatment with corticosteroids and other immunomodulatory drugs is almost universal and supports the diagnosis. The aims of treatment are to induce and maintain long term remission of liver inflammation. Treatment can often even reverse liver fibrosis, thus preventing progression to advanced cirrhosis and its complications. Most patients need lifelong maintenance therapy, and repeated follow-up in experienced hands improves the quality of care and quality of life for affected patients.

Sociodemographic and geographic differences in the US epidemiology of autoimmune hepatitis with and without cirrhosis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Data on the epidemiology of autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) in the United States are limited. This study investigated the sociodemographic and geographic factors associated with AIH incidence and prevalence with and without cirrhosis.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

In a retrospective cohort of adults in the Optum Clinformatics Data Mart (2009-2018), we identified AIH cases using a validated claims-based algorithm. Incidence and prevalence were compared between sociodemographic subgroups. Logistic regression evaluated the association of US Census Division with AIH incidence and the factors associated with incident AIH with cirrhosis. From 2009 to 2018, the age- and sex-standardized prevalence of AIH in the Optum cohort was 26.6 per 100,000 persons with an incidence of 4.0 per 100,000 person-years. AIH incidence increased earlier among Hispanics (age 50-59 years) and later among Asians (≥80 years). Adjusted AIH incidence was higher in the Mountain Division (odds ratio [OR] 1.17) and lower in the Pacific (OR 0.68), Middle Atlantic (OR 0.81), and West North Central Divisions (OR 0.86 vs. East North Central; p < 0.001). Male sex (OR 1.31, p = 0.003), Black race (OR 1.32, p = 0.022), and Hispanic ethnicity (OR 1.37 vs. non-Hispanic White, p = 0.009) were associated with incident AIH with cirrhosis. Incident AIH with cirrhosis was greater in the West South Central Division (OR 1.30 vs. South Atlantic; p = 0.008).

CONCLUSIONS

AIH epidemiology differs according to sociodemographic and geographic factors in the United States. Studies are needed to determine the genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors underlying the heterogeneity in AIH risk and outcomes.

Autoimmune serology testing in clinical practice: An updated roadmap for the diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis

Diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is in most cases challenging for clinicians as there is not a single specific laboratory or histological marker to diagnose or exclude the presence of the disease. The clinical spectrum of AIH varies from completely asymptomatic to acute-severe or even rarely fulminant hepatic failure, while everybody can be affected irrespective of age, gender, and ethnicity. The old revised and the newer simplified diagnostic scores have been established by the International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group (IAIHG) in 1999 and 2008, respectively, which are based on several clinical, laboratory and histological parameters. Additionally, a thorough differential diagnosis from other diseases mimicking AIH is absolutely indicated. In this context, autoantibodies detection in patients with suspected AIH is mandatory -even though not pathognomonic- not only for AIH diagnosis but furthermore, for AIH classification (AIH-type 1 and AIH-type 2). Although autoimmune serology can be supportive of AIH diagnosis in ≥95% of cases if testing has been performed according to the IAIHG guidelines, this is not the case under real-life circumstances in routine clinical laboratories. Clinicians should be careful both for the importance of the required testing and how to interpret the results and therefore, they should communicate and discuss with the laboratory personnel to achieve the maximum benefit for the patient. Herein, a detailed and updated review of the diagnostic work-up for AIH diagnosis under real-life conditions is given to minimize the underestimation and misdiagnosis of AIH which can result in progression of the disease and unfavourable outcomes.

Therapeutic modulation of V Set and Ig domain-containing 4 (VSIG4) signaling in immune and inflammatory diseases

Inflammation is the result of acute and chronic stresses, caused by emotional or physical trauma, or nutritional or environmental pollutants, and brings serious harm to human life and health. As an important cellular component of the innate immune barrier, the macrophage plays a key role in maintaining tissue homeostasis and promoting tissue repair by controlling infection and resolving inflammation. Several studies suggest that V Set and Ig domain-containing 4 is specifically expressed in tissue macrophages and is associated with a variety of inflammatory diseases. In this paper, we mainly summarize the recent research on V Set and Ig domain-containing 4 structures, functions, function and roles in acute and chronic inflammatory diseases, and provide a novel therapeutic avenue for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, including nervous system, urinary, respiratory and metabolic diseases.

Changing epidemiology of cirrhosis from 2010 to 2019: results from the Global Burden Disease study 2019

BACKGROUND

Liver cirrhosis is a significant yet largely preventable and underappreciated cause of global health loss. This study aimed to profile the global and regional burdens of liver cirrhosis between 2010 and 2019 and the contributions of various aetiologies.

METHOD

Data on the incidence, mortality, and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) of cirrhosis were obtained from the Global Burden of Disease 2019 study. The burden of cirrhosis was estimated by age, sex, region, aetiology, and socio-demographic index (SDI). The temporal trend was quantified using the annual percentage changes (APC.).

RESULTS

Globally, there were 2.05 million new cases and 1.47 million deaths due to cirrhosis in 2019. From 2010 to 2019, the age-standardized incidence rate (ASIR) for cirrhosis increased slightly from 25.19 to 25.35 worldwide, while the age-standardized death rate (ASDR) and age-standardized DALYs (ASDALYs) decreased from 20.37 to 18.00 and 639.86 to 560.43, respectively. Cirrhosis incidence, mortality and DALYs were consistently higher in males than females. Stratification according to the socio-demographic index (SDI) revealed that low SDI countries had the highest ASDR and ASDALYs in 2019, while middle SDI countries had the highest ASIR. Regarding the aetiology of cirrhosis, hepatitis C accounted for the largest proportion of cirrhosis-related incidence (26.9%), death (26.8%) and DALYs (26.3%); however, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) exhibited a rapidly growing cause of incident cirrhosis (+26.7%), cirrhosis-related death (+25.1%), and DALYs (+21.0%) worldwide during this period. The ASIR for NAFLD also significantly increased with APC 1.080 over the study period.

CONCLUSIONS

Albeit the global burden of cirrhosis incidence increased from 2010 to 2019, cirrhosis-associated deaths and DALYs declined significantly. Notably, NAFLD exhibited the most significant increase as a contributor to cirrhosis worldwide.

The Inconvenient Truth of Primary Biliary Cholangitis/Autoimmune Hepatitis Overlap Syndrome

The term 'PBC/AIH-overlap' has been applied when features of autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), be they biochemical, serological or histological, coexist with primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), either at first presentation or sequentially during disease course. Several treatment paradigms have been proposed, extrapolated from those of the primary conditions. However, there are no randomised studies showing improved survival with combination therapy compared to bile acid monotherapy. In the absence of high-quality evidence, multidisciplinary patient-specific approaches must be used to individualise treatment pathways, with appreciation that disease phenotypes are not always static, differ in treatment responses, and have the potential to evolve over time.

Hepatic ultrastructural features distinguish paediatric Wilson disease from NAFLD and autoimmune hepatitis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Wilson disease (WD) has diverse presentations that frequently mimic other liver diseases. Distinguishing WD from non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), can be difficult and has critical implications for medical management. This study aimed to examine the utility of histological features of WD in children compared to those with NAFLD and AIH.

METHODS

A review of liver biopsy slides was performed in children with a clinical and/or genetic diagnosis of WD, seen at the Hospital for Sick Children between 1981 and 2019 and compared to controls with NAFLD and AIH. 37 children with WD and 37 disease controls (20 NAFLD; 17 AIH) were included. Three pathologists, blind to clinical details and diagnosis, reviewed all liver biopsies to reach consensus. Clinical and histopathologic features were compared between groups.

RESULTS

Most WD cases displayed steatosis or steatohepatitis on histology (34/37), active AIH-pattern in 1 and inactive cirrhosis in 2 cases. Electron microscopy (EM) findings of mitochondrial abnormalities including dilated tips of cristae, pleomorphism, membrane duplication and dense matrix were more frequent in the WD group as compared to disease controls (p < 0.0001). In WD, dilated tips of mitochondrial cristae had a sensitivity of 91% and specificity of 86%, best among EM features.

CONCLUSIONS

Light microscopic findings display considerable overlap among children with WD, NAFLD and AIH. Ultrastructural findings of mitochondrial abnormalities are important to distinguish WD from NAFLD and AIH. EM examination should be considered essential in the diagnostic work-up of paediatric liver biopsies.

Comprehensive immune cell analysis of human menstrual-blood-derived stem cells therapy to concanavalin A hepatitis

Autoimmune hepatitis is an autoimmune disease with increasing occurrence worldwide. The most common and convenient mouse model is the concanavalin A (ConA) mouse model. Human menstrual-blood-derived stem cells (MenSCs) have shown great potential as a type of mesenchymal stem cell for treating various diseases. Time-of-flight mass cytometry was performed in phosphate-buffered saline control (NC) group and ConA injection with or without MenSCs treatment groups, and conventional flow cytometry was used for further validation. The serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels and H&E staining depicted that MenSCs treatment could significantly alleviate ConA-induced hepatitis. The t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) analysis of nine liver samples displayed favorable cell clustering, and the NC group was significantly different from the other two groups. The proportions of CD69⁺ T cells, NKT cells, and PD-L1⁺ macrophages were notably increased by ConA injection, while MenSCs could decrease ConA-induced macrophage percentage and M1 polarization in the liver tissue. The analysis of proinflammatory factors carried out by cytometric bead array demonstrated that tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-17A, IL-12p70, IL-6, IL-2, IL-1b, and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) were upregulated after ConA injection and then rapidly decreased at 12 h. MenSCs also played an important role in downregulating these cytokines. Here, we described the comprehensive changes in leukocytes in the liver tissue of ConA-induced hepatitis at 12 h after ConA injection and found that MenSCs rescued ConA-induced hepatitis mostly by inhibiting macrophages and M1 polarization in mouse liver.

Histopathologist and clinician interface in diagnosis and management of autoimmune hepatitis

Diagnosis of AIH is based on a combination of clinical, laboratory and histological information. It has been formalised by diagnostic scoring systems, to which liver biopsy contributes substantially. Diagnostic biopsy is thus, desirable in nearly all patients. An adequate biopsy size, provision by clinicians of adequate information to histopathologists and active discussion at regular meetings are all important for accurate histological diagnosis. Recently, the specificity of some features previously thought to suggest AIH has been questioned, and new recommendations for histological diagnosis have been proposed, although not yet validated. The histology of acutely presenting AIH and that of severe or fulminant AIH include some characteristic features. Primary biliary cholangitis, primary sclerosing cholangitis and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease may co-exist with AIH on biopsy. Liver biopsy also enables grading of severity of inflammation and staging of fibrosis. Presence of cirrhosis is a poor prognostic marker. Repeat liver biopsy after achieving biochemical remission, although not performed routinely, enables assessment of (a) histological remission, a favourable prognostic indicator and (b) fibrosis progression. It can thus help determine further management.

Systematic review with meta-analysis: outcomes of pregnancy in patients with autoimmune hepatitis

BACKGROUND

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is common in females of childbearing age. Although some studies have provided information about the outcomes of pregnancy, there remains uncertainty regarding conclusions.

AIM

To comprehensively explore the interactions between pregnancy and AIH.

METHODS

Databases including PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library and Science Citation Index Expanded were searched to collect available studies in relation to pregnancy in AIH patients (from inception to 28 August 2021). Pooled data were calculated using a random effects model with standardised mean difference (SMD), or risk ratio (RR), and 95% confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

Twelve studies were considered eligible for meta-analysis. Data from 26 case reports/series were extracted for systematic review. AST level in AIH patients was significantly lower during pregnancy (SMD = -0.41, 95% CI = [-0.70, -0.12]; SMD = -1.60, 95% CI = [-2.76, -0.44]) and loss of biochemical remission occurred more frequently in post-partum (RR = 0.31, 95% CI = [0.19, 0.52]). Patients with portal hypertension or without established remission before conception presented as high-risk subgroups and the incidence of pre-term delivery was higher in these groups compared to other AIH patients (RR = 9, 95% CI = [1.22, 51.1]; RR = 0.05, 95% CI = [0.004, 0.38]). In population-based comparison, pre-term birth (RR = 2.45, 95% CI = [1.66, 3.62]) also occurred more often in AIH patients compared with the general population.

CONCLUSIONS

Successful pregnancy is a reasonable expectation in AIH. However, hepatic biochemistry should be monitored closely in both the puerperium and the post-partum period. Though some patients may present higher risk, with carefully selected therapeutic manipulation and multi-disciplinary care, the majority of mothers and infants should achieve uneventful outcomes.

Circulating complement factor H levels are associated with disease severity and relapse in autoimmune hepatitis

Background & Aims

The complement system plays pivotal roles in innate immunity. Mannose-binding lectin-associated serine protease (MASP)-2 plays essential roles in the activation of the lectin complement pathway. Complement factor H acts as a critical negative regulator of the alternative complement pathway. The association of circulating MASP-2 and factor H with the clinical features of patients with autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is unclear.

Methods

A total of 63 patients with AIH were recruited for this study. The serum levels of MASP-2, factor H, and C3a were measured, and their associations with the clinical features of AIH were analyzed.

Results

The circulating C3a levels were higher in patients with AIH than in the controls. The circulating MASP-2 and factor H levels were decreased depending on the severity of AIH. Multivariate logistic analysis showed that low circulating factor H levels were associated with features of severe AIH (odds ratio 0.36; 95% CI 0.15-0.84; p = 0.018). Multivariate Cox proportional hazards model analysis showed that low circulating factor H levels were associated with a high incidence of relapse (hazard ratio: 5.19; 95% CI 1.07–25.2; p = 0.041). Patients with low circulating factor H levels showed higher rates of relapse than the controls (log-rank, p = 0.006).

Conclusion

Circulating factor H levels were associated with severe disease and with the incidence of relapse, suggesting a role for the complement system in the pathophysiology of AIH.

Lay summary

Autoimmune hepatitis is an immune-mediated liver disease. Despite effective treatments, patients often relapse, which can lead to clinical deterioration and adverse outcomes. Herein, we studied the importance of the complement system (a form of innate immunity) in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. We found that the levels of a protein called factor H, which regulates the complement system, could be a potential biomarker of disease severity and relapse, and could even have therapeutic potential for patients with AIH.

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We measured serum MASP-2 and factor H in patients with AIH.

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Serum MASP-2 and factor H levels were lower in patients with severe AIH.

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Patients with AIH and low factor H before treatment showed a high rate of relapse.

Treatment and Outcome of Autoimmune Hepatitis (AIH): Audit of 28 UK centres

BACKGROUND

With few data regarding treatment and outcome of patients with AIH outside of large centres we present such a study of patients with AIH in 28 UK hospitals of varying size and facilities.

METHODS

Patients with AIH were identified in 14 University and 14 District General hospitals; incident cases during 2007-2015 and prevalent cases, presenting 2000-2015. Treatment and outcomes were analysed.

RESULTS

In 1267 patients with AIH, followed-up for 3.8(0-15) years, 5- and 10-year death/transplant rates were 7.1+0.8% and 10.1+1.3% (all-cause) and 4.0+0.6% and 5.9+1% (liver-related) respectively. Baseline parameters independently associated with death/transplantation for all-causes were: older age, vascular/respiratory co-morbidity, cirrhosis, decompensation, platelet count, attending transplant centre and for liver-related: the last four of these and peak bilirubin All-cause and liver-related death/transplantation was independently associated with: non-treatment with corticosteroids, non-treatment with a steroid-sparing agent (SSA), non-treatment of asymptomatic or non-cirrhotic patients and initial dose of Prednisolone >35mg/0.5mg/kg/day (all-cause only), but not with type of steroid (Prednisolone versus Budesonide) or steroid duration beyond 12-months. Subsequent all-cause and liver-death/transplant rates showed independent associations with smaller percentage fall in serum ALT after 1 and 3-months, but not with failure to normalise levels over 12-months.

CONCLUSIONS

We observed higher death/transplant rates in patients with AIH who were untreated with steroids (including asymptomatic or non-cirrhotic sub-groups), those receiving higher Prednisolone doses and those who did not receive an SSA. Similar death/transplant rates were seen in those receiving Prednisolone or Budesonide, those continuing steroids after 12-months and patients attaining normal ALT within 12-months versus not.

Autoimmmune hepatitis

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a T-cell mediated, inflammatory liver disease affecting all ages and characterized by female preponderance, elevated serum transaminase and immunoglobulin G levels, positive circulating autoantibodies, and presence of interface hepatitis at liver histology. AIH type 1, affecting both adults and children, is defined by positive anti-nuclear and/or anti-smooth muscle antibodies, while type 2 AIH, affecting mostly children, is defined by positive anti-liver-kidney microsomal type 1 and/or anti-liver cytosol type 1 antibody. While the autoantigens of type 2 AIH are well defined, being the cytochrome P4502D6 (CYP2D6) and the formiminotransferase cyclodeaminase (FTCD), in type 1 AIH they remain to be identified. AIH-1 predisposition is conferred by possession of the MHC class II HLA DRB1*03 at all ages, while DRB1*04 predisposes to late onset disease; AIH-2 is associated with possession of DRB1*07 and DRB1*03. The majority of patients responds well to standard immunosuppressive treatment, based on steroid and azathioprine; second- and third-line drugs should be considered in case of intolerance or insufficient response. This review offers a comprehensive overview of pathophysiological and clinical aspects of AIH.

Increased Cancer Risk in Autoimmune Hepatitis: A Danish Nationwide Cohort Study

INTRODUCTION

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a chronic inflammatory liver disease and as such may increase the risk of cancer. We examined cancer risks in a nationwide cohort of patients with AIH.

METHODS

This study was based on nationwide Danish healthcare registries. We identified all persons diagnosed with AIH between 1994 and 2018. We included 1805 patients with AIH and 16,617 age- and sex-matched population controls. We estimated cumulative risks of cancers and risk ratios (RRs) between patients and controls. Within the cohort of patients with AIH, we examined the impact of immunosuppressive treatment (IST) and cirrhosis on cancer risks.

RESULTS

The 10-year risk of any cancer was 13.6% (95% confidence interval [CI] 11.7-15.6) in patients with AIH with an RR of 1.5 (95% CI 1.3-1.7) compared with controls. Patients with AIH had a 10-year risk of 0.5% (95% CI 0.2-1.1) for hepatocellular carcinoma. The 10-year risk was 1.6% (95% CI 1.0-2.5) for colorectal cancer (RR: 2.1 [95% CI 1.3-3.5]) and 4.0% (95% CI 3.0-5.3) for nonmelanoma skin cancer (RR: 1.8 [95% CI 1.3-2.5]). Among patients with AIH, the risk of cancer was higher for those with cirrhosis (hazard ratio: 1.3 [95% CI 1.0-1.7]), and it also increased 1.05-fold (95% CI 1.0-1.1) for every year the patient was on IST.

DISCUSSION

AIH was associated with a 1.5-fold increased 10-year risk of cancer compared with age- and sex-matched controls. Among patients with AIH, the risk of cancer was higher for those with cirrhosis, and it also increased slightly with longer duration of IST.

Pathogenesis of Autoimmune Hepatitis-Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms

Pediatric autoimmune liver disorders include autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), autoimmune sclerosing cholangitis (ASC), and de novo AIH after liver transplantation. AIH is an idiopathic disease characterized by immune-mediated hepatocyte injury associated with the destruction of liver cells, causing inflammation, liver failure, and fibrosis, typically associated with autoantibodies. The etiology of AIH is not entirely unraveled, but evidence supports an intricate interaction among genetic variants, environmental factors, and epigenetic modifications. The pathogenesis of AIH comprises the interaction between specific genetic traits and molecular mimicry for disease development, impaired immunoregulatory mechanisms, including CD4+ T cell population and Treg cells, alongside other contributory roles played by CD8+ cytotoxicity and autoantibody production by B cells. These findings delineate an intricate pathway that includes gene to gene and gene to environment interactions with various drugs, viral infections, and the complex microbiome. Epigenetics emphasizes gene expression through hereditary and reversible modifications of the chromatin architecture without interfering with the DNA sequence. These alterations comprise DNA methylation, histone transformations, and non-coding small (miRNA) and long (lncRNA) RNA transcriptions. The current first-line therapy comprises prednisolone plus azathioprine to induce clinical and biochemical remission. Further understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms encountered in AIH may depict their impact on clinical aspects, detect biomarkers, and guide toward novel, effective, and better-targeted therapies with fewer side effects.

Autoimmune Diseases of Digestive Organs-A Multidisciplinary Challenge: A Focus on Hepatopancreatobiliary Manifestation

It is well known that some pathological conditions, especially of autoimmune etiology, are associated with the HLA (human leukocyte antigen) phenotype. Among these diseases, we include celiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease, autoimmune enteropathy, autoimmune hepatitis, primary sclerosing cholangitis and primary biliary cholangitis. Immunoglobulin G4-related diseases (IgG4-related diseases) constitute a second group of autoimmune gastrointestinal, hepatobiliary and pancreatic illnesses. IgG4-related diseases are systemic and rare autoimmune illnesses. They often are connected with chronic inflammation and fibrotic reaction that can occur in any organ of the body. The most typical feature of these diseases is a mononuclear infiltrate with IgG4-positive plasma cells and self-sustaining inflammatory response. In this review, we focus especially upon the hepatopancreatobiliary system, autoimmune pancreatitis and IgG4-related sclerosing cholangitis. The cooperation of the gastroenterologist, radiologist, surgeon and histopathologist is crucial for establishing correct diagnoses and appropriate treatment, especially in IgG4 hepatopancreatobiliary diseases.

Pregnancy outcome in women with childhood onset autoimmune hepatitis and autoimmune sclerosing cholangitis on long-term immunosuppressive treatment

INTRODUCTION

Autoimmune hepatitis and autoimmune sclerosing cholangitis may lead to maternal and fetal complications in pregnant women diagnosed during childhood and treated long-term with immunosuppressive drugs. Immunosuppressive treatment with azathioprine is usually employed during pregnancy to maintain remission but his safety is still controversial. The aim of our study is to investigate pregnancy outcomes after maternal long-term immunosuppressive treatment for autoimmune hepatitis/sclerosing cholangitis.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study including all pregnant women who received a diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis or autoimmune sclerosing cholangitis during childhood and followed-up from 1989 to 2021.

RESULTS

Fifteen pregnancies in 12 women were observed. The median follow-up from disease onset was 26.7 years. All patients had been treated with prednisone and azathioprine (AZA) as first line therapy. At the beginning of the pregnancy, 11/12 (91.6%) patients were in spontaneous or pharmacologically induced clinical and biochemical remission and one had received a liver transplant. During pregnancy, 8 patients continued azathioprine. No relapse during pregnancy occurred in any patient. One woman presented a flare five months after delivery and a second one, one year after delivery when AZA was discontinued. The 15 pregnancies resulted in 13 livebirths (86.6%) with 9 (69.2%) full-term healthy neonates. Two miscarriages (13.3%) were recorded and cesarean section was performed in 3 women (23%). No congenital malformations were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Pregnancy in women diagnosed during pediatric age with autoimmune hepatitis or autoimmune sclerosing cholangitis and treated long-term with immunosuppressants is possible with good maternal and neonatal outcomes. Azathioprine allows, in most cases, to maintain remission with a good safety profile. Careful monitoring of these patients during pregnancy is, however, mandatory.

Outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Patients With Chronic Liver Disease and Cirrhosis: A National COVID Cohort Collaborative Study

BACKGROUND & AIMS

In patients with chronic liver disease (CLD) with or without cirrhosis, existing studies on the outcomes with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection have limited generalizability. We used the National COVID Cohort Collaborative (N3C), a harmonized electronic health record dataset of 6.4 million, to describe SARS-CoV-2 outcomes in patients with CLD and cirrhosis.

METHODS

We identified all patients with CLD with or without cirrhosis who had SARS-CoV-2 testing in the N3C Data Enclave as of July 1, 2021. We used survival analyses to associate SARS-CoV-2 infection, presence of cirrhosis, and clinical factors with the primary outcome of 30-day mortality.

RESULTS

We isolated 220,727 patients with CLD and SARS-CoV-2 test status: 128,864 (58%) were noncirrhosis/negative, 29,446 (13%) were noncirrhosis/positive, 53,476 (24%) were cirrhosis/negative, and 8941 (4%) were cirrhosis/positive patients. Thirty-day all-cause mortality rates were 3.9% in cirrhosis/negative and 8.9% in cirrhosis/positive patients. Compared to cirrhosis/negative patients, cirrhosis/positive patients had 2.38 times adjusted hazard of death at 30 days. Compared to noncirrhosis/positive patients, cirrhosis/positive patients had 3.31 times adjusted hazard of death at 30 days. In stratified analyses among patients with cirrhosis with increased age, obesity, and comorbid conditions (ie, diabetes, heart failure, and pulmonary disease), SARS-CoV-2 infection was associated with increased adjusted hazard of death.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study of approximately 221,000 nationally representative, diverse, and sex-balanced patients with CLD; we found SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients with cirrhosis was associated with 2.38 times mortality hazard, and the presence of cirrhosis among patients with CLD infected with SARS-CoV-2 was associated with 3.31 times mortality hazard. These results provide an additional impetus for increasing vaccination uptake and further research regarding immune responses to vaccines in patients with severe liver disease.

Increased Intrahepatic Expression of Immune Checkpoint Molecules in Autoimmune Liver Disease

Immune checkpoint molecules (ICM) are critical in maintaining immunologic homeostasis and participate in preventing or promoting autoimmune disease development. Exploring a large panel of intrahepatic inhibitory and stimulatory ICM is necessary for drawing a general picture of the immune alterations in autoimmune hepatitis (AIH). Here, we performed a multiparametric analysis of ICM, including PD-1, TIM3, LAG3, CTLA-4, OX40 and 4-1BB, and we determined their expression on intrahepatic lymphocyte subsets in untreated and in treated patients with AIH in comparison to normal liver tissue. AIH patient-derived liver tissue revealed the overexpression of ICM, mainly PD-1 and 4-1BB, as well as the strong correlation between PD-1⁺ CD8⁺ T-cell abundance and severity of AIH (alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase levels). Our results show that the ICM play an important role in the loss of immune homeostasis in the liver, providing an attractive approach to investigate their role as targets for effective therapeutic interventions.

Recent advances in clinical practice: epidemiology of autoimmune liver diseases

Autoimmune liver diseases are chronic inflammatory hepatobiliary disorders that when classically defined encompass three distinctive clinical presentations; primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and autoimmune hepatitis (AIH). Meaningful changes in disease epidemiology are reported, with increasing incidence and prevalence of AIH and PSC in Europe, and rising prevalence of PBC across Europe, North America and the Asia-Pacific region. However, there appears to be very significant global variation with contemporary incidence rates of disease per 100 000 ranging from 0.84 to 2.75 for PBC, 0.1 to 4.39 for PSC and 0.4 to 2.39 for AIH. Prevalence corresponds, and per 100 000 estimates for PBC range from 1.91 to 40.2, for PSC between 0.78 and 31.7 and for AIH from 4.8 to 42.9. Population-based studies and multicentre observational cohort series provide improved understanding of the clinical course that patients experience, highlighting variations in presenting phenotypes geographically and temporally. Collectively, while autoimmune liver diseases are rare, the clinical burden is disproportionately high relative to population incidence and prevalence. Age, sex and race also impact clinical outcomes, and patient morbidity and mortality are reflected by high need for gastroenterology, hepatology and organ transplant services.

Programmed cell death-1 rs11568821 and interleukin-28B rs12979860 polymorphisms in autoimmune hepatitis

BACKGROUND

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a relatively rare chronic liver disease of unknown etiology. The genetic background affects susceptibility, clinical phenotype, and prognosis. The programmed cell death-1 rs11568821 polymorphism (PD1.3) has been associated with susceptibility to autoimmune diseases. The interleukin-28B (IL28B) rs12979860 polymorphism has been associated with steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis in liver diseases.

AIM

Our aim was to investigate for the first time the incidence and clinical significance of PD1.3 and IL28B rs12979860 in AIH.

METHODS

Two hundred patients with AIH were evaluated, while 100 healthy subjects were used as controls. Genotyping was performed with in-house allelic discrimination End-Point PCR.

RESULTS

The SNP PD1.3/A was present in 36/200 (18%) AIH patients compared to 28/100 (28%) healthy controls (p = 0.065). The AA/GA genotypes were not associated with the mode of presentation of AIH, the histological grade or stage, the presence of cirrhosis, risk of disease progression, response to treatment and survival. The IL28B rs12979860 genotype distribution was CC 79/200 (39.5%), TT 36/200 (18%) and CT 85/200 (42.5%), in similar rates with healthy controls (p = 0.878). Inflammatory activity and fibrosis stage did not differ between CC homozygotes and CT/TT carriers. LDL cholesterol was significantly higher in CC than CT/TT patients (P = 0.027), though no differences was found regarding the presence of steatosis or steatohepatitis. On-treatment response to immunosuppressive treatment was not affected by the IL28B rs12979860 polymorphism. However, CC homozygotes AIH patients achieved treatment withdrawal in significantly higher rates (OR 2.3, 95%CI: 1.1-4.7, P = 0.02) irrespective of the presence of steatosis or steatohepatitis.

CONCLUSIONS

The PD1.3 and IL28B rs12979860 variants are unlikely to contribute to AIH susceptibility, disease presentation and prognosis. The IL28B rs12979860 is not associated with the presence of concurrent steatosis or steatohepatitis. However, although on-treatment response rates to immunosuppression were not affected by the IL28B rs12979860 polymorphism, AIH patients with CC homozygosity were more likely to achieve complete treatment withdrawal. This novel finding needs validation and further clarification from larger multicenter studies.

Impact of genetic and environmental factors on autoimmune hepatitis

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a chronic non-resolving liver disease characterized by diffuse hypergammaglobulinemia, the presence of autoantibodies and characteristic histological findings. The disease can have catastrophic outcome with the development of end-stage liver disease if misdiagnosed/undiagnosed and left untreated. AIH pathogenesis remains obscure and the main hypothesis supports its development in genetically predisposed individuals after being exposed to certain environmental triggers. Genetic predisposition is linked to the presence of certain HLA alleles, mainly HLA-DR3 and HLA-DR4. However, a wide number of non-HLA epitopes have also been associated with the disease although data vary significantly among different ethnic groups. Therefore, it is likely that epigenetic alterations may also play a crucial role in disease's pathogenesis, although not yet extensively studied. The aim of this review was to summarize the genetic and environmental factors that have been associated with AIH, but also to open new insights towards the role of epigenetic modifications in the etiology of the disease.

Outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Patients with Chronic Liver Disease and Cirrhosis: a N3C Study

Background and Aims

In patients with chronic liver diseases (CLD) with or without cirrhosis, existing data on the risk of adverse outcomes with SARS-CoV-2 infection have been mixed or have limited generalizability. We used the National COVID Cohort Collaborative (N3C) Data Enclave, a harmonized electronic health record (EHR) dataset of 5.9 million nationally-representative, diverse, and gender-balanced patients, to describe outcomes in patients with CLD and cirrhosis with SARS-CoV-2.

Methods

We identified all chronic liver diseases patients with and without cirrhosis who had SARS-CoV-2 testing documented in the N3C Data Enclave as of data release date 5/15/2021. The primary outcome was 30-day all-cause mortality. Survival analysis methods were used to estimate cumulative incidences of death, hospitalization, and mechanical ventilation, and to calculate the associations of SARS-CoV-2 infection, presence of cirrhosis, and demographic and clinical factors to 30-day mortality.

Results

We isolated 217,143 patients with CLD: 129,097 (59%) without cirrhosis and SARS-CoV-2 negative, 25,844 (12%) without cirrhosis and SARS-CoV-2 positive, 54,065 (25%) with cirrhosis and SARS-CoV-2 negative, and 8,137 (4%) with cirrhosis and SARS-CoV-2 positive. Among CLD patients without cirrhosis, 30-day all-cause mortality rates were 0.4% in SARS-CoV-2 negative patients and 1.8% in positive patients. Among CLD patients with cirrhosis, 30-day all-cause mortality rates were 4.0% in SARS-CoV-2 negative patients and 9.7% in positive patients.Compared to those who tested SARS-CoV-2 negative, SARS-CoV-2 positivity was associated with more than two-fold (aHR 2.43, 95% CI 2.23-2.64) hazard of death at 30 days among patients with cirrhosis. Compared to patients without cirrhosis, the presence of cirrhosis was associated with a three-fold (aHR 3.39, 95% CI 2.96-3.89) hazard of death at 30 days among patients who tested SARS-CoV-2 positive. Age (aHR 1.03 per year, 95% CI 1.03-1.04) was associated with death at 30 days among patients with cirrhosis who were SARS-CoV-2 positive.

Conclusions

In this study of nearly 220,000 CLD patients, we found SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients with cirrhosis was associated with 2.43-times mortality hazard, and the presence of cirrhosis among CLD patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 were associated with 3.39-times mortality hazard. Compared to previous studies, our use of a nationally-representative, diverse, and gender-balanced dataset enables wide generalizability of these findings.

Current Trends and Characteristics of Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Patients with Autoimmune Liver Diseases

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the commonest among liver cancers, is one of the leading causes of mortality among malignancies worldwide. Several reports demonstrate autoimmune liver diseases (AILDs), including autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) to confer increased risk of hepatobiliary malignancies, albeit at lower frequencies compared to other liver diseases. Several parameters have been recognized as risk factors for HCC development in AIH and PBC, including demographics such as older age and male sex, clinical features, the most decisive being cirrhosis and other co-existing factors, such as alcohol consumption. Moreover, biochemical activity and treatment response have been increasingly recognized as prognostic factors for HCC development in AIH and PBC. As available treatment modalities are effective only when HCC diagnosis is established early, surveillance has been proven essential for HCC prognosis. Considering that the risk for HCC is not uniform between and within disease groups, refinement of screening strategies according to prevailing demographic, clinical, and molecular risk factors is mandated in AILDs patients, as personalized HCC risk prediction will offer significant advantage in patients at high and/or medium risk. Furthermore, future investigations should draw attention to whether modification of immunosuppression could benefit AIH patients after HCC diagnosis.

Mesenchymal stem cell-based treatment in autoimmune liver diseases: underlying roles, advantages and challenges

Autoimmune liver disease (AILD) is a series of chronic liver diseases with abnormal immune responses, including autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC). The treatment options for AILD remain limited, and the adverse side effects of the drugs that are typically used for treatment frequently lead to a low quality of life for AILD patients. Moreover, AILD patients may have a poor prognosis, especially those with an incomplete response to first-line treatment. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are pluripotent stem cells with low immunogenicity and can be conveniently harvested. MSC-based therapy is emerging as a promising approach for treating liver diseases based on their advantageous characteristics of immunomodulation, anti-fibrosis effects, and differentiation to hepatocytes, and accumulating evidence has revealed the positive effects of MSC therapy in AILD. In this review, we first summarize the mechanisms, safety, and efficacy of MSC treatment for AILD based on work in animal and clinical studies. We also discuss the challenges of MSC therapy in clinical applications. In summary, although promising data from preclinical studies are now available, MSC therapy is currently far for being applied in clinical practice, thus developing MSC therapy in AILD is still challenging and warrants further research.

Regulatory T Cells in Autoimmune Hepatitis: Unveiling Their Roles in Mouse Models and Patients

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a severe and chronic liver disease, and its incidence has increased worldwide in recent years. Research into the pathogenesis of AIH remains limited largely owing to the lack of suitable mouse models. The concanavalin A (ConA) mouse model is a typical and well-established model used to investigate T cell-dependent liver injury. However, ConA-induced hepatitis is acute and usually disappears after 48 h; thus, it does not mimic the pathogenesis of AIH in the human body. Several studies have explored various AIH mouse models, but as yet there is no widely accepted and valid mouse model for AIH. Immunosuppression is the standard clinical therapy for AIH, but patient side effects and recurrence limit its use. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) play critical roles in the maintenance of immune homeostasis and in the prevention of autoimmune diseases, which may provide a potential therapeutic target for AIH therapy. However, the role of Tregs in AIH has not yet been clarified, partly because of difficulties in diagnosing AIH and in collecting patient samples. In this review, we discuss the studies related to Treg in various AIH mouse models and patients with AIH and provide some novel insights for this research area.

Familial associations between autoimmune hepatitis and primary biliary cholangitis and other autoimmune diseases

Autoimmune hepatitis (AH) and primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) are autoimmune diseases (AIDs) targeting cellular components of the liver. Being rare diseases, limited data are available about familial risks among these AIDs (concordant) or between them and other AIDs (discordant). We aimed to carry out an unbiased study on these AIDs based on medically diagnosed patients. We collected data on patients diagnosed in Swedish hospitals with AH, PBC and other AIDs and calculated familial standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) for concordant and discordant familial relative risks. The number of AH patients was 6,269, of whom 43.0% were male; patient numbers for PBC were 4,269, with 17.8% males. AH accounted for 0.8% and 0.6% of all hospitalized AIDs in Sweden. For AH only the familial risk between siblings was significant (3.83). For PBC the risks for offspring of parents (9.05) and siblings (10.88) were high, but only risk for females was significant. Spousal risks were very high, 5.91 and 6.07 for AH. Risk for AH was 2.21 in families of PBC, and it was 2.47 for PBC in families of AH patients. Among other AIDs, 14 showed a significant association with AH, compared to 16 AIDs with PBC. The surprising finding in this nation-wide family study on medically diagnosed patients was the high risk for AH (6.0) between spouses, which exceed the risk between siblings, suggesting the existence of strong environmental risk factors. AH and PBC were associated with multiple other AIDs. The results call attention to environmental factors in AID etiology which should also be in focus in taking anamnestic data from patients.