Detection of tick-borne Anaplasma bovis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Anaplasma centrale in Spain

Tick-borne pathogens from ruminant ticks in a Mediterranean ecosystem from Eastern Spain

Vector-borne diseases represent various sicknesses that are increasingly significant in human and veterinary health. Among the zoonotic agents transmitted by ticks, infections caused by the intracellular pathogens from the Anaplasmataceae family and piroplasmids (Babesia/Theileria spp.) are particularly notable due to the substantial economic losses they cause in the livestock sector. A study was carried out to assess the prevalence of these pathogens in ticks from ruminants in the province of Valencia (Eastern Iberian Peninsula). Between 2019 and 2022, 1674 ticks were collected from 163 domestic and wild ruminants. The tick species were identified using molecular and morphological features and included Rhipicephalus spp. (Rhipicephalus bursa and Rhipicephalus sanguineus) (88.7%), Haemaphysalis sulcata (5.9%), Ixodes ricinus (3.6%) and Dermacentor marginatum (1.2%). The Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) was found to be at greater risk of infestation by Haemaphysalis compared to other ruminants. Polimerase Chain Reaction (PCR) analysis was performed on 108 individual ticks from different hosts, with 16.7% testing positive for members of the Anaplasmataceae family and 39.8% for Theileria spp. Sequencing of 10 positive samples from each pathogen group revealed the presence of Anaplasma ovis, Anaplasma platys, Ehrlichia spp., Theileria ovis and Theileria capreoli. No Anaplasma phagocytophilum or Babesia spp. were detected. Further research is essential for improved management of ticks and the diseases they transmit in the study area.

Global Prevalence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Cattle: A One Health Perspective, Meta-Analysis and Future Predictions (up to 2035)

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is an emerging tick-borne zoonotic bacterium, which is considered a significant risk to the health and industry of cattle in tropical and sub-tropical regions worldwide. This research focuses on examining the worldwide occurrence of A. phagocytophilum in cattle. Several databases, including Scopus, PubMed, ProQuest, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, were searched for publications spanning October 2004 to November 2024. The pooled prevalence was calculated with a 95% confidence interval (CI) using a random-effects model based on the Freeman-Tukey double arcsine transformation. A total of 72 studies satisfied the inclusion criteria, revealing a global prevalence of A. phagocytophilum in cattle estimated at 8.5% (5.9%-11.5%). Mongolia (51.9%, 45.9%-56.2%) and Guatemala (51%, 41.2%-60.7%) were countries that accounted for the highest prevalence. Moreover, the infection was most prevalent in African region with prevalence of 11.3% (3.9%-21.5%). The highest prevalence rate was observed in hot-summer Mediterranean climate (13.7%, 4.7%-26.2%). The analysis indicated that immunological techniques were associated with the highest prevalence rate (14.2%, 6.5%-24.3%). The findings of the present research highlighted important geographical and environmental factors that affect the prevalence of disease. In the fields of veterinary medicine and public health, these findings enhance disease management plans and preventative initiatives.

Molecular detection of Anaplasma bovis, Candidatus Anaplasma boleense and Rickettsia spp. in ticks infesting small ruminants

Anaplasma spp. and Rickettsia spp. are intracellular vector-borne pathogens and harbored by a wide range of ticks and vertebrate hosts. Aim of this study was to molecularly characterize Anaplasma spp. and Rickettsia spp. in different ticks collected from livestock hosts in nine districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan. In total, 862 ticks were collected from cattle, goats and sheep. Highest tick's infestation was observed on cattle 56.14% (32/57), followed by goats 45.45% (40/88), and sheep 42.05% (45/107). Rhipicephalus microplus (305/862, 35.38%) was predominant species, followed by Haemaphysalis sulcata (243/862, 28.19%), Hyalomma anatolicum (133/862, 15.42%), Haemaphysalis bispinosa (120/862, 13.92%), and Hyalomma kumari (61/862, 7.07%). A subset of 135 ticks were screened for Anaplasma spp. and Rickettsia spp. based on the amplification of partial 16 S rDNA and outer-membrane protein A (ompA) fragments, respectively. In total, 16 ticks (11.85%) were positive for Anaplasma spp. and Rickettsia spp. Obtained 16 S rDNA sequences for Anaplasma spp. detected in Ha. bispinosa and Ha. sulcata showed 99.98% identity with Anaplasma bovis, while other detected in Rh. microplus showed 99.84% identity with Candidatus Anaplasma boleense. Similarly, detected ompA sequence in Ha. sulcata showed 100% identity with Rickettsia sp. and 97.93% with Rickettsia slovaca, and another sequence detected in Rh. microplus showed 100% identity with Candidatus Rickettsia shennongii. In phylogenetic trees, these sequences clustered with corresponding species from Pakistan, China, Turkey, South Korea, South Africa, and Herzegovina. This is the first study reporting detection of A. bovis in Ha. bispinosa and Ha. sulcata, Ca. A. boleense in Rh. microplus collected from goats, and R. slovaca-like in Ha. sulcata. Our results enforce the need for regular surveillance of Rickettsiales in hard ticks infesting livestock in the region.

East-to-west dispersal of bird-associated ixodid ticks in the northern Palaearctic: Review of already reported tick species according to longitudinal migratory avian hosts and first evidence on the genetic connectedness of Ixodes apronophorus between Siberia and Europe

Birds are long-known as important disseminators of ixodid ticks, in which context mostly their latitudinal, south-to-north migration is considered. However, several bird species that occur in the eastern part of the northern Palaearctic are known to migrate westward. In this study, a female tick collected from the sedge warbler, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus, in Lithuania was identified morphologically and analyzed with molecular-phylogenetic methods. In addition, literature data were reviewed on ixodid tick species known to be associated with birds that have recorded east-to-west migratory route in the Palaearctic. The tick collected from A. schoenobaenus was morphologically identified as Ixodes apronophorus. Two mitochondrial genetic markers for this specimen showed 100% identity with a conspecific tick reported previously in Western Siberia, Russia. Based on literature data, as many as 82 bird species from 11 orders were found to have records of ringing in the easternmost part of the northern Palaearctic and recaptures in Europe. Of these bird species, 31 ixodid tick species were reported in the Euro-Siberian region. Nearly all passeriform bird species with east-to-west migration were reported to carry ticks, whereas no reports of tick infestation were documented from the majority of wetland-associated bird species, mostly from the orders Anseriformes and Charadriiformes. The first European sequences of bona fide I. apronophorus revealed genetic connectedness with conspecific ticks reported from Siberia. Since the principal hosts of this tick species are rodents which do not migrate large distances, the most likely explanation for genetic similarity in this direction is dispersal of this tick species via migratory birds. Given the high number of tick species that are known to associate with bird species migrating in westward direction, this appears to be an important means of the gene flow between geographically distant tick populations in the northern Palaearctic.

Epidemiology of Anaplasma species amongst cattle in Africa from 1970 to 2022: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Tick-borne pathogens of the genus Anaplasma cause anaplasmosis in livestock and humans, impacting health and livelihoods, particularly in Africa. A comprehensive review on the epidemiology of Anaplasma species is important to guide further research and for implementation of control approaches. We reviewed observational studies concerning Anaplasma species amongst cattle in Africa. Peer-reviewed studies published in PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science - from database inception to 2022 - were searched. The quality of individual studies was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Tool and the pooled prevalences by diagnostic method were estimated using random-effects models. Heterogeneity across the studies was tested and quantified using the Cochran's Q statistic and the I2 statistic. Potential sources of heterogeneity were investigated by subgroup analysis. A total of 1117 records were retrieved and at the end of the screening, 149 records (155 studies) were eligible for this meta-analysis. The occurrence of Anaplasma species was reported in 31/54 countries in all regions. Seven recognised species (A. marginale, A. centrale, A. phagocytophilum, A. platys, A. capra, A. bovis, A. ovis) and nine uncharacterised genotypes (Anaplasma sp. Hadesa; Anaplasma sp. Saso; Anaplasma sp. Dedessa; Anaplasma sp. Mymensingh; Anaplasma sp. Lambwe-1; Candidatus Anaplasma africae; Anaplasma sp.; Candidatus Anaplasma boleense) were reported in African cattle. Anaplasma marginale was the most frequently reported (n=144/155 studies) and the most prevalent species (serology methods 56.1%, 45.9-66.1; direct detection methods 19.9%, 15.4-24.7), followed by A. centrale (n=26 studies) with a prevalence of 8.0% (95% CI: 4.8-11.9) and A. platys (n=19 studies) with prevalence of 9.7% (95% CI: 5.4-15.2). Anaplasma marginale, A. centrale and A. platys were reported in all Africa's regions, while A. ovis and A. capra were reported only in the northern and central regions. The uncharacterised Anaplasma taxa were mostly detected in the eastern and southern regions. Subgroup analysis showed that significant determinants for A. marginale exposure (serology) were geographical region (p=0.0219), and longitude (p=0.0336), while the technique employed influenced (p<0.0001) prevalence in direct detection approaches. Temperature was the only significant variable (p=0.0269) for A. centrale. These findings show that various Anaplasma species, including those that are zoonotic, circulate in African cattle. There is need for more genetic and genome data, especially for unrecognised species, to facilitate effective identification, improve livestock and minimise the health risk in human populations. Additional epidemiological data including pathogen occurrence, tick vectors and host range, as well as pathogenicity are essential.

Molecular Analysis of Tick-Borne Bacterial Pathogens from Ticks Infesting Animal Hosts in Kyrgyzstan, 2021

This study investigated the prevalence of Anaplasma and Ehrlichia in 494 engorged ticks collected from various animal hosts, including cattle, horses, sheep, chickens, dogs, and cats, in six regions of northern Kyrgyzstan. Ten tick species, belonging to two families and six genera, were identified based on CO1, 16S rRNA, and ITS2 genes: Argas persicus (26.5%), Haemaphysalis punctata (18.0%), Dermacentor spp. (16.0%), Rhipicephalus annulatus (11.8%), R. turanicus (10.9%), D. marginatus (7.7%), Hyalomma scupense (4.5%), Hy. marginatum (3.8%), R. sangineus complex (0.6%), and Ornithodoros lahorensis (0.2%). PCR analysis revealed a 15.0% (74/494) overall infection rate of Anaplasma and Ehrlichia. Anaplasma species were found in six tick species and were identified as A. bovis (n = 44), Anaplasma spp. (n = 20), A. ovis (n = 5), and A. capra (n = 2). Ehrlichia species were found only in H. punctata (n = 5) and identified as E. chaffeensis (n = 1) and Ehrlichia spp. (n = 4). Additionally, two H. punctata were co-infected with Anaplasma and Ehrlichia. This is the first study to investigate tick-borne bacterial pathogens in ticks collected from animal hosts in Kyrgyzstan. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the epidemiology and emergence of tick-borne infections in Kyrgyzstan.

Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens Circulating in Peri-Domestic Areas in Mainland Portugal

Over the years, tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) have garnered significant interest due to their medical, veterinary and economic importance. Additionally, TBPs have drawn attention to how these microorganisms interact with their own vectors, increasing the risk to human and animal infection of emerging and reemerging zoonoses. In this sense, ticks, which are obligate hematophagous ectoparasites, have a key role in maintaining and transmitting TBPs among humans and animals. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of neglected TBPs in mainland Portugal, namely Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp., Ehrlichia spp. and Neoehrlichia mikurensis. DNA fragments were detected in questing ticks collected from five different ecological areas under investigation. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this study reports new worldwide findings, including B. bigemina infecting Ixodes frontalis, Ixodes ricinus and Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato. Additionally, it presents new findings in Portugal of N. mikurensis infecting I. ricinus and of presumably Wolbachia endosymbionts being detected in I. ricinus. Overall, there were 208 tick samples that were negative for all screened TBPs. The results herein obtained raise concerns about the circulation of neglected TBPs in mainland Portugal, especially in anthropophilic ticks, highlighting the importance of adopting a One Health perspective.

Molecular Detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Small Mammals and Infesting Ticks in Laikipia County, Kenya

Anaplasmosis is a set of disease conditions of various mammals caused by bacteria species of the genus Anaplasma. These are sub-microscopic, Gram-negative, obligate intracellular pathogens that infect both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. Significant species that infect domestic and wildlife animals include Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma ovis, Anaplasma mesaeterum, Anaplasma platys, and Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Although A. phagocytophilum has a widespread distribution, there are only a few epidemiological reports from sub-Saharan Africa. This study focused on molecular detection and characterization of A. phagocytophilum in small mammals and their infesting ticks in Laikipia County, Kenya. A total of 385 blood and 84 tick archival samples from small mammals (155 females and 230 males) were analyzed. The blood samples were subjected to a nested PCR-HRM melt analysis using species-specific primers to amplify the 16S ribosomal RNA genes. The ticks were also subjected to nested PCR-HRM involving 16S rRNA gene primers. Anaplasma phagocytophilum DNA was detected in 19 out of 385 samples using species-specific 16S rRNA gene primers giving a prevalence of 4.9% for A. phagocytophilum. Analysis of the tick's samples using 16S rRNA gene species-specific primers also detected A. phagocytophilum in 3 samples from Haemaphysalis leachi ticks (3/84) equivalent to prevalence of 3.6%. Sequencing of 16S rRNA PCR products confirmed A. phagocytophilum in small mammals and ticks' samples. Phylogenetic analysis of the haplotype from this study demonstrated a close ancestral link with strains from Canis lupus familiaris, Alces alces, Apodemus agrarius, and ticks (Haemaphysalis longicornis) reported in Europe, China, and Africa. Comparison was also made with a known pathogenic A. phagocytophilum variant HA and a nonpathogenic variant 1 that were clustered into a distinctive clade different form haplotypes detected in this study. All the haplotype sequences for A. phagocytophilum from this study were submitted and registered in GenBank under the accession numbers OQ308965-OQ308976. Our study shows that small mammals and their associated ticks harbor A. phagocytophilum. The vector competence for H. leachi in A. phagocytophilum transmission should further be investigated.

Occurrence of Anaplasma spp. in wild lagomorphs from Southern Spain: Molecular detection of new Anaplasma bovis lineages

Wild lagomorphs can act as reservoirs of several pathogens of public and animal health concern. However, the number of studies assessing the presence of Anaplasma spp. in these species is scarce. The aim of the present study was to molecularly identify Anaplasma spp. in wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) from Southern Spain and assess their epidemiological role in the maintenance of the bacterium. During 2017-2021, spleen samples of 394 wild rabbits and 145 Iberian hares were collected. Anaplasma DNA was detected using different PCR assays (16S rRNA and groEL) and phylogenetic analyses were carried out by Bayesian approach. The possible influence of lagomorph species, age and sex on the prevalence of Anaplasma spp. was evaluated by a multiple logistic regression model. The 9.4% of the rabbits were positive to Anaplasma bovis, but all the hares were negative. No significant differences were found in Anaplasma spp. prevalence regarding to age or sex. This is the first report of A. bovis in lagomorphs from Europe. The phylogenetic analysis of A. bovis confirms the existence of different clusters suggesting the existence of several lineages. In addition, a high divergence of nucleotide identity was observed within the lineage 4, which could result in the under-detection of some strains when using A. bovis-specific PCR, hindering its detection and characterization. Since this analysis is based on a limited number of nucleotide bases and sequences, more studies are needed for further characterize A. bovis, as well as its relationship with other Anaplasma spp.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum Ecotype Analysis in Cattle from Great Britain

Anaplasma phagocytophilum (A. phagocytophilum) is the aetiological agent of tick-borne fever in cattle and sheep, and granulocytic anaplasmosis in human and dogs. Livestock, companion animal and human infections with A. phagocytophilum have been reported globally. Across England and Wales, two isolates (called ecotypes) have been reported in ticks. This study examined A. phagocytophilum isolates present in livestock and wildlife in Great Britain (GB), with a particular focus on cattle. Clinical submissions (EDTA blood) from cattle (n = 21) and sheep (n = 3) were received by APHA for tick-borne disease testing and the animals were confirmed to be infected with A. phagocytophilum using a PCR targeting the Msp2 gene. Further submissions from roe deer (n = 2), red deer (n = 2) and Ixodes ricinus ticks (n = 22) were also shown to be infected with A. phagocytophilum. Subsequent analysis using a nested PCR targeting the groEL gene and sequencing confirmed the presence of ecotype I in cattle, sheep, red deer and Ixodes ricinus, and ecotype II in roe deer and I. ricinus removed from deer carcasses. Despite the presence of two ecotypes, widely distributed in ticks from England and Wales, only ecotype I was detected in cattle in this study.

Distribution of ticks in the Western Palearctic: an updated systematic review (2015-2021)

BACKGROUND

The distributions of ticks and tick-borne pathogens are thought to have changed rapidly over the last two decades, with their ranges expanding into new regions. This expansion has been driven by a range of environmental and socio-economic factors, including climate change. Spatial modelling is being increasingly used to track the current and future distributions of ticks and tick-borne pathogens and to assess the associated disease risk. However, such analysis is dependent on high-resolution occurrence data for each species. To facilitate such analysis, in this review we have compiled georeferenced tick locations in the Western Palearctic, with a resolution accuracy under 10 km, that were reported between 2015 and 2021 METHODS: The PubMed and Web of Science databases were searched for peer-reviewed papers documenting the distribution of ticks that were published between 2015 and 2021, using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The papers were then screened and excluded in accordance with the PRISMA flow chart. Coordinate-referenced tick locations along with information on identification and collection methods were extracted from each eligible publication. Spatial analysis was conducted using R software (version 4.1.2).

RESULTS

From the 1491 papers identified during the initial search, 124 met the inclusion criteria, and from these, 2267 coordinate-referenced tick records from 33 tick species were included in the final dataset. Over 30% of articles did not record the tick location adequately to meet inclusion criteria, only providing a location name or general location. Among the tick records, Ixodes ricinus had the highest representation (55%), followed by Dermacentor reticulatus (22.1%) and Ixodes frontalis (4.8%). The majority of ticks were collected from vegetation, with only 19.1% collected from hosts.

CONCLUSIONS

The data presented provides a collection of recent high-resolution, coordinate-referenced tick locations for use in spatial analyses, which in turn can be used in combination with previously collated datasets to analyse the changes in tick distribution and research in the Western Palearctic. In the future it is recommended that, where data privacy rules allow, high-resolution methods are routinely used by researchers to geolocate tick samples and ensure their work can be used to its full potential.

Detection of Pathogens and Ticks on Sedentary and Migratory Birds in Two Corsican Wetlands (France, Mediterranean Area)

Birds are one of the most species-diverse vertebrate groups and are susceptible to numerous hematophagous ectoparasites. Migratory birds likely contribute to the circulation of these ectoparasites and their associated pathogens. One of the many migration paths crosses the Mediterranean islands including Corsica and its wetlands, which are migration stopovers. In our study, we collected blood samples and hematophagous ectoparasites in migratory and sedentary bird populations in two coastal lagoons: Biguglia and Gradugine. A total of 1377 birds were captured from which 762 blood samples, 37 louse flies, and 44 ticks were collected. All the louse flies were identified as Ornithomya biloba and all the ticks were from the Ixodes genus: Ixodes sp. (8.5%), I. accuminatus/ventalloi (2.9%), I. arboricola/lividus (14.3%), I. frontalis (5.7%) and I. ricinus (68.6%). Five pathogens were detected: Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Erhlichia chaffeensis, and Rickettsia helvetica in ticks, and Trypanosoma sp. in louse flies. Ehrlichia chaffeensis and the West Nile virus were both detected in bird blood samples in Corsica. This is the first report of these tick, louse fly and pathogen species isolated on the bird population in Corsica. Our finding highlights the importance of bird populations in the presence of arthropod-borne pathogens in Corsican wetlands.

Hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) associated with birds in Europe: Review of literature data

Hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) are considered the most important transmitters of pathogens in the temperate zone that covers most of Europe. In the era of climate change tick-borne diseases are predicted to undergo geographical range expansion toward the north through regions that are connected to southern areas of the continent by bird migration. This alone would justify the importance of synthesized knowledge on the association of tick species with avian hosts, yet birds also represent the most taxonomically and ecologically diverse part of urban vertebrate fauna. Birds frequently occur in gardens and near animal keeping facilities, thus playing a significant role in the dispersal of ticks and tick-borne pathogens in synanthropic environments. The primary aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive reference source (baseline data) for future studies, particularly in the context of discovering new tick-host associations after comparison with already published data. The records on the ixodid tick infestations of birds were assessed from nearly 200 papers published since 1952. In this period, 37 hard tick species were reported from 16 orders of avian hosts in Europe. Here we compile a list of these tick species, followed by the English and Latin name of all reported infested bird species, as well as the tick developmental stage and country of origin whenever this information was available. These data allowed a first-hand analysis of general trends regarding how and at which developmental stage of ticks tend to infest avian hosts. Five tick species that were frequently reported from birds and show a broad geographical distribution in the Western Palearctic (Ixodes arboricola, I. frontalis, I. ricinus, Haemaphysalis concinna and Hyalomma marginatum) were also selected for statistical comparisons. Differences were demonstrated between these tick species regarding their association with bird species that typically feed from the ground and those that rarely occur at the soil level. The ecology of these five bird-infesting tick species is also illustrated here according to avian orders, taking into account the ecology (habitat type) and activity (circadian rhythm and feeding level) of most bird species that represent a certain order.

Diversity of Tick-Borne Pathogens in Tick Larvae Feeding on Breeding Birds in France

Birds play a role in maintaining tick-borne diseases by contributing to the multiplication of ticks and pathogens on a local scale during the breeding season. In the present study, we describe the diversity of tick and pathogen species of medical and veterinary importance in Europe hosted by 1040 captured birds (56 species) during their breeding season in France. Of the 3114 ticks collected, Ixodes ricinus was the most prevalent species (89.5%), followed by I. frontalis (0.8%), I. arboricola (0.7%), Haemaphysalis concinna (0.5%), H. punctata (0.5%), Hyalomma spp. (0.2%), and Rhipicephalus spp. (0.06%). Because they may be representative of the bird infection status for some pathogen species, 1106 engorged tick larvae were screened for pathogens. Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato was the most prevalent pathogen genus in bird-feeding larvae (11.7%), followed by Rickettsia spp. (7.4%), Anaplasma spp. (5.7%), Babesia spp. (2.3%), Ehrlichia spp. (1.4%), and B. miyamotoi (1%). Turdidae birds (Turdus merula and T. philomelos), Troglodytes troglodytes, and Anthus trivialis had a significantly higher prevalence of B. burgdorferi s.l.-infected larvae than other pathogen genera. This suggests that these bird species could act as reservoir hosts for B. burgdorferi s.l. during their breeding season, and thus play an important role in acarological risk.

First detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia divergens and high infection rates of Anaplasma marginale and Babesia bigemina in cattle in extensive grazing systems of Central Spain

Bovine vector-borne diseases have a considerable economic impact worldwide and affect health of humans and animals. However, different aspects of their epidemiology and their pathogenesis remain unclear. Despite the frequent description of clinical cases reported by practitioners attending cattle from Madrid, Central Spain, molecular prevalence of Anaplasma spp. and Babesia spp. has not been described. The aim of this study was to assess the positivity rate of A. phagocytophilum, A. marginale, A. centrale, B. bigemina and B. divergens in livestock of this area and to evaluate the existence of associations between these pathogens and haematological, biochemical and epidemiological data. Babesia divergens and A. phagocytophilum were detected for the first time in cattle from Madrid. Their positivity percentages were low (2.2% ± 1.4% and 1.8% ± 1.2%, respectively), but this description is of special interest, as these agents are potentially zoonotic. Both agents were found in areas of higher altitude and relative humidity and lower temperature. The detection of ticks in livestock during the moment of sampling was confirmed as a risk factor for these infections. Anaplasma marginale showed the highest molecular infection rate (30% ± 4.1%) in this study, followed by B. bigemina (21.9% ± 3.7%). Higher positivity rates of A. marginale and B. bigemina were found in the areas of mountain climate and warm-summer continental Mediterranean climate. The use of ectoparasiticide treatment was found as a risk factor for infection by A. marginale and B. bigemina. This finding could lead to reconsider the ectoparasiticide protocols that are used nowadays. Grazing on pastures with domestic or wild ruminants and the presence of wild carnivores were associated with higher rates of infection by these four agents and coinfections were frequently found.

Fatal cases of bovine anaplasmosis in a herd infected with different Anaplasma marginale genotypes in southern Spain

The genus Anaplasma contains various species capable of causing disease in animals and humans. Anaplasma marginale is one of the main tick-borne pathogens of bovines in tropical and subtropical regions; however, these bacteria are now being detected more frequently in other regions of the world including Europe. In July 2017, abortions, mortality and morbidity in Retinta breed of cattle were investigated in southwestern Spain. Based on clinical signs, the provisional clinical diagnosis of bovine anaplasmosis was made. A molecular-phylogenetic approach was used to characterize A. marginale using multiple markers, including 16S rRNA, msp1a, msp4 and msp5 genes. The msp1α sequence was different from the previously described sequences from Spain as well as other countries. The isolates of A. marginale were classified as Genotype C, with two of the five tandem repeats in the amino acid sequences MSP1α being novel. The highest variability was observed in the four sequences of msp5 which was depicted in their clustering into multiple clades on a phylogenetic tree. Comparison of msp5 nucleotide sequences and the corresponding amino acid sequences revealed the co-existence of different strains in the same region. This study highlights the occurrence of clinical bovine anaplasmosis in an endemic region of Spain.

Diversity of Anaplasma species and importance of mixed infections in roe deer from Spain

Although wildlife can act as reservoirs of some Anaplasma species, studies on the presence and distribution of Anaplasma spp. in wild cervids are mainly limited and focused on zoonotic species. In order to identify the Anaplasma species in roe deer from Spain and to detect co-infections, 224 spleen samples were tested for Anaplasma spp. using a commercial qPCR; positive samples were further characterized using generic 16S rRNA primers and species-specific primers targeting the msp2 and groEL genes. Anaplasma DNA was detected in the 50.9% of samples, and four Anaplasma species were identified. Anaplasma phagocytophilum (43.8%) was predominant, followed by Anaplasma bovis (13.8%), Anaplasma capra (5.8%) and Anaplasma ovis (2.2%). In addition, strains similar to Anaplasma platys were found in nine animals. Most positive roe deer (71.9%) were infected with a single Anaplasma species, whereas co-infections with two (19.3%) or three (8.8%) Anaplasma species were also found. This study confirms the widespread occurrence of Anaplasma spp. in roe deer from Spain, being the first report of A. platys-like strains and A. capra in this cervid; it is also the first report of A. capra in Spain. The detection of Anaplasma species pathogenic for humans and/or domestic animals in roe deer suggests that this cervid may play a role in the sylvatic cycle of these bacteria contributing to the appearance of clinical anaplasmosis cases. In addition, co-infections are common in roe deer revealing that Anaplasma species specific PCR assays are essential for a reliable identification as well as for determining their real prevalence.

Molecular detection of Theileria species, Anaplasma species, Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos, Trypanosoma evansi and first evidence of Theileria sinensis-associated bovine anaemia in crossbred Kedah-Kelantan x Brahman cattle

BACKGROUND

Serious disease outbreaks in cattle are usually associated with blood pathogens. This study aims to detect blood pathogens namely Theileria species, Anaplasma species, Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos and Trypanosoma evansi, and determine their phylogenetic relationships and haemato-biochemical abnormalities in naturally infected cattle.

METHODS

Molecular analysis was achieved by PCR amplification and sequencing of PCR amplicons of 18SrRNA gene of Theileria species, 16SrRNA genes of Anaplasma and Mycoplasma species, MPSP genes of T. orientalis and T. sinensis, MSP4 gene of A. marginale, 16SrRNA gene of Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos, and RoTat1.2 VSG gene of Trypanosoma evansi, in sixty-one (61) clinically ill Kedah-Kelantan x Brahman cattle in Pahang, Malaysia.

RESULTS

A total of 44 (72.13%) cattle were infected with more than one blood pathogen. Theileria species was the blood pathogen with the highest molecular detection rate (72.13, 95% CI 59.83-81.81%). Nucleotide blast analyses of all sequences demonstrated high degree of molecular similarity (98-100%) in comparison with their respective reference sequences. Analysis of 18SrRNA gene sequences of Theileria species and 16SrRNA gene sequences of Anaplasma species revealed Theileria sinensis and Anaplasma platys respectively as additional species detected in these cattle. MPSP-PCR analysis was conducted for further confirmation of T. sinensis. The blood picture of eight infected cattle groups revealed poikilocytosis, anisocytosis, rouleaux formation and degenerative left shift. High mean erythrocyte fragility values were common in infected cattle groups. Anaemia of the macrocytic normochromic type and spherocytes were observed in the T. evansi and Anaplasma platys + Theileria sinensis double species co-infected cattle group. Normocytic normochromic anaemia was observed in the T. sinensis infected cattle group. Significant (p < 0.05) increases in serum liver and kidney parameters, total protein, globulin, total and unconjugated bilirubin and decreased albumin values were observed in the T. evansi infected cattle when compared to clinically healthy cattle.

CONCLUSION

We present the first evidence of Theileria sinensis-associated bovine anaemia (TSABA) in Malaysian cattle. Because of the high occurrence of bovine theileriosis and detection of A. platys, there is an urgent need for appropriate preventive and control measures against these blood pathogens.

Molecular Detection and Phylogeny of Tick-Borne Pathogens in Ticks Collected from Dogs in the Republic of Korea

Ticks are important vectors of various pathogens that result in clinical illnesses in humans and domestic and wild animals. Information regarding tick infestations and pathogens transmitted by ticks is important for the identification and prevention of disease. This study was a large-scale investigation of ticks collected from dogs and their associated environments in the Republic of Korea (ROK). It included detecting six prevalent tick-borne pathogens (Anaplasma spp., A. platys, Borrelia spp., Babesia gibsoni, Ehrlichia canis, and E. chaffeensis). A total of 2293 ticks (1110 pools) were collected. Haemaphysalis longicornis (98.60%) was the most frequently collected tick species, followed by Ixodes nipponensis (0.96%) and H. flava (0.44%). Anaplasma spp. (24/1110 tick pools; 2.16%) and Borrelia spp. (4/1110 tick pools; 0.36%) were detected. The phylogenetic analyses using 16S rRNA genes revealed that the Anaplasma spp. detected in this study were closely associated with A. phagocytophilum reported in humans and rodents in the ROK. Borrelia spp. showed phylogenetic relationships with B. theileri and B. miyamotoi in ticks and humans in Mali and Russia. These results demonstrate the importance of tick-borne disease surveillance and control in dogs in the ROK.

Impact of abiotic factors, habitat type and urban wildlife on the ecology of hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) in urban and peri-urban habitats

BACKGROUND

Ticks are increasingly acknowledged as significant vectors for a wide array of pathogens in urban environments with reports of abundant tick populations in recreational areas. The study aims to contribute to a better knowledge of the abiotic and biotic factors which impact the ecology of hard ticks in urban and peri-urban habitats in Romania.

METHODS

Questing ticks were collected by flagging in seven recreational locations, from four types of habitats in Cluj-Napoca, Romania: parks; gardens; a cemetery; and peri-urban forests. Hedgehogs, birds and micromammals were also sampled and searched for ticks, using standard methods (i.e. torch-based searches, ornithological mist nets, snap-traps, etc.), while vegetation was evaluated on surveyed areas. Data on questing ticks were converted to abundance indices. Mood's median tests were used to assess the relationship between the abiotic and biotic factors and the abundance of questing ticks.

RESULTS

Two species of questing ticks were found: Ixodes ricinus (96.8%) and Haemaphysalis punctata (3.2%). Ixodes ricinus was also the predominant engorged tick collected from urban wildlife. For I. ricinus the highest mean total abundance index/location (total no. of ticks/100 m2) was recorded in the urban gardens (3.79, 95% CI: ± 1.59) and parks (2.68, 95% CI: ± 0.75), whereas the lowest mean total abundance index was noted in the peri-urban forests (0.06, 95% CI: ± 0.03) and the urban cemetery (0.04, 95% CI: ± 0.02). The adults and nymphs of I. ricinus displayed a bimodal activity pattern, while the larvae showed a unimodal questing behaviour with an autumnal peak. Positive correlations were found between the mean total abundance index and the rise in the daily mean temperature and relative humidity, and between the global abundance of questing ticks and the presence of hedgehogs in the respective locations (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Ticks were collected in all the recreational sites surveyed in Cluj-Napoca. Ixodes ricinus was the dominant questing and engorged tick species. Several abiotic and biotic factors shape the ecology of ticks in Cluj-Napoca city, with climate and the local presence of suitable hosts being the most important.

First reports of indigenous lethal infection with Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma bovis and Theileria orientalis in Croatian cattle

Anaplasmosis and theileriosis are important diseases with great economic impact that affect the cattle industry worldwide. In this study, we describe the first molecularly confirmed clinical cases of anaplasmosis caused by Anaplasma marginale and of a concurrent infection with A. bovis and Theileria orientalis in Croatian cattle. Clinical signs of A. marginale-infected cows included fever, lethargy, dark urine, as well as icteric and reddish mucous membranes. Postmortem examination revealed icterus, urinary bladder filled with dark urine and splenomegaly. A marginale was observed within erythrocytes on Giemsa-stained spleen imprints. Three affected cows were successfully treated with oxytetracycline, after which no new deaths occurred in the herd. Three cows in a different herd died suddenly and were found to be concurrently infected with A. bovis and T. orientalis. Postmortem examination revealed generalized icterus and urinary bladder filled with dark urine. These cases of A. marginale, A. bovis and T. orientalis infection show that bovine anaplasmosis and theileriosis are present within Croatian cattle and should be included in differential diagnostic protocols.

Genotypic Analysis of Piroplasms and Associated Pathogens from Ticks Infesting Cattle in Korea

Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) impose an important limitation to livestock production worldwide, especially in subtropical and tropical areas. Earlier studies in Korea have examined TBPs residing in ticks and animals; however, information on multiple TBPs in ticks infesting cattle is lacking. This study assessed the prevalence of TBPs in ticks parasitizing cattle. A total of 576 ticks, including 340 adults and 236 nymphs, were collected from cattle in Korea between 2014 and 2018. All ticks collected were identified as Haemaphysalis longicornis based on their morphological and molecular characteristics. Among piroplasms and other tick-associated pathogens, seven TBP genes, namely Theileria orientalis (5.0%), Anaplasma bovis (2.3%), Anaplasma capra (4.7%), Anaplasma phagocytophilum-like Anaplasma spp. (APL) clades A (1.9%) and B (0.5%), Ehrlichia canis (1.6%), and Candidatus Rickettsia longicornii (17.5%), were detected. Bartonella spp. and severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus were not found. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report the presence of the pathogens T. orientalis major piroplasm surface protein genotypes 3 and 7, A. capra, and APL in ticks from Korea. Cattle ticks may be maintenance hosts for many TBPs, and veterinary and medical clinicians should be aware of their high probability of infection and clinical complexity in humans.

Ticks and accompanying pathogens of domestic and wild animals of Kerala, South India

The objective of the present study was to detect the chosen nucleotide DNA or RNA sequences of the pathogens in ticks of domestic and wild animals of Kerala, South India based on molecular techniques. Among 602 ticks collected, 413 were from bovines (cattle and buffalo), 26 from goats, 101 from dogs and 62 from wild animals. Amblyomma integrum, Am. gervaisi, Dermacentor auratus, Haemaphysalis bispinosa, Ha. intermedia, Ha. shimoga, Ha. spinigera, Rhipicephalus annulatus, Rh. microplus, Rh. haemaphysaloides and Rh. sanguineus s.l. were identified from various domestic and wild animals of Kerala. The cDNA synthesized from the RNA isolated from fully or partially engorged adult female/nymphal ticks was used as template for the specific polymerase chain reactions (PCR). Out of 602 ticks examined, nucleotide sequences of pathogens were detected in 28 ticks (4.65%). The nucleotide sequences of tick-borne pathogens like Theileria orientalis, Babesia vogeli, Hepatozoon canis, Anaplasma marginale, An. bovis, Rickettsia sp. closely related to Ri. raoultii, Ri. massiliae, Ri. africae and Ri. slovaca were detected. The identification of the previously unreported nucleotide sequences of rickettsial pathogens from India is of particular interest due to their zoonotic significance. The phylogenetic analysis of the major piroplasm surface protein (MPSP) gene of T. orientalis amplified from Rh. annulatus ticks revealed that they were genetically close to type 7, which belong to the highly pathogenic Ikeda group.

Molecular epidemiology and risk factors of Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. infection in cattle in Chongqing, China

Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) seriously affect cattle production and can be economically damaging. The epidemiology of these organisms in the Chongqing municipality of China is not well described. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and risk factors of TBPs including Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. in cattle in Chongqing municipality. The results showed that 43.48% (150/345) of cattle were infected with at least one TBP, of which single infections were detected in 104 (30.14%), double infections in 34 cattle (9.86%) and triple infections in 12 (3.48%) of the cattle. The overall prevalence of Anaplasma spp., Theileria spp. and B. bigemina were 22.32%, 23.19% and 7.24%, respectively. Among these, the prevalence of A. bovis, A. central, A. phagocytophilum, A. platys, A. marginale, T. sinensisi and T. orientalis were 8.41%, 7.83%, 4.93%, 4.35%, 2.61%, 22.32% and 2.60%, respectively. We could not detect B. bovis, T. annulata, T. luwenshuni or T. uilenbergi in cattle. Cattle ≥1-year-old were more likely to be infected with Theileria spp. [adjusted odd ratio (AOR) = 2.70, 95% CI = 1.12-6.56)] compared with younger cattle, while cattle ≥1-year-old had reduced susceptibility to B. bigemina (AOR = 0.14, 95% CI = 0.03-0.60). Cattle living at higher altitude (≥500 m) were more susceptible to B. bigemina (AOR = 6.97, 95% CI = 2.08-23.35) and Theileria spp. infection (AOR = 1.87, 95% CI = 1.06-3.32). The prevalence of Theileria spp. on farms with cats was significantly higher than that without cats (AOR = 2.56, 95% CI = 1.12-5.88). Infection with A. bovis and A. central were significantly associated with A. phagocytophilum infection. Furthermore, there were significant associations between A. bovis and A. central infection, T. sinensisi and A. marginale infection, and B. bigemina and T. orientalis infection. This study provides new data on the prevalence of Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. in cattle in Chongqing, and for the first time we reveal a possible relationship between the afore-mentioned pathogens, which will help in formulating appropriate control strategies for these pathogens in this area.

Tick-borne zoonoses in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales in Iran: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Tick-borne zoonoses in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales cause infections that often manifest as undifferentiated fevers that are not easy to distinguish from other causes of acute febrile illnesses clinically. This is partly attributed to difficulty in laboratory confirmation since convalescent sera, specific diagnostic reagents, and the required expertise may not be readily available. As a result, a number of tick-borne zoonoses are underappreciated resulting in unnecessary morbidity, mortality and huge economic loses. In Iran, a significant proportion of human infectious diseases are tick-borne, with anecdotal evidence suggesting that tick-borne zoonoses are widespread but underreported in the country. Epidemiological review is therefore necessary to aid in the effective control and prevention of tick-borne zonooses in Iran. The aim of this review is to provide an in-depth and comprehensive overview of anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, spotted fever group rickettsioses and coxiellosis in Iran.

METHODS

Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, all relevant publications on tick-borne zoonoses in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales in Iran were searched using a number of search terms. The search was confined to authentic resources from repositories of popular data bases among them PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Science Direct, SpringerLink and SCOPUS. The search items included peer reviewed journals, books and book chapters published between 1996 and 2017.

RESULTS

A total of 1 205 scientific publications and reports were sourced, of which 63 met the search criteria and were reviewed. Of the 63 articles reviewed, 36 (57.1%) reported on coxiellosis, 15 (23.8%) on anaplasmosis, 11 (17.5%) on ehrlichiosis and 1(1.6%) on spotted fever group rickettsiae in a large scale study involving four countries, among them Iran. The existence of tick-borne pathogens in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales was confirmed by molecular, serological and microscopic techniques conducted on samples obtained from sheep, cattle, goats, camels, poultry, animal products (milk and eggs), dogs, ticks and even human subjects in different parts of the country; pointing to a countrywide distribution.

DISCUSSION

Based on the review, coxiellosis, anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, and SFG rickettsiae can be categorized as emerging tick-borne zoonotic diseases in Iran given the presence of their causiative agents (C. burnetii, A. phagocytophilum, A. marginale, A. bovis, A. ovis, A. central, E. canis, E. ewingii, E. chaffeensis and R. conorii) collectively reported in a variety of domestic animals, animal products, arthropods and human beings drawn from 22 provinces in Iran.

CONCLUSION

Given the asymptomatic nature of some of these zoonoses, there is a high likelihood of silent transmission to humans in many parts of the country, which should be considered a public health concern. Presently, information on the transmission intensity of tick-borne zoonoses caused by pathogens in the Order Rickettsiales and Legionellales to humans and its public health impact in Iran is scanty.

Evidence confirming the phylogenetic position of Anaplasma centrale (ex Theiler 1911) Ristic and Kreier 1984

In 1911, Sir Arnold Theiler isolated and described a parasite that was very similar to Anaplasma marginale but which was more centrally located within the erythrocytes of the host cells, and was much less pathogenic than A. marginale. He named the parasite A. marginale variety centrale. The name Anaplasma centrale, referring to the same organism, was published in Validation List No. 15 in 1984, but the publication was based on an erroneous assumption that Theiler had indicated that it was a separate species. Many authors have subsequently accepted this organism as a separate species, but evidence to indicate that it is a distinct species has never been presented. The near full-length 16S rRNA gene sequence, and the deduced amino acid sequences for groEL and msp4 from several isolates of A. marginale and A. centrale from around South Africa were compared with those of the A. marginale type strain, St Maries, and the A. centrale Israel strain and other reference sequences. Phylogenetic analyses of these sequences demonstrated that A. centrale consistently forms a separate clade from A. marginale, supported by high bootstrap values (≥90 %), revealing that there is divergence between these two organisms. In addition, we discuss distinctive characteristics which have been published recently, such as differences in Msp1a/Msp1aS gene structure, as well as genome architecture that provide further evidence to suggest that A. centrale is, in fact, a separate species. Our results, therefore, provide evidence to support the existing nomenclature, and confirm that A. centrale (ex Theiler 1911) Ristic and Kreier 1984 is, indeed, a distinct species.

Tick-borne pathogens in tick species infesting humans in Sibiu County, central Romania

Romania has a highly diverse tick fauna. Consequently, a high diversity of tick-transmitted pathogens might be a potential threat to humans. However, only a limited number of tick species regularly infest humans, and pathogens present in such species are therefore of particular interest from a medical perspective. In this study, 297 ticks were collected from humans during 2013 and 2014. Ixodes ricinus was the predominant tick species, accounting for 272 specimens or 91.6% of the ticks in the study. Nevertheless, other tick species were also found to infest humans: Dermacentor marginatus constituted 7% of the ticks found on humans (21/297), Haemaphysalis punctata 1% (3/297), and Haemaphysalis concinna 0.3% (1/297). Ticks were tested by PCR for a wide range of tick-borne pathogens. In total, 11.8% of the ticks carried human pathogenic bacteria, while no viral or protozoan pathogens were detected. The most frequently detected pathogen was Rickettsia spp., occurring in 5.4% of the ticks (16/297) and comprising three species: Rickettsia (R.) raoultii, R. monacensis, and R. helvetica. Borrelia s.l. occurred in 3% (9/297) of the ticks. "Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis" occurred in 1.7% (5/297) and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in 1.3% (4/297). Anaplasma bovis was detected in an H. punctata and Borrelia miyamotoi in an I. ricinus. These results point to the need for further studies on the medical importance of tick-borne pathogens in Romania.

Anaplasma species detected in Haemaphysalis longicornis tick from China

Anaplasma are tick-borne obligatory intracellular bacteria, which infect humans and other animals. The Anaplasma species carried by ticks in China are not well studied. We collected 3145 questing Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks including 120 larvae, 2460 nymphs and 565 adults from vegetation in Jiaonan County, Shandong Province, China from 2013 to 2015. All ticks were examined for the presence of Anaplasma species by nested PCR amplification of the 16S rRNA gene. For further differentiation of A. capra from A. centrale, gltA and msp2 genes were sequenced for A. capra. Three Anaplasma species were detected in the nymph and/or adult ticks with the minimum infection rate of ticks as follows: 1.55% for A. bovis, 0.10% for A. phagocytophilum, and 0.03% for A. capra. These results indicated that the H. longicornis tick in Jiaonan County carried multiple Anaplasma species, which may be a challenge for public health in the studying area.

A five-year survey of tick species and identification of tick-borne bacteria in Sardinia, Italy

Sardinia is a hotspot for studying tick-borne diseases in the Mediterranean region, where cases of notifiable tick-borne diseases are increasing. The aim of this study was to determine the presence of tick-borne bacteria of medical and veterinary importance in ixodid ticks collected from domestic and wild animals, humans, and vegetation from different collection sites in Sardinia. Using standard PCR and sequencing techniques, the presence of Rickettsia, Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, and Bartonella species, as well as Coxiella burnetii was evaluated. A total of 1619 ticks were morphologically identified as Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato, R. bursa, R. annulatus, Dermacentor marginatus, Haemaphysalis punctata, Ha. sulcata, Hyalomma lusitanicum, H. marginatum, Ixodes festai (sometimes referred to erroneously as I. ventalloi), and Argas reflexus. Results indicated the presence of several circulating pathogens in Sardinian ticks. DNA of Rickettsia species was detected in 58 out of 1619 (4%) belonging to R. sanguineus s.l., D. marginatus, Ha. punctata, H. marginatum, and I. festai species. Ehrlichia canis DNA was detected in 33 out of 1619 ticks (2%) belonging to R. sanguineus s.l., R. bursa, and Ha. punctata species. A total of 61 out of 1619 (4%) ticks (R. sanguineus s. l., R. bursa, Ha. punctata, and I. festai) tested positive for Anaplasma spp. Coxiella burnetii was detected in 21 out of 1619 (1%) ticks belonging to R. sanguineus s.l., R. bursa, R. annulatus, and H. marginatum species. Five R. sanguineus s.l. and one R. bursa ticks were positive for the presence of Bartonella sp. 16S rRNA gene. Our findings expand the knowledge on tick-borne microorganism repertoires and tick distribution in Sardinia. Tick distribution should be monitored for effective control of these arthropods and the infections they transmit.

Pathogen communities of songbird-derived ticks in Europe's low countries

BACKGROUND

Birds play a major role in the maintenance of enzootic cycles of pathogens transmitted by ticks. Due to their mobility, they affect the spatial distribution and abundance of both ticks and pathogens. In the present study, we aim to identify members of a pathogen community [Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.), B. miyamotoi, 'Ca. Neoehrlichia mikurensis', Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Rickettsia helvetica] in songbird-derived ticks from 11 locations in the Netherlands and Belgium (2012-2014).

RESULTS

Overall, 375 infested songbird individuals were captured, belonging to 35 species. Thrushes (Turdus iliacus, T. merula and T. philomelos) were trapped most often and had the highest mean infestation intensity for both Ixodes ricinus and I. frontalis. Of the 671 bird-derived ticks, 51% contained DNA of at least one pathogenic agent and 13% showed co-infections with two or more pathogens. Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) DNA was found in 34% of the ticks of which majority belong to so-called avian Borrelia species (distribution in Borrelia-infected ticks: 47% B. garinii, 34% B. valaisiana, 3% B. turdi), but also the mammal-associated B. afzelii (16%) was detected. The occurrence of B. miyamotoi was low (1%). Prevalence of R. helvetica in ticks was high (22%), while A. phagocytophilum and 'Ca. N. mikurensis' prevalences were 5% and 4%, respectively. The occurrence of B. burgdorferi (s.l.) was positively correlated with the occurrence of 'Ca. N. mikurensis', reflecting variation in susceptibility among birds and/or suggesting transmission facilitation due to interactions between pathogens.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight the contribution of European songbirds to co-infections in tick individuals and consequently to the exposure of humans to multiple pathogens during a tick bite. Although poorly studied, exposure to and possibly also infection with multiple tick-borne pathogens in humans seems to be the rule rather than the exception.

Molecular survey and genetic characterization of Anaplasma centrale, A. marginale and A. bovis in cattle from Algeria

Bovine anaplasmosis could be caused by several Anaplasma species. The causative agents are transmitted by ticks and haematophagous arthropods with a high impact on both human and animal health. This study was conducted to estimate the infection rate and to characterize Anaplasma spp. in cattle from Algeria. A molecular survey was performed in Setif district (Northeast Algeria) where a total number of 180 cattle blood samples were collected and tested for the presence of Anaplasma spp. by PCR. Positive samples were genetically characterized based on the 16S rRNA and msp4 genes. PCRs revealed that the infection rates of Anaplasma spp., Anaplasma centrale, Anaplasma marginale and Anaplasma bovis were 42.2%; 39.4%; 11.1% and 4.4%, respectively. All tested animals were negative for A. phagocytophilum. Co-infection occurred in 10% (18/180) of the tested animals, and the most common co-infection pattern was an association between A. centrale and A. marginale (5.5%). Five cattle (2.7%) were co-infected by the three Anaplasma species. Holstein animals (58.1%) were more infected by A. centrale than the other breeds (p = .01). The molecular prevalence of A. centrale was significantly higher in males (54.2%) than in females (34.1%) (p = .001). A. marginale msp4 genetic analysis indicated a high sequence diversity of Algerian strains, suggesting the importation of live cattle from different origins. Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene of A. bovis and A. centrale revealed a low degree of genetic diversity. Our study suggests that different species of Anaplasma are simultaneously present in the Algerian cattle. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first molecular study and genetic characterization of Anaplasma spp. in Algerian cattle.

One particular Anaplasma phagocytophilum ecotype infects cattle in the Camargue, France

Background

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a zoonotic tick-borne pathogen responsible for granulocytic anaplasmosis, a mild to a severe febrile disease that affects man and several animal species, including cows and horses. In Europe, I. ricinus is the only proven vector for this pathogen, but studies suggest that other tick genera and species could be involved in its transmission. Our objective was to assess the presence and genetic diversity of A. phagocytophilum in domestic animals and different tick species from the Camargue region, located in the south of France.

Methods

A total of 140 ticks and blood samples from 998 cattle and 337 horses were collected in Camargue and tested for the presence of A. phagocytophilum DNA by msp2 quantitative real-time PCR. Molecular typing with four markers was performed on positive samples.

Results

Anaplasma phagocytophilum DNA was detected in 6/993 (0.6%) cows, 1/20 (5%) Haemaphysalis punctata, 1/57 (1.75%) Rhipicephalus pusillus, and was absent in horses (0%). All cattle A. phagocytophilum presented a profile identical to an A. phagocytophilum variant previously detected in Dermacentor marginatus, Hyalomma marginatum, and Rhipicephalus spp. in Camargue.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrate that one particular A. phagocytophilum variant infects cattle in Camargue, where I. ricinus is supposed to be rare or even absent. Dermacentor marginatus, Rhipicephalus spp. and Hyalomma spp., and possibly other tick species could be involved in the transmission of this variant in this region.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2305-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Molecular Epidemiological Survey and Genetic Characterization of Anaplasma Species in Mongolian Livestock

Anaplasma species are obligate intracellular rickettsial pathogens that cause great economic loss to the animal industry. Few studies on Anaplasma infections in Mongolian livestock have been conducted. This study examined the prevalence of Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma ovis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Anaplasma bovis by polymerase chain reaction assay in 928 blood samples collected from native cattle and dairy cattle (Bos taurus), yaks (Bos grunniens), sheep (Ovis aries), and goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) in four provinces of Ulaanbaatar city in Mongolia. We genetically characterized positive samples through sequencing analysis based on the heat-shock protein groEL, major surface protein 4 (msp4), and 16S rRNA genes. Only A. ovis was detected in Mongolian livestock (cattle, yaks, sheep, and goats), with 413 animals (44.5%) positive for groEL and 308 animals (33.2%) positive for msp4 genes. In the phylogenetic tree, we separated A. ovis sequences into two distinct clusters based on the groEL gene. One cluster comprised sequences derived mainly from sheep and goats, which was similar to that in A. ovis isolates from other countries. The other divergent cluster comprised sequences derived from cattle and yaks and appeared to be newly branched from that in previously published single isolates in Mongolian cattle. In addition, the msp4 gene of A. ovis using same and different samples with groEL gene of the pathogen demonstrated that all sequences derived from all animal species, except for three sequences derived from cattle and yak, were clustered together, and were identical or similar to those in isolates from other countries. We used 16S rRNA gene sequences to investigate the genetically divergent A. ovis and identified high homology of 99.3-100%. However, the sequences derived from cattle did not match those derived from sheep and goats. The results of this study on the prevalence and molecular characterization of A. ovis in Mongolian livestock can facilitate the control of infectious diseases in livestock.

Genetic diversity and molecular epidemiology of Anaplasma

Anaplasma are obligate intracellular bacteria of cells of haematopoietic origin and are aetiological agents of tick-borne diseases of both veterinary and medical interest common in both tropical and temperate regions. The recent disclosure of their zoonotic potential has greatly increased interest in the study of these bacteria, leading to the recent reorganisation of Rickettsia taxonomy and to the possible discovery of new species belonging to the genus Anaplasma. This review is particularly focused on the common and unique characteristics of Anaplasma marginale and Anaplasma phagocytophilum, with an emphasis on genetic diversity and evolution, and the main distinguishing features of the diseases caused by the different Anaplasma spp. are described as well.

Presence of Borrelia turdi and Borrelia valaisiana (Spirochaetales: Spirochaetaceae) in Ticks Removed From Birds in the North of Spain, 2009-2011

The genus Borrelia includes species responsible for severe human diseases such as Lyme disease. Birds are involved in their epidemiology as dispersers of infected ticks (Ixodida: Ixodidae) and as reservoirs or amplifiers of the bacterium. Herein, the presence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) Johnson, Schmid, Hyde, Steigerwalt & Brenner in 336 ticks collected from birds in the north of Spain from 2009 to 2011 was investigated. Nucleic acid extracts from 174 Ixodes frontalis (Panzer), 108 Haemaphysalis punctata Canestrini & Fanzango, 34 Hyalomma marginatum Koch, 17 Ixodes ricinus (L.), and 3 Ixodes spp. were screened for the presence of B. burgdorferi s.l. by PCR. Borrelia turdi was detected in 22 I. frontalis, 2 H. punctata, and 2 I. ricinus Additionally, 1 I. frontalis and 1 H. punctata were found to be infected with the human pathogen Borrelia valaisiana Moreover, 3 I. frontalis showed coinfection with both Borrelia species. This study corroborates the presence of B. turdi and B. valaisiana in ticks from birds in the north of Spain. The presence of these bacteria in larval specimens could suggest the role of birds as their reservoirs, or the occurrence of the cofeeding phenomenon. In addition, the detection of B. turdi and B. valaisiana in H. punctata and I. frontalis ticks, respectively, is reported for the first time.

Molecular screening for Midichloria in hard and soft ticks reveals variable prevalence levels and bacterial loads in different tick species

Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii, symbiont of the sheep tick Ixodes ricinus, was the first described member of the family Candidatus Midichloriaceae, order Rickettsiales. Recent reports are expanding our view of this family, now including numerous bacteria of great biological and medical interest, indicating a widespread distribution with an increasing range of hosts, with ticks being strongly represented. Here we present a molecular screening of 17 tick species, detecting and quantifying bacteria of the family Midichloriaceae in seven of them, including the first report of a representative of this family in a soft tick species (Argasidae), Ornithodoros maritimus. Based on sequence identity and phylogenetic analysis we propose that all these bacterial symbionts of ticks could be members of the genus Midichloria. The performed screening highlights different prevalence levels and variable bacterial loads in different tick species including one, Ixodes aulacodi, where the bacterium is present in all examined individuals, like in I. ricinus. This result prompts us to hypothesize different roles of Midichloria bacteria in different tick species.

Alpha proteobacteria of genusAnaplasma(Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae): Epidemiology and characteristics ofAnaplasmaspecies related to veterinary and public health importance

TheAnaplasmaspecies are important globally distributed tick-transmitted bacteria of veterinary and public health importance. These pathogens, cause anaplasmosis in domestic and wild animal species including humans.Rhipicephalus, Ixodes, DermacentorandAmblyommagenera of ticks are the important vectors ofAnaplasma.Acute anaplasmosis is usually diagnosed upon blood smear examination followed by antibodies and nucleic acid detection. All age groups are susceptible but prevalence increases with age. Serological cross-reactivity is one of the important issues amongAnaplasmaspecies. They co-exist and concurrent infections occur in animals and ticks in same geographic area. These are closely related bacteria and share various common attributes which should be considered while developing vaccines and diagnostic assays. Movement of susceptible animals from non-endemic to endemic regions is the major risk factor of bovine/ovine anaplasmosis and tick-borne fever. Tetracyclines are currently available drugs for clearance of infection and treatment in humans and animals. Worldwide vaccine is not yet available. Identification, elimination of reservoirs, vector control (chemical and biological), endemic stability, habitat modification, rearing of tick resistant breeds, chemotherapy and tick vaccination are major control measures of animal anaplasmosis. Identification of reservoirs and minimizing the high-risk tick exposure activities are important control strategies for human granulocytic anaplasmosis.