Motivational climate, goal orientation, perceived sport ability, and enjoyment within Finnish junior ice hockey players

Motivational Orientation, Boredom and Fun in Physical Education: The Mediation Role of Self-Esteem and Motor Self-Efficacy

Adolescents who enjoy physical education (PE) classes are more likely to be active during out-of-school hours. Similarly, achievement goal theory suggests that task-oriented motivation is associated with higher levels of reported fun during PE classes. In contrast, ego-oriented motivation has been related to boredom in class, but some self-perceptions (e.g., self-esteem or motoric self-efficacy) may modify this relationship and are important for physical activity. Our aim in this paper was to analyze the relationships between motivational orientation and fun and boredom in PE classes by assessing the mediating effects of self-esteem and self-efficacy. We surveyed 478 teenagers between 13 and 18 years of age (M = 14.57; SD = 1.15) with the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE), the Motor Self-Efficacy Scale (MSES), and the Intrinsic Satisfaction in Sport Scale (SSI-EF). We used a structural equation model to evaluate relationships between these variables of interest. We found a positive relationship between ego orientation and boredom and between task orientation and fun; and we found a negative relationship between task orientation and boredom in PE classes. Importantly, we observed indirect effects from self-esteem and motoric self-efficacy in the relationships between motivational orientation and boredom and fun in PE. These results highlight the importance of students' motivational orientations in PE classes and illustrate that self-perception of self-esteem and motoric self-efficacy can mediate these relationships.

A Systematic Review with a Meta-Analysis of the Motivational Climate and Hedonic Well-Being Constructs: The Importance of the Athlete Level

Motivational climate is known to relate to individual behaviors, emotions, and thoughts. Hedonic or subjective well-being includes self-assessed positive affect (i.e., pleasant affect, moods, and emotions), negative affect (i.e., unpleasant affect, moods, and emotions), and life or domain-specific satisfaction. The aim of this review was to quantify the relationships between task and ego motivational climate scales and measures representing hedonic well-being with sports participants. Potential moderators of the motivational climate and hedonic well-being were examined. This review followed the PRISMA guidelines (PROSPERO ID CRD42023470462, registered 28 October 2023). From five relevant databases, one relevant review, and hand searching, 82 articles totaling 26,378 participants (46.3% female) met the inclusion criteria. The articles spanned publication dates from 1993 to 2023, representing 18 countries, various team and individual sports, and athletes competing in elite (e.g., Olympic) to grassroot (e.g., club sport) competitions. To meta-analyze the motivational climate and hedonic well-being relationships, the random-effects model was used. For the moderation analyses, the mixed-effects model was used. The task or mastery climate relationships were medium in magnitude with positive affect and satisfaction and small with negative affect. The ego or performance climate relationships were small in magnitude for positive affect, negative affect, and satisfaction. Evidence of bias existed in the motivational climate and hedonic well-being relationships. For moderation analyses, athlete level (i.e., elite vs. non-elite) moderated (p < 0.05) the task (elite, r = 0.23; non-elite, r = 0.34) and ego motivational climate (elite, r = -0.02; non-elite, r = -0.13) and positive affect and satisfaction combined relationships. In conclusion, the motivational climate and hedonic well-being relationships were stronger for the task climate than for the ego climate. The finding that elite athlete correlations appeared dampened is important for future research. Even with the damped relationships, practitioners, from the Olympics to local clubs, should ensure the promotion of the task climate to maximize positive affect and satisfactions in and around the sport experience.

Links between environmental features and developmental outcomes of elite youth athletes: A cross-sectional study within the German talent pathway

From a holistic perspective, the talent development environment (TDE) influences not only the athletic development but also the development of personal skills as well as the wellbeing of elite youth athletes. Alongside research on the effects of broader environmental features on athlete-related talent development (TD) outcomes, the importance of the closer social climate (i.e., teammates, coaches, support staff) is also emphasized. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between environmental features, the social climate and athlete-related TD outcomes (I). Additionally, an exploratory analysis was conducted to investigate the role of motivational climate and psychological safety in the relationship between environmental features and athlete-related TD outcomes (II). To this end, 345 German elite youth athletes completed an online survey assessing their perceptions of environmental features, coach-created motivational climate, and psychological safety as well as wellbeing, performance satisfaction, and life skills development. The results revealed that environmental features (especially long-term development focus, effective coach-athlete communication, and the social network), motivational climate and psychological safety were all significantly associated with the outcome variables. These findings underline the significance of environmental features for athlete-related TD outcomes of young talented athletes in German elite youth sports. However, the results indicated that motivational climate and psychological safety did not have significant indirect effects on the relationship between TDE features and athlete-related TD outcomes. Thus, it remains to be questioned if and what other processes influence this relationship.

Correlates of physical activity enjoyment in children and adolescents for a new perspective on the treatment of overweight: A systematic literature review

The purpose of this systematic literature review was to systematically compile the state of knowledge on correlates of physical activity enjoyment in children and adolescents to influence the perspective of future physical activity promotion approaches especially for children and adolescents affected by overweight or obesity. The electronic database search was executed in the five databases PubMed, PsychINFO, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, and BISp-SURF, from inception to December 6, 2021. A semi-quantitative method was used for summarizing the resulted correlates. For final analysis, 85 studies comprising 48,144 children and adolescents were included. Fifty-seven variables could be coded for their relationship with physical activity enjoyment. Of these, 12 psychological variables, for example, the basic psychological needs, task orientation, or self-efficacy; six interpersonal variables, for example, peer/group acceptance, parental support, and autonomy support; and one behavioral variable, the higher self-reported physical activity, are consistent positively associated to physical activity enjoyment. A scientifically based overview could be extracted for the promotion of physical activity enjoyment in children and adolescents. There is a gap in literature focusing the perception of physical activity enjoyment in the subgroup of children and adolescents affected by overweight or obesity. Therefore, recommendations were made to enable the development of further innovative research approaches in this population.

Athletes' basic psychological needs and emotions: the role of cognitive reappraisal

In sport, where high achievements are at stake, athletes often feel pressure and emotions that hinder their performance. Emotion regulation becomes essential for athletes to handle stress, achieve optimal performance, and enhance their overall well-being. To advance both research and practical applications, it is crucial to examine the antecedents of emotion regulation and the impact on emotions and other feelings associated with performance. Specifically, the purpose of this cross-sectional study was to examine the role of athletes' emotion regulation strategies (i.e., cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression) in the relationship between basic psychological needs satisfaction, emotions, and psychobiosocial experiences. The sample consisted of 424 competitive athletes (246 men and 178 women) involved in individual sports (n = 164; e.g., fencing, gymnastics, martial arts, swimming, and tennis) or team sports (n = 260; e.g., basketball, rugby, soccer, and volleyball), aged 16-36  years (M = 23.08, SD = 7.65). Their competitive experience ranged from 1 to 21  years (M = 9.71, SD = 6.34) at regional (71%), national (18%), or international (11%) level, and they practiced their sport on average 3.74 times a week (SD = 1.73). Participants completed measures of basic needs satisfaction (i.e., competence, autonomy, and relatedness), emotion regulation style, emotions, and psychobiosocial experiences. Structural equation modeling results showed that competence need satisfaction was positively associated with pleasant emotions and psychobiosocial experiences that are perceived as functional for performance, and negatively associated with a maladaptive emotion regulation style (i.e., expressive suppression) and unpleasant emotions. Relatedness need satisfaction was positively related to an adaptive emotion regulation style (i.e., cognitive reappraisal), pleasant emotions, and psychobiosocial experiences, and negatively related to expressive suppression and unpleasant emotions. Finally, mediation analysis showed positive indirect effects from autonomy and relatedness satisfaction to pleasant emotions and psychobiosocial experiences via cognitive reappraisal. Findings suggest that the satisfaction of athletes' basic psychological needs of autonomy and relatedness is related to the experience of pleasant emotions and functional psychobiosocial states when they adopt an adaptive emotion regulation style.

Empowering and disempowering climate and experiences of psychological violence in artistic gymnastics

In light of the continuing debate about coach-perpetrated violence and the maltreatment of athletes in the elite sports context, empowering and ethical approaches to coaching need to be investigated and proposed as evidence-based effective alternatives. This study aims to investigate the associations between motivational coaching climates and athletes’ experiences of psychological violence, as well as their effects on well-being. Using an anonymous cross-sectional online survey, artistic gymnasts’ perceptions of empowering and disempowering coach-created motivational climates, experiences of psychological violence in sport, well-being, and depressive symptoms were recorded quantitatively. Results indicate that a more disempowering climate predicts psychological violence, while an empowering climate was not a significant predictor. Regarding mental health outcomes, an effect of psychological violence on depressive symptoms and well-being was found, but no effect was found for the disempowering climate. Explorative analysis suggested that psychological violence mediates the relationship between disempowering coaching and mental health outcomes. Based on these findings, coach education should focus on prevention of psychological violence and minimization of disempowering climates. Further research should investigate the relations and effects of psychological violence and coaching climates more thoroughly, including the role of an empowering climate as a potential beneficiary alternative coaching method.

Impact of Applying Information and Communication Technology Tools in Physical Education Classes

The authors of the present study explored how ICT devices used in P.E. lessons determine psychomotor performance, perceived motivational climate, and motivation. The students were allowed to use ICT devices (smartphone, webpages, Facebook) during a four-week intervention. In the course of the research project aimed to assess the impact of the application of ICT devices on performance and motivation, the participants were divided into two test groups and one control group. The sample consisted of secondary school students including 21 males and 64 females with the Mage = 16.72 years. The results showed that in groups where ICT devices were used, performance (p = 0.04) and task orientation (p = 0.00) significantly improved. Meanwhile, in the group in which ICT devices were not used, the intervention resulted in improved performance (p = 0.00) and by the end of the project, this trend was coupled with increased Ego orientation (p = 0.00) and higher rate of amotivation (p = 0.04). It can be concluded that the use of ICT tools has a positive impact on performance and motivation.

The Impacts of Sports Schools on Holistic Athlete Development: A Mixed Methods Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

To understand the multiple and wide-ranging impacts of intensified youth sport, the need for a holistic approach to athlete development has recently been advocated. Sports schools are an increasingly popular operationalisation of intensified youth sport, aiming to offer an optimal environment for holistic development by combining sport and education. Yet, no study has systematically explored the impacts associated with sports schools.

OBJECTIVES

The aims of this mixed method systematic review were to (1) determine the characteristics and features of sports schools; (2) identify the methods used to evaluate sports school impacts, and (3) evaluate the positive and negative holistic athlete development impacts associated with sports school programme involvement.

METHODS

Adhering to PRISMA guidelines, eight electronic databases were searched until the final return in February 2021. Forty-six articles satisfied the inclusion criteria, were analysed thematically, and synthesised using a narrative approach. The methodological quality of included studies was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool.

RESULTS

Findings indicated (1) sports school student-athletes receive considerable support in terms of academic and athletic services, more intensified training and competition schedules with high-level training partners, but regularly miss school; (2) multiple methods have been used to evaluate student-athlete impacts, making comparison across studies and developing consensus on the impacts of sports schools difficult; and (3) there are a multitude of immediate, short- and long-term positive and negative impacts associated with the academic/vocational, athletic/physical, psychosocial and psychological development of sports school student-athletes.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the first to systematically review the research literature to understand the impacts associated with sports schools in terms of holistic athlete development. Practitioners should be aware that they can promote (positive) and negate (negative) health impacts through the design of an appropriate learning environment that simultaneously balances multiple training, academic, psychosocial and psychological factors that can be challenging for youth athletes. We recommend that practitioners aim to design and implement monitoring and evaluation tools that assess the holistic development of student-athletes within their sports schools to ensure they are promoting all-round and healthy youth athlete development.

The Relationship Between Motivation, Goal Orientation, and Perceived Autonomy Support From the Coach in Young Norwegian Elite Hockey Players

This study investigates the relationship between motivation, goal orientation, and perceived autonomy support from the coach among junior elite hockey players. The study is based upon the theory of self-determination and the goal orientation theory. The first aim of the study was to investigate whether high scores on task involvement and perceived autonomy support from the coach may explain the intrinsic motivation of the players. Secondly, we sought to discover whether the most autonomous extrinsic motives may be explained by high scores on task involvement and perceived autonomy support from the coach. Lastly, we investigated whether the most controlling extrinsic motives may be explained by greater ego involvement or by both ego and task involvement and less perceived autonomy support from the coach. A total of 401 players aged 14–18 took part in the survey. The results show that intrinsic motivation can be explained by high scores on both task and ego involvement. The two most autonomous extrinsic motives—integrated and identified regulation—were both explained by task and ego involvement and perceived autonomy support from the coach. The two most controlled motives—introjected and external regulation—were both explained by high scores on task and ego involvement.

Analysis of the Different Scenarios of Coach's Anger on the Performance of Youth Basketball Teams

In spite of the negative effects of anger, coaches are often seen becoming angry during games. This is especially worrying in U18 categories. Thus, the objective of this study was to identify the influence that the coach’s anger has on the performance of a basketball team in competition. For this, an ad hoc observation tool was designed, in which 587 moments of anger from the coaching staff (64 coaches) were recorded in the 24 semi-final and final matches of the Spanish Autonomous Region Team Championships in 2019 and 2020 in the infantil (M = 14 years old) and cadete (M = 16 years old) categories. The results show that, in response to most incidents of coach anger, the performance of the team did not change. Significant differences were identified in some scenarios, with low- or medium-intensity anger targeted at the defence, where the team performance improved. However, anger towards the referee in the last quarter with scores level had a negative influence on the team’s performance.

Effect of workshops for coaches on the motor ability of balance in children practicing sports in late childhood

BACKGROUND

The coach attitude impacts the whole mind and body system of a child athlete from emotional and motivational aspects to motor skills like motor coordination. It translates into the ability to control and stabilize posture. The vestibular system plays an important role in this regulation. This system, next to the visual system and mechanoreceptors, is responsible for balance and control during posture transition. Moreover, the vestibular system is influenced by emotional factors. Therefore the authors of this study focused on the changes in the balance stability of children practicing sport after the implementation of the psychological workshops for coaches.

METHODS

Fifty-nine children at the age of 9-12 practicing soccer, art gymnastic and sport gymnastic were divided into two groups. The experimental group consisted of 31 participants and 28 in the control group. Experimental group children were under the influence of the 3 coaches who attended three workshops over 12 weeks period. Control group children were coached by 5 coaches who attended no workshops. Postural stability tests were performed on children before and after the workshops.

RESULTS

The statistically significant changes were observed in selected parameters of children's balance stability after the experiment. The significant difference between the experimental and control group in Overall Stability Index (OSI) (p < 0.0002), Anterior-Posterior Stability Index (AP) (p < 0.01), Medial-Lateral Stability Index (ML) (p < 0.01) with eyes open were observed after the experiment. The results show a significant deterioration in control group contrary to the experimental group where the improvement trend was observed. Moreover, the difference between the groups was observed in OSI parameter (p < 0.005) with eyes closed after the experiment.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained by the authors of the current study may support the thesis that educating coaches allows for better results in postural stability of child's athletes. Nevertheless, this thesis requires further research, with particular emphasis on the age and gender of young athletes.

Predictive Strength of Contextual and Personal Variables in Soccer Players' Goal Orientations

Psychological variables, such as perceived motivational climate, goal orientation, self-determined motivation, and personality, have an influence on sports success performance. This study aimed to examine the relationships among a set of psychological variables (perceived motivational climate, goal orientation, self-determined motivation, and personality) in male and female footballers. Participants were 167 footballers (106 male, 61 female), aged 12 to 26, competing with clubs in the Spanish Football League. They all took four questionnaires aimed at evaluating motivational climate, goal orientations, self-determined motivation, and personality. The analyses of correlation and regression showed statistically significant relations among the variables. Neuroticism and psychoticism negatively relate to mastery motivational climate, the best predictor of self-determined motivation. It was concluded that contextual variables carry more weight in predicting goal orientations and self-determined motivation among participant footballers.

Achievement Goals, Fear of Failure and Self-Handicapping in Young Elite Athletes with and without Chronic Pain

Background: Pain is a common problem in elite athletes. This exploratory study compares goal orientations towards sport, fear of failure, self-handicapping and pain catastrophizing between active young elite athletes with and without chronic pain (CP) complaints (longer than three months). It examines the associations between chronic pain, fear of failure, goal orientations, self-handicapping and pain catastrophizing in young elite athletes. We explore how far goal orientation can be explained by these factors. Methods: Young elite athletes completed an online questionnaire. Data analysis: Independent samples t-test, correlational analyses and multivariate regression analyses. Results: Participants were 132 young elite athletes (mean 16 years); data for 126 were analyzed. A total of 47% reported current pain, of which 60% had CP. Adolescents with CP showed significantly more pain intensity, fear of failure, self-handicapping and mastery–avoidance goals than those without. Pain intensity was significantly related to fear of failure, self-handicapping, pain catastrophizing and mastery–avoidance. Self-handicapping and fear of failure contributed significantly to mastery–avoidance variance. Performance–avoidance and –approach goals were explained by fear of failure. Conclusion: CP was common, with sufferers showing more fear of failure and self-handicapping strategies, and being motivated to avoid performing worse (mastery–avoidance). Self-handicapping and fear of failure influenced mastery–avoidance orientation, and fear of failure explained part of performance–avoidance and –approach orientations. Longitudinal studies should explore the role of these factors in the trajectory of CP in these athletes.

Psychometric Properties of the Polish Version of Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ)

The main aim of the study was to assess the psychometric properties of the Polish version of the task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire (TEOSQ). The study covered 651 athletes aged 19.2 years, SD (Standard deviation) = 2.21. The task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire (TEOSQ) and sport motivation scale (SMS-28) were used. Cronbach’s Alpha for the ego subscale was 0.84, and for the task subscale 0.81 (McDonald’s omega was 0.84, 0.82 respectively). The reliability of the test-retest with two weeks interval was ICC (Intraclass correlation coefficient) = 0.86 for ego and ICC = 0.86 for task. Initially, the two-factor model was not fully fitted (CFI (Comparative fit index) = 0.84), however the model with correlated errors for selected test items was well fitted to data (CFI = 0.95). Statistically significant, positive correlations between the task orientation and the intrinsic motivation components were obtained. Additionally, individual athletes had higher scores on the ego factor and lower scores on the task factor than the team athletes. These effects were moderated by the level of participation and occurred among high-performance athletes. Due to satisfactory reliability and validity indicators the Polish version of the task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire (TEOSQ) can be used both for scientific research and in the individual diagnostics of athletes.

Perceived Competence, Achievement Goals, and Return-To-Sport Outcomes: A Mediation Analysis

The purpose of this study was to explore the potential mediating effect of achievement goals on perceived competence and return-to-sport outcomes among college athletes sustaining a sport injury. Altogether, 75 male and female college athletes from the United States who returned to sport after having missed competition for an average of 3 weeks due to injury, completed valid and reliable inventories measuring perceived competence, achievement goals, and return-to-sport outcomes. Results indicated that task-approach goals significantly mediated the relationship between perceived competence and a renewed sport perspective. These data suggest the importance of promoting competence beliefs and a task-oriented focus among athletes returning to sport following athletic injury. From a practical standpoint, clinicians can foster competence perceptions by integrating progressive physical tests assessing functionality and sport-specific skills/abilities. Furthermore, these data suggest that coaches, physical therapists, and significant others may do well to use language that orients injured athletes towards attaining success as opposed to avoiding failure, to emphasize effort, task completion, and correct form, and to avoid comments that compare athletes to others or to their preinjury standards of performance. From a theoretical standpoint, our mediation findings extend previous achievement goal research into the sport injury domain, further highlighting the importance of task-approach goals.

School-based Physical Activity Interventions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review

Background: The aim of this systematic review was to examinemotivational interventions based on physical activity as precursor of psychosocial benefits inside of the scholar context. Method: studies were identified in seven databases (Web of Science, Sport Discuss, Scopus, Eric, Pubmed, Psycinfo and Google Scholar). The search process was from June 2011 to September 2019. A total of 41 articles met the inclusion criteria. Results: 23 studies showed psychological effects after intervention and also 10 studies showed psychosocial effect after the intervention. The rest of the studies, although they presented changes, did not become significant. Conclusions: this systematic review showed the importance of motivational processes for the performance of physical activity and sport as a precursor of psychosocial changesand highlights the importance of strategies and the temporal nature of studies to maintain significant changes over time.Likewise, the study shows the future trend of motivational interventions, highlighting the female gender as participants of special interest, and changing the methodology through web-based interventions and active breaks or mental breaks during traditional subject classes.

The 2 × 2 Achievement Goals in Sport and Physical Activity Contexts: A Meta-Analytic Test of Context, Gender, Culture, and Socioeconomic Status Differences and Analysis of Motivations, Regulations, Affect, Effort, and Physical Activity Correlates

Approach-avoidance achievement goals are studied extensively in the context of competitive sports and physical activity, including leisure and physical education. Building upon past meta-analyses, the purpose of this quantitative review was to provide basic descriptive data, estimated means for testing of several research questions (i.e., context, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status), and meta-analyzing outcome correlates (i.e., self-determination constructs, affect, effort, and physical activity). A total of 116 studies up to 1 December 2018, met inclusion criteria. These 116 studies, totaling a sample size of 43,133 participants (M sample size = 347.85 + 359.36), from 22 countries with 92.7% of samples, are drawn from participants less than 30 years of mean age. From the 116 unique studies, nearly half (49.6%) were from a sport context and the rest from leisure-time physical activity (PA) (19.4%) and physical education (PE) (31.0%) contexts. A number of different analyses were conducted to examine our research questions. Support was found for several of our research questions: The mastery-approach goal was endorsed more than all the other goals, while sport participants endorsed the performance-approach goal more than PA and PE groups; females endorsed the mastery-avoidance goal more than males; more culturally individualistic countries endorsed the mastery-approach goal; and countries from lower socioeconomic and interdependent countries endorsed the mastery-avoidance goal than higher socioeconomic and independent countries. Concerning, the meta-analyzed correlates, most relationships were hypothesized through the performance-approach goal, and both avoidance goals appeared to be too similar in relationships with the correlates raising theoretical concerns. Overall, the mastery-approach goals had the most meaningful biased corrected effect size values (rc) with the outcome correlates, such as relative autonomy (0.47), intrinsic motivation (0.52), effort (0.40), positive affect (0.42), physical activity intent (0.38). Based on the present and past meta-analytic results, the 2 × 2 achievement goals as currently measured was questioned. Future research suggestions included fundamental questionnaire issues, the need for latent profile analysis or other more advanced statistics, and whether the 2 × 2 achievement goal framework is the most appropriate framework in physical activity contexts.

Physical Activity in Natural Environments Is Associated With Motivational Climate and the Prevention of Harmful Habits: Structural Equation Analysis

BACKGROUND

Practicing physical activity in a natural environment has various benefits that make it an ideal setting to develop healthy behaviors and thereby diminish unhealthy habits. The objective of this study was to develop and verify an explicative model for motivational climate in sport, considering its potential influence on alcohol and tobacco consumption.

METHODS

The study included 2273 adolescents from Granada (Spain), analyzing motivational climate (PMCSQ-2), alcohol consumption (AUDIT) and tobacco consumption (FTND). Multi-group structural equation modeling was conducted, yielding an excellent fit (χ2 = 168.170; gl = 32; p = 0.00; CFI = 0.972; NFI = 0.966; IFI = 0.972; RMSEA = 0.045).

RESULTS

The main findings were: a negative relationship between task climate and alcohol consumption among students practicing physical activities in a natural environment; a positive relationship between ego climate and alcohol consumption among those practicing other types of physical activity; and a positive and direct relationship between alcohol and tobacco consumption, which was stronger among those who did not practice physical activity in a natural environment.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that physical-sport activity practiced in nature is a key to acquiring healthy patterns characterized by intrinsic motivations in sport and lower consumption of harmful substances.

Coach-Created Motivational Climate and Athletes' Adaptation to Psychological Stress: Temporal Motivation-Emotion Interplay

This two-wave study investigated the temporal interplay between motivation and the intensity and reported impact of athletes’ emotions in training settings. In total, 217 athletes completed self-report measures of motivational climate, motivation regulations, emotional states (i.e., pleasant states, anger, and anxiety) experienced before practice at two time points during a 3-month period. Latent change score modeling revealed significantly negative paths from task-involving climate at time 1 to the latent change in the intensity of dysfunctional anxiety and anger, and significantly positive paths from ego-involving climate at time 1 to the latent change in dysfunctional anger (i.e., intensity and reported impact). The paths from controlled motivation at time 1 to the latent change in the intensity of dysfunctional anxiety and vice versa were significantly positive. The path from controlled motivation at time 1 to the latent change in the intensity of functional anger was significantly positive, but not vice versa. In addition, the paths from dysfunctional anger (i.e., intensity and reported impact) at time 1 to the latent change in motivation regulations were significant, but not vice versa. Overall, evidence provided suggested that the temporal interplay of motivation and emotions is contingent on the specific emotions. The findings highlight the role of coach-created motivational climate and the importance of identifying high levels of controlled motivation to help athletes better adapt to psychological stress.

Relationships between Anxiety, Emotional Intelligence, and Motivational Climate among Adolescent Football Players

BACKGROUND

Emotional and motivational factors are fundamental in the context of sport, as they directly relate to sports performance and anxiety.

METHODS

The present study aimed to analyze the relationships between motivational climate (MC), emotional intelligence (EI), and anxiety within a sample of footballers playing at a low level. The sample was composed of 282 registered football players aged between 16 and 18 years old (16.96 ± 0.77), playing in the lower tier in the province of Jaen (Spain). Data were self-reported, with participants responding to the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (PMCSQ-2), the Schutte Self-Report Inventory (SSRI), and the State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI).

RESULTS

The results showed that footballers who reported higher levels of state anxiety and trait anxiety also demonstrated lower EI and more negatively perceived and regulated their emotions. Moreover, an ego-oriented climate was associated with higher levels of anxiety, while a task-oriented climate was related to lower levels of anxiety and higher levels of EI. No relationship was identified between the emotional aspects of young footballers and holding a motivational orientation toward an ego climate.

CONCLUSIONS

Football players who more greatly perceived a task-oriented climate had higher EI and usually reported lower levels of anxiety related to sport performance. It is therefore important to promote intrinsic motivations and develop the capacity of footballers to regulate their own emotions.

Analysis of the Prediction of Motivational Climate in Handball Players' Fear of Failure

Sports can at times become a negative socializing agent for athletes. The objectives here were to analyse the relationship between motivational climates (involving coaches and peers) and fear of failure in players according to gender and sports experience, and also to control for the extent to which these motivational climates predict the different aversive causes of fear of failure. To this aim, a non-experimental, descriptive, and sectional design was used in which participants answered the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire, the Peer Motivational Climate in Youth Sports Questionnaire, and the Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory. The sample included 479 handball players aged 16⁻17 years old (mean = 16.60; standard deviation = 0.50) who were playing in Spanish regional youth category handball teams. The results revealed that the task-involving training climate predominates in both genders over the ego-involving training climate, particularly in girls and in less experienced players. The peer ego-involving climate also predominates with respect to the peer task-involving climate in both genders, but this is particularly so for boys and in more experienced players. Furthermore, except for fear of feeling shame, which was predicted by the peer ego-involving climate, all the aversive causes of fear of failure are predicted mainly by the coach climate. The immediate environment was proved to be determinant in avoidance behaviours and fear of failure.

An Exploratory Model of Psychosocial Factors and Healthy Habits in University Students of Physical Education Depending on Gender

(1) Background: Several researches have shown the relationship between healthy habits and physical and mental health. Thus, it is essential to study how some psychosocial factors can promote positive behaviours in university students, specifically in those who will be teachers of Physical Education. (2) Methods: This descriptive and cross-sectional research was conducted on 775 university students of Physical Education from Spain. This study aims to develop an explanatory model for the relationships between motivational climate, healthy habits (Mediterranean Diet (MD), Physical Activity (PA) and substance consumption) and some indicators of physical health (oxygen consumption (VO2MAX)) and mental health (self-concept) according to gender, using structural equations analysis. (3) Results: The motivational climate was positively associated with PA, showing a stronger relationship for ego-oriented climate in women. The adherence to MD showed a positive association with PA and self-concept, while it is negative for the consumption of tobacco in men. Likewise, PA was directly related to VO2MAX with a higher regression weight for women. The ego-oriented motivational climate was negatively related to tobacco consumption in women. (4) Conclusions: Task-oriented goals are related to more positive and healthy behaviours such as PA, although it was no association was found with MD. Therefore, we can conclude the importance of promoting task-oriented goals in educational contexts linked to Physical Education in order to avoid negative behaviours.

Examining the relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes for socially vulnerable youth

BACKGROUND

Research has shown that sports participation is positively related to youth developmental outcomes, but it is still unknown if sports participation relates to these outcomes among socially vulnerable youth. Hence, this research aimed to examine the relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes (i.e., problem behaviour, pro-social behaviour, school performance, subjective health, well-being, self-regulation skills, and sense of coherence) for socially vulnerable youth. In addition, the stability of the relationship between sports participation and the youth developmental outcomes were investigated with a six-month interval.

METHODS

Two identical questionnaires were administered with a six-month interval by youth professionals from four youth organisations, measuring the youth developmental outcomes and sports participation rates of socially vulnerable youth. In total, 283 socially vulnerable youths (average 14.68 years old) participated at baseline and 187 youths after six months.

RESULTS

The results showed that sports participation was positively related to pro-social behaviour, subjective health, well-being, and sense of coherence at both measurements. We found no evidence for the relationship between sports participation and problem behaviour and the self-regulatory skills. In addition, sports participation was only positively related to school performance at the first, but not at the second, measurement.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study show that there are positive relationships between sports participation and several youth developmental outcomes. Based on the current data no conclusions can be drawn about the causal relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes. Given the focus of policymakers and health professionals on sport as a means to achieve wider social and educational outcomes for young people, including in the Netherlands, further research is needed to shed light on the relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes for socially vulnerable youth, with a special focus on this group's heterogeneity.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Trialregister.nl NTR4621 Date of Registration: 2 June 2014 (retrospectively registered).

Emotional Intelligence, Motivational Climate and Levels of Anxiety in Athletes from Different Categories of Sports: Analysis through Structural Equations

(1) Background: Psychological factors can strongly affect the athletes&rsquo; performance. Therefore, currently the role of the sports psychologist is particularly relevant, being in charge of training the athlete&rsquo;s psychological factors. This study aims at analysing the connections between motivational climate in sport, anxiety and emotional intelligence depending on the type of sport practised (individual/team) by means of a multigroup structural equations analysis. (2) 372 semi-professional Spanish athletes took part in this investigation, analysing motivational climate (PMCSQ-2), emotional intelligence (SSRI) and levels of anxiety (STAI). A model of multigroup structural equations was carried out which fitted accordingly (&chi;² = 586.77; df = 6.37; p < 0.001; Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.951; Normed Fit Index (NFI) = 0.938; Incremental Fit Index (IFI) = 0.947; Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.069). (3) Results: A negative and direct connection has been found between ego oriented climate and task oriented climate, which is stronger and more differentiated in team sports. The most influential indicator in ego oriented climate is intra-group rivalry, exerting greater influence in individual sports. For task-oriented climate the strongest indicator is having an important role in individual sports, while in team sports it is cooperative learning. Emotional intelligence dimensions correlate more strongly in team sports than in individual sports. In addition, there was a negative and indirect relation between task oriented climate and trait-anxiety in both categories of sports. (4) Conclusions: This study shows how the task-oriented motivational climate or certain levels of emotional intelligence can act preventively in the face of anxiety states in athletes. Therefore, the development of these psychological factors could prevent anxiety states and improve performance in athletes.

Grado de predicción de la motivación hacia las actividades físicodeportivas a través de la orientación de metas, la percepción del éxito y el grado de satisfacción. Un análisis transcultural

El objetivo de este estudio fue conocer en qué medida se puede predecir el tipo de motivación hacia la práctica de Actividad Físico-deportiva en función de la orientación de metas, la percepción del éxito y el grado de satisfacción en un análisis transcultural a lo largo de tres países latinos: España, México y Costa Rica. 2168 escolares (Edad 11-16 años) fueron evaluados con 4 instrumentos: Sport Motivation Scale (SMS), Task and Ego Orientation Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ), Satisfaction Instrument (SSI) y Beliefs About the Causes of Sport Success Questionnaire (BACS). Los resultados mostraron que valores altos de orientación a la tarea, diversión y esfuerzo pueden predecir significativamente la manifestación de motivación intrínseca en los sujetos de los tres países.

Importance of the Motivational Climate in Goal, Enjoyment, and the Causes of Success in Handball Players

The purpose of the study is to examine the effects of the motivational climate created by the coach and perceived by a group of young handball players on their goal orientations, their beliefs regarding reasons for success and their self-satisfaction. The study participants were 159 young handball players. Players were administered a battery composed of tests to measure the above-mentioned motivational constructs. Results showed that a perceived mastery-oriented motivational climate was positively related to a task-centered goal orientation, enjoyment, and a belief that success may be achieved through effort. In contrast, a perceived performance-orientated training climate was linked to an ego-centered goal orientation, boredom, or lack of enthusiasm, and a belief that the routes of success in this sport are the abilities and the use of deception techniques. On the whole, this study underlines the educational role of the coach in young handball players. Specifically, the coach's socializing role influences both handball player's commitment and positive motivational profile as well as sport performance.

The Spanish Adaptation of the Sport Motivation Scale-II in Adolescent Athletes

The aim of this study was to adapt and validate the Spanish version of the Sport Motivation Scale-II (S-SMS-II) in adolescent athletes. The sample included 766 Spanish adolescents (263 females and 503 males; average age = 13.71 ± 1.30 years old). The methodological steps established by the International Test Commission were followed. Four measurement models were compared employing the maximum likelihood estimation (with six, five, three, and two factors). Then, factorial invariance analyses were conducted and the effect sizes were calculated. Finally, the reliability was calculated using Cronbach's alpha, omega, and average variance extracted coefficients. The five-factor S-SMS-II showed the best indices of fit (Cronbach's alpha .64 to .74; goodness of fit index .971, root mean square error of approximation .044, comparative fit index .966). Factorial invariance was also verified across gender and between sport-federated athletes and non-federated athletes. The proposed S-SMS-II is discussed according to previous validated versions (English, Portuguese, and Chinese).

Situational and Dispositional Factors that Predict Motivation: a Multilevel Study

This study aimed to test a multilevel mediation model which examined the relationship between the perceived motivational climate created by coaches at team level and motivational regulations towards sport at individual level, as mediated by individual goal orientations. 211 university athletes from 20 teams training in different types of sport completed a battery of instruments that measured the variables included in the model. The statistics significance level was .05. Results of the multilevel mediation model revealed that the task-involving climate at team level positively predicted individual task orientation (γ01 = .77, p .05). The results are in line with previous research that have focused in the study of motivational climate at individual level, but the present study make a novel contribution by providing the perspective of a multilevel mediation model and thereby clarifying the phenomenon at team level.

Clima motivacional hacia el deporte y su relación con hábitos de ocio digital sedentario en estudiantes universitarios

Resumen El uso abusivo de videojuegos se asocia a consecuencias negativas para la salud, como son problemas músculo-esqueléticos, patología ocular o problemas cognitivos y emocionales. Ante esta problemática, múltiples estudios han demostrado como un estilo de vida activo mediante la práctica deportiva genera efectos positivos para la salud que rompen con las consecuencias del ocio digital sedentario. Este estudio de carácter descriptivo y corte transversal, realizado en una muestra de 490 estudiantes universitarios, tiene como objetivo analizar la relación entre el clima motivacional hacia el deporte y el uso problemático de videojuegos, usando como principales instrumentos los cuestionarios CERV, CHCV y PMCSQ-2. Los resultados revelaron que aquellos universitarios que obtenían mayores puntuaciones en Clima Tarea y sus subcategorías eran los que menos problemas patológicos presentaban. Por el contrario, los participantes que padecían problemas potenciales o problemas severos, así como un nivel de uso y atracción medio, obtenían medias más elevadas en Clima Ego, Reconocimiento Desigual y Rivalidad entre Miembros. Se concluye que los universitarios con metas de logro en el deporte orientadas al Ego pueden presentar mayores problemas asociados al uso de videojuegos, principalmente por su búsqueda de motivaciones extrínsecas como la sensación de victoria, obtener mejor rendimiento que otros rivales o alcanzar nuevos retos. De este modo, resulta vital orientar la práctica deportiva a las motivaciones intrínsecas con el fin de evitar el abandono en el deporte y desarrollar una práctica más hedonista que se aleje de hábitos sedentarios.