A Molecular survey of Anaplasma spp., Rickettsia spp., Ehrlichia canis and Babesia microti in foxes and fleas from Sicily

Detection of Anaplasma spp. and Ehrlichia spp. in dogs from a veterinary teaching hospital in Italy: a retrospective study 2012-2020

Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Anaplasma platys and Ehrlichia canis, responsible of diseases in dogs, are tick-borne pathogens with a proven or potential zoonotic role that have shown increasing prevalence worldwide. The aims of this retrospective study were to assess the frequency of Anaplasma spp. and Ehrlichia spp. exposure in dogs tested in a veterinary teaching hospital in Italy over a 9-year period, to compare the performance of the diagnostic tests used, to evaluate correlations with clinical data, and to genetically analyse the identified bacteria. During the study period, 1322 dogs tested by at least one of the rapid immunoenzymatic test, indirect immunofluorescent antibody test or end-point PCR assay for Anaplasmataceae detection were included. Dogs were tested if they had clinical signs or clinicopathological alteration or risk factors related to infection, and if they were potential blood-donor animals. Ninety-four of 1322 (7.1%) dogs tested positive for at least one pathogen: 53 (4.3%) for A. phagocytophilum, one (0.1%) for A. platys and 63 (4.6%) for E. canis. The number of dogs tested increased and the positivity rate progressively declined over the years. Comparison of tests showed a near-perfect agreement between serological tests and a poor agreement between PCR and indirect assays. A breed predisposition has been highlighted for A. phagocytophilum infection in hunting breed dogs and for E. canis infection in mixed breed dogs. Phylogeny confirmed potential zoonotic implications for A. phagocytophilum and showed no correlation of the identified bacteria with the geographical origin. Our study provides new insights into possible risk factors in dogs and evidenced discordant results between different tests, suggesting that a combination of serological and molecular assays is preferable for a correct diagnosis.

Molecular identification of Bartonella spp. and Rickettsia felis in fox fleas, Chile

Seventy-five flea pools (one to ten fleas per pool) from 51 Andean foxes (Lycalopex culpaeus) and five South American grey foxes or chillas (Lycalopex griseus) from the Mediterranean region of Chile were analyzed for the presence of DNA of Bartonella spp. and Rickettsia spp. through quantitative real-time PCR for the nouG and gltA genes, respectively. Positive samples were further characterized by conventional PCR protocols, targeting gltA and ITS genes for Bartonella, and gltA, ompA, and ompB genes for Rickettsia. Bartonella was detected in 48 % of the Pulex irritans pools (B. rochalimae in three pools, B. berkhoffii in two pools, B. henselae in one pool), and 8 % of the Ctenocephalides felis felis pools (B. rochalimae, one pool). Rickettsia was confirmed in 11 % of P. irritans pools and 92 % of the Ct. felis pools. Characterization confirmed R. felis in all sequenced Rickettsia-positive pools. All Ct. canis pools were negative. A Ct. felis pool from a wild-found domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) also resulted positive for R. felis. Although opportunistic, this survey provides the first description of zoonotic pathogens naturally circulating in fleas parasitizing Chilean free-living carnivores.

Complete bacterial profile and potential pathogens of cat fleas Ctenocephalides felis

Fleas are important ectoparasites and vectors associated with a wide range of pathogenic diseases, posing threats to public health concerns, especially cat fleas that spread worldwide. Understanding the microbial components is essential due to cat fleas are capable of transmitting pathogens to humans, causing diseases like plague and murine typhus. In the present study, metagenomic next-generation sequencing was applied to obtain the complete microbiota and related functions in the gut of Ctenocephalides felis. A total of 1,870 species was taxonomically recognized including 1,407 bacteria, 365 eukaryotes, 69 viruses, and 29 archaea. Proteobacteria was the dominant phylum among the six samples. Pathogens Rickettsia felis, Acinetobacter baumannii, Coxiella burnetii, and Anaplasma phagocytophilum were taxonomically identified and had high abundances in all samples. The resistance gene MexD was predominant in microbial communities of all cat fleas. We also performed epidemiological surveys of pathogens R. felis, A. baumannii, C. burnetii, and A. phagocytophilum among 165 cat fleas collected from seven provinces in China, while only the DNAs of R. felis (38/165, 23.03%) and C. burnetii (2/165, 1.21%) were obtained. The data provide new insight and understanding of flea intestinal microbiota and provided novel information for preventing and controlling fleas and their transmitted diseases.

Rickettsiales in the WHO European Region: an update from a One Health perspective

BACKGROUND

The availability of molecular techniques has significantly increased our understanding of bacteria of the order Rickettsiales, allowing the identification of distinct species in both vector and host arthropods. However, the literature lacks studies that comprehensively summarize the vast amount of knowledge generated on this topic in recent years. The purpose of this study was to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the distribution of Rickettsiales in arthropod vectors, animals and humans in the WHO European Region in order to provide useful information to predict the emergence of certain diseases in specific geographical areas and to formulate hypotheses regarding the possible pathogenetic role of some rickettsial species in the etiology of human pathological conditions.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature in the PubMed and EMBASE databases was conducted following the PRISMA methodology using the search terms "Spotted fever" OR "rickettsiosis" OR "ricketts*" AND all the countries of the WHO European Region, from 1 January 2013 to 12 February 2022. Only studies that identified rickettsiae in human, animal or arthropod samples using molecular techniques were included in the review.

RESULTS

A total of 467 articles considering 61 different species of Rickettsiales with confirmed or suspected human pathogenicity were analyzed in the review. More than 566 identifications of Rickettsiales DNA in human samples were described, of which 89 cases were assessed as importation cases. A total of 55 species of ticks, 17 species of fleas, 10 species of mite and four species of lice were found infected. Twenty-three species of Rickettsiales were detected in wild and domestic animal samples.

CONCLUSION

The routine use of molecular methods to search for Rickettsiales DNA in questing ticks and other blood-sucking arthropods that commonly bite humans should be encouraged. Molecular methods specific for Rickettsiales should be used routinely in the diagnostics of fever of unknown origin and in all cases of human diseases secondary to an arthropod bite or animal contact.

Survey of bacterial and protozoan agents in ticks and fleas found on wild animals in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

This study evaluates the presence of bacterial and protozoan agents in ticks and fleas found on wild animals in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. These ectoparasites were collected on mammal species Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, Tapirus terrestris, Dicotyles tajacu, Didelphis aurita, Cuniculus paca, Cerdocyon thous, and Coendou prehensilis, and on the terrestrial bird Dromaius novaehollandiae. Ticks and fleas were identified morphologically using specific taxonomic keys. A total of 396 ticks and 54 fleas were tested via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of Rickettsia spp., Borrelia spp., microorganisms of the order Piroplasmida and Anaplasmataceae family. This total is distributed among nine tick species of the genus Amblyomma and one flea species. Rickettsia bellii was detected in Amblyomma dubitatum and Amblyomma pacae; Rickettsia sp. strain AL was found in Amblyomma longirostre; Rickettsia parkeri strain Atlantic rainforest was found in Amblyomma ovale; and "Candidatus Rickettsia senegalensis" and Rickettsia felis were detected in Ctenocephalides felis felis. Wolbachia sp. was detected in C. f. felis, and Borrelia sp. was detected in Amblyomma calcaratum (here named Borrelia sp. strain Acalc110). All tested samples were negative for Ehrlichia spp. and microorganisms of the Piroplasmida order. This study detected a new bacterial strain, Borrelia sp. strain Acalc 110 (which is genetically close to B. miyamotoi and B. venezuelensis) and the Rickettsia sp. strain 19P, which is 100% similar to "Ca. R. senegalensis", a bacterium recently discovered and now being reported for the first time in Brazil.

Mitochondrial phylogenomics provides insights into the taxonomy and phylogeny of fleas

Background

Fleas (Insecta: Siphonaptera) are obligatory hematophagous ectoparasites of humans and animals and serve as vectors of many disease-causing agents. Despite past and current research efforts on fleas due to their medical and veterinary importance, correct identification and robust phylogenetic analysis of these ectoparasites have often proved challenging.

Methods

We decoded the complete mitochondrial (mt) genome of the human flea Pulex irritans and nearly complete mt genome of the dog flea Ctenocephalides canis, and subsequently used this information to reconstruct the phylogeny of fleas among Endopterygota insects.

Results

The complete mt genome of P. irritans was 20,337 bp, whereas the clearly sequenced coding region of the C. canis mt genome was 15,609 bp. Both mt genomes were found to contain 37 genes, including 13 protein-coding genes, 22 transfer RNA genes and two ribosomal RNA genes. The coding region of the C. canis mt genome was only 93.5% identical to that of the cat flea C. felis, unequivocally confirming that they are distinct species. Our phylogenomic analyses of the mt genomes showed a sister relationship between the order Siphonaptera and orders Diptera + Mecoptera + Megaloptera + Neuroptera and positively support the hypothesis that the fleas in the order Siphonaptera are monophyletic.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrate that the mt genomes of P. irritans and C. canis are different. The phylogenetic tree shows that fleas are monophyletic and strongly support an order-level objective. These mt genomes provide novel molecular markers for studying the taxonomy and phylogeny of fleas in the future.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-022-05334-3.

Zoonotic vector-borne bacteria in wild rodents and associated ectoparasites from Tunisia

Wild rodents are considered as potential carriers of several zoonotic vector-borne bacteria but their epidemiology is poorly understood in Tunisia. A total of 305 biological samples (100 spleens, 100 livers, 100 kidneys, and 5 pooled ectoparasites (Xenopsylla cheopis, Laelaps echidninus, Ornithonyssus sp., Hoplopleura sp. and eggs of the rat fleas)) were collected from 100 wild rodents from three Tunisian governorates. Molecular screening was performed to reveal infections with main vector-borne bacteria. Captured rodents belonged to three rodent genera and species including Rattus rattus (n = 51, 51%), Meriones shawi (n = 24, 24%) and Mus musculus (n = 25, 25%). Examined rodents were found to be heavily infested by the rat flea X. cheopis (n = 32, 47%) and the rat mite L. echidninus (n = 22, 32.3%). However, the rat mite Ornithonyssus sp. (n = 13, 19.1%) and the rat lice Hoplopleura sp. (n = 1, 1.5%) were rarely identified. Based on 16S rRNA and msp4 genes, infection with Anaplasmataceae bacteria was detected in six specimens of R. rattus and one M. shawi. Pathogenic A. phagocytophilum (n = 1), A. phagocytophilum-like 1 (Anaplasma sp. Japan) (n = 1), and A. ovis (n = 5) were identified. On the basis of ompB, ompA and gltA genes, infection with Rickettsia spp. was identified in three specimens of R. rattus and one of M. shawi. Five Rickettsia species of the spotted fever group, corresponding to R. monacensis, R. helvetica, R. massiliae, R. africae, and R. aeschlimannii, were detected in mixed infections. Bartonella henselae DNA was also found in two R. rattus, based on rpoB partial sequences. All revealed Anaplasma, Rickettsia and Bartonella bacteria were detected in spleen samples. Ehrlichia, Coxiella and Borrelia spp. were not identified in any of the tested samples. In Tunisia, this is the first report indicating infections with Anaplasma, Rickettsia and Bartonella spp. in wild rodents, particularly present alongside domestic livestock and human. This represents a serious risk of potential bacterial transmission. Thus, controlling rodent population in animal herds, residential areas and sensitizing local people to this risk seem absolutely necessary.

Atelerix algirus, the North African Hedgehog: Suitable Wild Host for Infected Ticks and Fleas and Reservoir of Vector-Borne Pathogens in Tunisia

Small wild mammals are an important element in the emergence and transmission of vector-borne pathogens (VBPs). Among these species, hedgehogs have been found to be a reservoir of VBPs and host of arthropod vectors. Surveillance of VBPs in wildlife and their arthropods are crucial in a one health context. We conducted an exploratory study to screen Atelerix algirus hedgehogs and their infesting ticks and fleas for VBPs using a high throughput microfluidic real-time PCR system. Tested biopsies from hedgehogs were found to be naturally infected by Theileria youngi, Hepatozoon sp., Ehrlichia ewingii, Coxiella burnetii, and Candidatus Ehrlichia shimanensis. Similarly, Haemaphysalis erinacei and Rhipicephalus sanguineus tick species were infected by Ehrlichia ewingii, Rickettsia spp., Rickettsia massiliae, Borrelia sp., Coxiella burnetii, Rickettsia lusitaniae and Anaplasma sp. Archaeopsylla erinacei fleas were infected by Rickettsia asembonensis, Coxiella burnetii, and Rickettsia massiliae. Co-infections by two and three pathogens were detected in hedgehogs and infesting ticks and fleas. The microfluidic real-time PCR system enabled us not only to detect new and unexpected pathogens, but also to identify co-infections in hedgehogs, ticks, and fleas. We suggest that hedgehogs may play a reservoir role for VBPs in Tunisia and contribute to maintaining enzootic pathogen cycles via arthropod vectors.

MOLECULAR INVESTIGATION OF VECTOR-BORNE PATHOGENS IN RED FOXES (VULPES VULPES) FROM SOUTHERN FRANCE

Because of their free-ranging nature, the probability of wild animals being exposed to vector-borne pathogens is likely higher than that of humans and pets. Recently, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) has been suspected as being a reservoir or host of several pathogens of veterinary and public health importance. We conducted a molecular survey on 93 red foxes hunted in 2008-18, in the departments of Bouches-du-Rhône and Var, in southeastern France, for pathogens including Leishmania infantum, Piroplasmida, Hepatozoon spp., nematodes, Coxiella burnetii, Borrelia spp., Rickettsia spp., and Anaplasmataceae. Spleen samples were screened for the presence of vector-borne pathogens by PCR followed by sequencing. Pathogens were detected in 94% (87/93) of red foxes, and coinfections were identified in 24% (22/93) of foxes. We identified DNA from Hepatozoon canis, L. infantum, and Babesia vogeli in 92% (86/93), 15% (14/93), and 3% (3/93) of red foxes, respectively. We also found DNA of nematodes in 3% (3/93) of foxes; Spirocerca vulpis was identified in one fox and Dirofilaria immitis in the two others. Interestingly, C. burnetii genotype 3, previously described in humans from the same region, was identified in 3% (3/93) of foxes and Anaplasma platys in 2% (2/93) of foxes. We did not detect DNA of Borrelia spp., Bartonella spp., or Rickettsia spp. In our study, the prevalence of pathogens did not vary by fox origin, sex, or tick carriage. Molecular evidence of B. vogeli, H. canis, S. vulpis, D. immitis, C. burnetii, and A. platys in red foxes has not previously, to our knowledge, been reported from southern France. We propose that red foxes are potential reservoirs for several pathogens, including major zoonotic agents such as L. infantum. They could be incidental hosts for pathogens, such C. burnetii. The high prevalence for H. canis suggests an important role of foxes in domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) infection. These animals may pose a threat to human and animal health.

Molecular survey of Babesia spp. in red foxes (Vulpes Vulpes), Asian badgers (Meles leucurus) and their ticks in China

Babesia species (Apicomplexa: Piroplasmorida) are tick-borne protozoan hemoparasites, which pose a significant threat to domestic animals, wildlife and humans. This study aimed to determine and characterize Babesia species in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), Asian badgers (Meles leucurus) and their ticks. Blood, heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, large intestine and small intestine were collected from 19 wild carnivores (12 red foxes and 7 Asian badgers). All ticks were removed from these animals and identified according to morphological and molecular characteristics. The samples were tested for the presence of Babesia species using the 18S rRNA gene. Molecular analyses showed that the DNA of Babesia vogeli and Babesia vulpes was present in red fox organs/tissues and blood samples. A total of 54 hard ticks (38 Ixodes canisuga, 6 Haemaphysalis erinacei, 9 Ixodes kaiseri and 1 Dermacentor marginatus) were collected from red foxes and 12 (I. kaiseri) from Asian badgers. All ticks were adults. Among them, one I. kaiseri parasiting a red fox contained the DNA of B. vulpes while one I. canisuga was positive for Babesia sp. belonging to the clade "Babesia sensu stricto". Molecular and phylogenetic analyses indicated the presence of a novel genotype, Babesia sp. "badger China". Babesia sp. badger type A and type B from Asian badgers were different from those in European badgers. Co-infection with three Babesia genotypes was found in one Asian badger. This study provides the first data on Babesia infection in red foxes, Asian badgers and their ticks in China. Babesia vogeli was detected for the first time in red foxes in Asia. Co-infection and genetic diversity of Babesia genotypes in Asian badgers were also demonstrated.

Rickettsiales in Italy

There is no updated information on the spread of Rickettsiales in Italy. The purpose of our study is to take stock of the situation on Rickettsiales in Italy by focusing attention on the species identified by molecular methods in humans, in bloodsucking arthropods that could potentially attack humans, and in animals, possible hosts of these Rickettsiales. A computerized search without language restriction was conducted using PubMed updated as of December 31, 2020. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology was followed. Overall, 36 species of microorganisms belonging to Rickettsiales were found. The only species identified in human tissues were Anaplasma phagocytophilum,Rickettsia conorii, R. conorii subsp. israelensis, R. monacensis, R. massiliae, and R. slovaca. Microorganisms transmissible by bloodsucking arthropods could cause humans pathologies not yet well characterized. It should become routine to study the pathogens present in ticks that have bitten a man and at the same time that molecular studies for the search for Rickettsiales can be performed routinely in people who have suffered bites from bloodsucking arthropods.

Pathogen Carriage by Peri-Domestic Fleas in Western Kenya

Fleas are carriers for many largely understudied zoonotic, endemic, emerging, and re-emerging infectious disease agents, but little is known about their prevalence and role as a vector in Africa. The aim of this study was to determine the diversity of fleas and the prevalence of infectious agents in them collected from human dwellings in western Kenya. A total of 306 fleas were collected using light traps from 33 human dwellings; 170 (55.56%) were identified as Ctenocephalides spp., 121 (39.54%) as Echidnophaga gallinacea, 13 (4.25%) as Pulex irritans, and 2 (0.65%) as Xenopsylla cheopis. Of the 306 individual fleas tested, 168 (54.9%) tested positive for rickettsial DNA by a genus-specific quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assay based on the 17-kDa antigen gene. Species-specific qPCR assays and sequencing revealed presence of Rickettsia asembonensis in 166 (54.2%) and Rickettsia felis in 2 (0.7%) fleas. Borrelia burgdorferi, normally known to be carried by ticks, was detected in four (1.3%) flea DNA preparations. We found no evidence of Yersinia pestis, Bartonella spp., or Orientia spp. Not only were Ctenocephalides spp. the most predominant flea species in the human dwellings, but also almost all of them were harboring R. asembonensis.

The Discovery of Zoonotic Protozoans in Fleas Parasitizing on Pets as a Potential Infection Threat

PURPOSE

Fleas are insects with a high medical and veterinary importance. They may participate in spreading of many pathogenic agents, but still there is limited information about their possible reservoir or vector role for protozoans. The main aim of this study was an attempt of detection zoonotic pathogens, such as Babesia microti and Toxoplasma gondii in fleas Ctenocephalides felis felis and Ctenocephalides canis.

METHODS

In 2013-2017, 155 fleas were captured from domestic dogs and cats in veterinary clinics, animal shelters and pet grooming salons in Upper Silesia Region in Poland. Then, the DNA was extracted from each Ctenocephalides flea by using the ammonia method. Samples were screened for the presence of B. microti and T. gondii using PCR and nested PCR methods.

RESULTS

B. microti was reported in 6.6% of C. felis felis and 9.1% of C. canis, whereas the prevalence of coinfection with B. microti and T. gondii was 1.9% in cat fleas and 2.3% in dog fleas.

CONCLUSION

This study shows the first cases of B. microti occurrence and B. microti and T. gondii coinfection in Ctenocephalides fleas. The estimation of prevalence of examined protozoans may be useful considering the possibility of infection among companion animals, as well as during presentation of the potential risk of infection in humans. In order to clarify the role of C. felis felis and C. canis in transmission of B. microti and T. gondii, the another studies with in vitro cultures and laboratory animals are needed.

Host distribution and pathogen infection of fleas (Siphonaptera) recovered from small mammals in Pennsylvania

The number of recognized flea-borne pathogens has increased over the past decade. However, the true number of infections related to all flea-borne pathogens remains unknown. To better understand the enzootic cycle of flea-borne pathogens, fleas were sampled from small mammals trapped in central Pennsylvania. A total of 541 small mammals were trapped, with white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) and southern red-backed voles (Myodes gapperi) accounting for over 94% of the captures. Only P. leucopus were positive for examined blood-borne pathogens, with 47 (18.1%) and ten (4.8%) positive for Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia microti, respectively. In addition, 61 fleas were collected from small mammals and tested for pathogens. Orchopeas leucopus was the most common flea and Bartonella vinsonii subspecies arupensis, B. microti, and a Rickettsia felis-like bacterium were detected in various flea samples. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of B. microti DNA detected from a flea and the first report of a R. felis-like bacterium from rodent fleas in eastern North America. This study provides evidence of emerging pathogens found in fleas, but further investigation is required to resolve the ecology of flea-borne disease transmission cycles.

First report of Siphonaptera parasites in Canis latrans in the Flora and Fauna Protection Area, Médanos de Samalayuca Chihuahua, Mexico

Siphonaptera are hematophage parasite vectors of both human and animal diseases. We aimed to identify ectoparasites parasitizing a coyote population (Canis latrans) in the northwest region of the Flora and Fauna Protection Area Médanos de Samalayuca, Chihuahua, Mexico. We captured 21 coyotes (15 males and 6 females) during the summer and winter of 2018. The individuals were anesthetized and thoroughly examined for ectoparasites. We found that 43% of the coyotes were infested. Based on characteristics such as the absence of pronotal and genal combs in the head, we identified 15 specimens as Pulex irritans. This is the first report of P. irritans in coyotes in Médanos de Samalayuca Chihuahua, Mexico.

The molecular detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Rickettsia spp. in cat and dog fleas collected from companion animals

Companion animals can be infested by various species of parasitic insects. Cat flea Ctenocephalides felis (C. felis felis) (Bouché, 1835) and dog flea Ctenocephalides canis (Curtis, 1826) belong to multihost external parasites of mammals, which most frequently occur on domestic cats Felis catus Linnaeus and dogs Canis familiaris Linnaeus. The main aim of this study was to investigate the presence of pathogens, such as Anaplasma phagocytophilum (syn. Ehrlichia phagocytophila) and Rickettsia spp., in adult C. felis and C. canis fleas. Flea sampling has been realised from January 2013 to April 2017 in veterinary clinics, animal shelters and pet grooming salons. Fleas were collected from domestic cats and dogs, directly from the pet skin or hair. Then, the DNA was isolated from a single flea by using the alkaline hydrolysis and samples were screened for the presence of pathogens using PCR method. Anaplasma phagocytophilum has occurred in 29% of examined C. felis and 16% of C. canis individuals. In turn, the prevalence of Rickettsia spp. in cat fleas population was only 3%, and the dog fleas 7%. The present study showed the presence of pathogenic agents in cat and dog fleas, which indicates the potential role of these insects in circulation of A. phagocytophilum and Rickettsia spp. in the natural habitat. Furthermore, exposition to these flea species, whose hosts are domestic cats and dogs, can pose a potential risk of infection for humans.

Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. (FU98) and Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato in Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Serbia

Human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and environmental pollution lead to a reduction in the spatial boundary between wild animals, domestic animals and humans. These activities increase the risk for the emergence of pathogens from the sylvatic cycle in the population of domestic animals and humans. Foxes are recognized as potential reservoirs for a number of bacterial pathogens of medical and public health concern. The aim of the present study was to investigate the prevalence and spatial distribution of bacterial tick-borne pathogens from the Anaplasmataceae family, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.), Rickettsia spp., Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Bartonella spp., in the red fox population from Serbia and to discuss the obtained results from the epidemiological point of view. Legally hunted red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from 14 localities in Serbia were included in the study and spleen samples from 129 animals were tested with conventional PCR assays for the presence of bacterial tick-borne pathogens. DNA of Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. (FU98), Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, Borrelia lusitaniae, and Borrelia garinii was detected in 6 (4.7%), 1 (0.8%), 2 (1.6%) and 1 (0.8%) animals, respectively. Co-infection by Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. (FU98) and B. garinii was detected in one animal. All samples were negative for other tested bacterial tick-borne pathogens. The results of the present study indicate the potential role of foxes in natural cycles of Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. (FU98) and causative agents of Lyme borreliosis in the investigated areas. Further research is required to elucidate the role of foxes in the epidemiology of these and other tick-borne zoonotic pathogens in the Republic of Serbia.

Molecular Survey of Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., Bartonella spp., and Borrelia spp. in Fleas and Lice in Ethiopia

Bacterial arthropod-borne pathogens can often cause fever in Africa, but rural laboratories in these settings are usually too basic to provide a precise picture of their epidemiological impact. Our aim was to determine the prevalence of bacterial pathogens in fleas and lice in a rural area of southeast Ethiopia. Between July and November 2013, we extracted DNA from 91 fleas (Ctenocephalides felis [n = 50; 54.9%], Pulex irritans [n = 37; 40.1%], and C. canis [n = 4; 4.4%] and 30 lice (Pediculus humanus capitis [n = 16; 53.3%] and Pediculus humanus humanus [n = 14; 46.7%]), using two quantitative PCR (qPCR) analyses to look for bacteria from the genera: Anaplasma, Bartonella, Borrelia, Coxiella, Ehrlichia, Francisella, and Rickettsia. Of the 91 fleas analyzed, pathogens were present in 79 (86.8%), including Rickettsia felis (n = 41; 45%), Anaplasma platys (n = 40; 44.0%), Rickettsia monacensis (n = 2; 2.2%), Ehrlichia muris-like agent (n = 1; 1.1%), and Bartonella clarridgeiae (n = 1; 1.1%). P. irritans was the flea species most frequently infected with A. platys (67.7%), followed by C. felis (30.7%) (p < 0.001). Of the 30 lice identified, pathogens were present in 7 (23.3%): Bartonella quintana (n = 4; 16.7%), E. muris (n = 2, 6.7%), and Borrelia recurrentis (n = 1, 3.3%). Thus, in this rural area of Africa, fleas and lice can transmit parasitic pathogens to humans, causing febrile symptoms.

Diversity of Anaplasma and Ehrlichia/Neoehrlichia Agents in Terrestrial Wild Carnivores Worldwide: Implications for Human and Domestic Animal Health and Wildlife Conservation

Recently, the incidence and awareness of tick-borne diseases in humans and animals have increased due to several factors, which in association favor the chances of contact among wild animals and their ectoparasites, domestic animals and humans. Wild and domestic carnivores are considered the primary source of tick-borne zoonotic agents to humans. Among emergent tick-borne pathogens, agents belonging to family Anaplasmataceae (Order Rickettsiales) agents stand out due their worldwide distribution and zoonotic potential. In this review we aimed to review the genetic diversity of the tick-transmitted genera Ehrlichia, Anaplasma and "Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp." in wild carnivores Caniformia (Canidae, Mustelidae and Ursidae) and Feliformia (Felidae, Hyanidae, Procyonidae and Viverridae) worldwide, discussing the implications for human and domestic animal health and wildlife conservation. Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) have been identified as hosts for Anaplasma spp. (A. phagocytophilum, Anaplasma ovis, A. platys), Ehrlichia canis and "Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp." (FU98 strain) and may contribute to the maintaenance of A. phagocytophilum in Europe. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) have been reported as hosts for E. canis, A. bovis, "Candidatus Neoehrlichia lotoris" and A. phagocytophilum, and play a role in the maintenance of A. phagocytophilum in the USA. Raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) may play a role as hosts for A. bovis and A. phagocytophilum. New Ehrlichia and/or Anaplasma genotypes circulate in wild canids and felids from South America and Africa. While Ehrlichia sp. closely related to E. canis has been reported in wild felids from Brazil and Japan, Anaplasma sp. closely related to A. phagocytophilum has been detected in wild felids from Brazil and Africa. Red foxes and mustelids (otters) are exposed to E. canis in countries located in the Mediaterranean basin, probably as a consequence of spillover from domestic dogs. Similarly, E. canis occurs in procyonids in North (raccoons in USA, Spain) and South (Nasua nasua in Brazil) Hemispheres, in areas where E. canis is frequent in dogs. While "Candidatus Neoehrlichia lotoris" seems to be a common and specific agent of raccoons in the USA, "Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp." (FU98 strain) seems to show a broader range of hosts, since it has been detected in red fox, golden jackal (Canis aureus) and badger (Meles meles) in Europe so far. Brown (Ursus arctos) and black (Ursus americanus) bears seem to play a role as hosts for A. phagocytophilum in the North Hemisphere. Anaplasma bovis has been detected in wild Procyonidae, Canidae and Felidae in Asia and Brazil. In order to assess the real identity of the involved agents, future works should benefit from the application of MLST (Multi Locus Sequence Typing), WGS (Whole Genome Sequencing) and NGS (Next Generation Sequencing) technologies aiming at shedding some light on the role of wild carnivores in the epidemiology of Anaplasmataceae agents.

A comprehensive review on past, present and future aspects of canine theileriosis

Canine theileriosis is a notorious tick borne piroplasmid infection of wild and domestic canines. The causative agent has not yet been accurately classified. PCR studies revealed that causative agent resembles to Theileria genus and thus provisionally named as Theileria annae. The other Theileria species reported in canines is Theileria annulata, Theileria equi and unnamed Theileria specie. This emergent canine infection is considered to be endemic in most of the European countries. However in Asia this disease has not been reported till date. The vectors responsible for transmission of this disease have not been determined. It has been suggested that DNA of Theileria annae has been detected in hard tick Ixodes hexagonus in Northwestern Spain and several other tick species. Clinically canine theileriosis is characterized by severe weakness, fever, hemoglobinuria and anemia. Recently atovaquone or buparvaquone plus azithromycin therapy showed better clinical efficacy. This comprehensive review is intended to summarize the current knowledge on prevalence and epidemiology of canine theileriosis in different countries of the world and associated tick vectors.

Ticks are more suitable than red foxes for monitoring zoonotic tick-borne pathogens in northeastern Italy

BACKGROUND

Northeastern Italy is a hotspot for several tick-borne pathogens, transmitted to animals and humans mainly by Ixodes ricinus. Here we compare the results of molecular monitoring of ticks and zoonotic TBPs over a six-year period, with the monitoring of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in an endemic area.

RESULTS

In the period 2011-2016, 2,578 ticks were collected in 38 sites of 20 municipalities of Belluno Province. Individual adults (264), pooled larvae (n = 330) and nymphs (n = 1984) were screened for tick-borne encephalitis virus, Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.), Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp., Anaplasma phagocytophilum and "Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis" by specific SYBR green real-time PCR assays and sequencing. The spleens of 97 foxes, culled in the period 2015-2017 during sport hunting or population control programs, were also screened. Overall, nine different pathogens were found in I. ricinus nymph and adult ticks: Rickettsia helvetica (3.69%); R. monacensis (0.49%); four species of the B. burgdorferi (s.l.) complex [B. afzelii (1.51%); B. burgdorferi (s.s.) (1.25%); B. garinii (0.18%); and B. valaisiana (0.18%)]; A. phagocytophilum (3.29%); "Candidatus N. mikurensis" (1.73%); and Babesia venatorum (0.04%). Larvae were collected and screened in the first year only and two pools (0.6%) were positive for R. helvetica. Tick-borne encephalitis virus was not found in ticks although human cases do occur in the area. The rate of infection in ticks varied widely according to tick developmental stage, site and year of collection. As expected, adults were the most infected, with 27.6% harboring at least one pathogen compared to 7.3% of nymphs. Pathogens with a minimum infection rate above 1% were recorded every year. None of the pathogens found in ticks were detectable in the foxes, 52 (54%) of which were instead positive for Babesia cf. microti (also referred to as Babesia microti-like, "Theileria annae", "Babesia annae" and "Babesia vulpes").

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that foxes cannot be used as sentinel animals to monitor tick-borne pathogens in the specific epidemiological context of northeastern Italy. The high prevalence of Babesia cf. microti in foxes and its absence in ticks strongly suggests that I. ricinus is not the vector of this pathogen.

A Geographical Information System Based Approach for Integrated Strategies of Tick Surveillance and Control in the Peri-Urban Natural Reserve of Monte Pellegrino (Palermo, Southern Italy)

Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) are bloodsucking arthropods involved in pathogen transmission in animals and humans. Tick activity depends on various ecological factors such as vegetation, hosts, and temperature. The aim of this study was to analyse the spatial/temporal distribution of ticks in six sites within a peri-urban area of Palermo (Natural Reserve of Monte Pellegrino) and correlate it with field data using Geographical Information System (GIS) data. A total of 3092 ticks were gathered via dragging method from June 2012 to May 2014. The species collected were: Ixodes ventalloi (46.09%), Hyalomma lusitanicum (19.99%), Rhipicephalus sanguineus (17.34%), Rhipicephalus pusillus (16.11%), Haemaphisalis sulcata (0.36%), Dermacentor marginatus (0.10%), and Rhipicephalus turanicus (0.03%). GIS analysis revealed environmental characteristics of each site, and abundance of each tick species was analysed in relation to time (monthly trend) and space (site-specific abundance). A relevant presence of I. ventalloi in site 2 and H. lusitanicum in site 5 was observed, suggesting the possible exposure of animals and humans to tick-borne pathogens. Our study shows the importance of surveillance of ticks in peri-urban areas and the useful implementation of GIS analysis in vector ecology; studies on temporal and spatial distribution of ticks correlated to GIS-based ecological analysis represent an integrated strategy for decision support in public health.

Detection of Rickettsia massiliae/Bar29 and Rickettsia conorii in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and their Rhipicephalus sanguineus complex ticks

To determine the prevalence of exposure to Rickettsia massiliae/Bar29 and Rickettsia conorii in wild red foxes, we collected blood samples and ticks from 135 foxes shot in different game reserve areas in Catalonia. To detect SFG rickettsia in Rhipicephalus sanguineus complex ticks collected from the foxes, we used real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to screen for ompA gene and a tick-borne bacteria flow chip technique based on multiplex PCR. Serum samples were positive for antibodies against spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsiae in 68 (50.3%). Molecular techniques identified R. massiliae in 107 ticks, R. aeschlimannii in 3 ticks, and R. slovaca in one tick; no R. conorii was identified in any of the ticks analyzed. We conclude that red foxes can carry ticks with SFG rickettsia.

Neglected vector-borne zoonoses in Europe: Into the wild

Wild vertebrates are involved in the transmission cycles of numerous pathogens. Additionally, they can affect the abundance of arthropod vectors. Urbanization, landscape and climate changes, and the adaptation of vectors and wildlife to human habitats represent complex and evolving scenarios, which affect the interface of vector, wildlife and human populations, frequently with a consequent increase in zoonotic risk. While considerable attention has focused on these interrelations with regard to certain major vector-borne pathogens such as Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. and tick-borne encephalitis virus, information regarding many other zoonotic pathogens is more dispersed. In this review, we discuss the possible role of wildlife in the maintenance and spread of some of these neglected zoonoses in Europe. We present case studies on the role of rodents in the cycles of Bartonella spp., of wild ungulates in the cycle of Babesia spp., and of various wildlife species in the life cycle of Leishmania infantum, Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Rickettsia spp. These examples highlight the usefulness of surveillance strategies focused on neglected zoonotic agents in wildlife as a source of valuable information for health professionals, nature managers and (local) decision-makers. These benefits could be further enhanced by increased collaboration between researchers and stakeholders across Europe and a more harmonised and coordinated approach for data collection.

Anaplasmataceae agents among wild mammals and ectoparasites in Brazil

Anaplasmataceae agents comprise obligate intracellular bacteria that can cause disease in humans and animals. Between August 2013 and March 2015, 31Nasua nasua(coati), 78Cerdocyon thous(crab-eating fox), sevenLeopardus pardalis(ocelot), 110 wild rodents, 30 marsupials, and 42 dogs were sampled in the Pantanal wetland, Brazil. In addition, ectoparasites found parasitizing the animals were collected and identified. The present work aimed to investigate the occurrence of Anaplasmataceae agents in wild mammals, domestic dogs and ectoparasites, by molecular and serological techniques. Overall, 14 (17·9%)C. thous, seven (16·6%) dogs and one (3·2%)N. nasuawere seroreactive toEhrlichia canis. Nine dogs, twoC. thous,oneN. nasua, eight wild rodents, five marsupials, eightAmblyomma sculptum,fourAmblyomma parvum,13A. sculptumnymphal pools, twoAmblyommalarvae pools and onePolygenis (Polygenis) bohlsi bohlsiflea pool were positive forEhrlichiaspp. closely related toE. canis. SevenN. nasua, two dogs, oneC. thous,oneL. pardalis, four wild rodents, three marsupials, 15A. sculptum, twoAmblyomma ovale,twoA. parvumand oneAmblyommaspp. larval pools were positive forAnaplasmaspp. closely related toA. phagocytophilumorA. bovis. The present study provided evidence that wild animals from Brazilian Pantanal are exposed to Anaplasmataceae agents.

Diversity of Flea (Siphonaptera) Parasites on Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Romania

Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes (L.)) are widespread across Europe, tolerant of synanthropic ecosystems, and susceptible to diseases potentially shared with humans and other animals. We describe flea fauna on red foxes in Romania, a large, ecologically diverse country, in part because fleas may serve as an indicator of the risk of spillover of vector-borne disease. We found 912 individual fleas of seven species on the 305 foxes assessed, for an infestation prevalence of 49.5%. Mean flea load per fox was 5.8 (range 0-44 fleas), and flea detections were most abundant in fall and early spring. Fleas included generalists (Ctenocephalides canis (Curtis), 32.6% of all fleas), Ct. felis (Bouché, 0.1%), and Pulex irritans L. (29.9%), the fox specialist Chaetopsylla globiceps (Taschenberg, 32.5%), mesocarnivore fleas Paraceras melis Walker (3.2%) and Ch. trichosa Kohaut (1.5%), and the small mammal flea Ctenophthalmus assimilis (Taschenberg, 0.1%), which is rarely or never reported from carnivores. There were significantly more female than male Ch. globiceps, Ct. canis, and Pu. irritans, and these three species were the most broadly distributed geographically. Diversity indices suggested reduced diversity in mountainous areas above 700 m. When compared to other flea studies on foxes in Europe, Romania had flea diversity near the median of reports, which was unexpected given Romania's high ecological diversity. Notably absent prey specialists, compared to other studies, include Archaeopsylla erinacei (Bouché) and Spilopsyllus cuniculi (Dale). Further studies of possible disease agents in fox fleas could help elucidate possible risks of vector-borne disease in foxes, domestic animals, and humans as well.

Occurrence and diversity of arthropod-transmitted pathogens in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in western Austria, and possible vertical (transplacental) transmission of Hepatozoon canis

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the most abundant wild canid species in Austria, and it is a well-known carrier of many pathogens of medical and veterinary concern. The main aim of the present study was to investigate the occurrence and diversity of protozoan, bacterial and filarial parasites transmitted by blood-feeding arthropods in a red fox population in western Austria. Blood (n = 351) and spleen (n = 506) samples from foxes were examined by PCR and sequencing and the following pathogens were identified: Babesia canis, Babesia cf. microti (syn. Theileria annae), Hepatozoon canis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. and Bartonella rochalimae. Blood was shown to be more suitable for detection of Babesia cf. microti, whilst the spleen tissue was better for detection of H. canis than blood. Moreover, extremely low genetic variability of H. canis and its relatively low prevalence rate observed in this study may suggest that the parasite has only recently been introduced in the sampled area. Furthermore, the data presented here demonstrates, for the first time, the possible vertical transmission of H. canis from an infected vixen to the offspring, and this could explain the very high prevalence in areas considered free of its main tick vector(s).

Molecular investigation and phylogeny of Anaplasmataceae species infecting domestic animals and ticks in Corsica, France

BACKGROUNDS

Corsica is a French island situated in the Mediterranean Sea. The island provides suitable natural conditions to study disease ecology, especially tick-borne diseases and emerging diseases in animals and ticks. The family Anaplasmataceae is a member of the order Rickettsiales; it includes the genera Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Neorickettsia and Wolbachia. Anaplasmosis and ehrlichiosis traditionally refer to diseases caused by obligate intracellular bacteria of the genera Anaplasma and Ehrlichia. The aim of this study was to identify and estimate the prevalence of Anaplasmataceae species infecting domestic animals and ticks in Corsica.

METHODS

In this study, 458 blood samples from sheep, cattle, horses, goats, dogs, and 123 ticks removed from cattle, were collected in Corsica. Quantitative real-time PCR screening and genetic characterisation of Anaplasmataceae bacteria were based on the 23S rRNA, rpoB and groEl genes.

RESULTS

Two tick species were collected in the present study: Rhipicephalus bursa (118) and Hyalomma marginatum marginatum (5). Molecular investigation showed that 32.1% (147/458) of blood samples were positive for Anaplasmataceae infection. Anaplasma ovis was identified in 42.3% (93/220) of sheep. Anaplasma marginale was amplified from 100% (12/12) of cattle and two R. bursa (2/123). Several potentially new species were also identified: Anaplasma cf. ovis, "Candidatus Anaplasma corsicanum", "Candidatus Anaplasma mediterraneum" were amplified from 17.3% (38/220) of sheep, and Anaplasma sp. marginale-like was amplified from 80% (4/5) of goats. Finally, one R. bursa tick was found to harbour the DNA of E. canis. All samples from horses and dogs were negative for Anaplasmataceae infection.

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge, this study is the first epidemiological survey on Anaplasmataceae species infecting animals and ticks in Corsica and contributes toward the identification of current Anaplasmataceae species circulating in Corsica.

The Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) as a potential host for rickettsial pathogens in southern Italy

Canine monocytic ehrlichiosis and rickettsiosis are zoonotic tick-borne diseases of canids caused by the intracellular obligate bacteria Ehrlichia canis and Rickettsia species respectively. In this study, we investigated using standard and real-time PCR and sequencing, the occurrence and molecular characterization of E. canis and Rickettsia species in the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) from the southern Italian population. Samples were screened by using molecular assays also for Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii, Clamydophyla spp., Coxiella burnetii, Leishmania spp., Cryptosporidium spp., and Giardia spp. detection, and helminths were studied by traditional methods. Out of six carcasses tested, three were positive for E. canis and co-infection with Rickettsia sp. occurred in one of those. Sequences of the 16S rRNA E. canis gene were identical to each other but differed from most of those previously found in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and wolves (Canis lupus) from southern Italy. Helminths included just cystacanths of Sphaerirostris spp. from the intestine of two Eurasian otters and the nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum from the lungs of a single Eurasian otter. None of the samples was positive for the other investigated selected pathogens. This study is the first report on the evidence of infection by rickettsial pathogens in the Eurasian otter. The present result prompts some inquiries into the pathogenic role of those bacteria for the isolated sub-populations of the endangered Eurasian otter in southern Italy.

A review of piroplasmid infections in wild carnivores worldwide: importance for domestic animal health and wildlife conservation

Piroplasmids are tick-borne protozoan parasites that infect blood cells (erythrocytes, lymphocytes or other leukocytes) or endothelial cells of numerous wild and domestic vertebrates worldwide. They cause severe disease in livestock, dogs, cats, wild mammals and, occasionally, in humans. Piroplasmid infections are prevalent in wild carnivores worldwide although there is limited information about their clinical and epidemiological importance. There are currently nine recognized species of Babesia, two of Theileria, two of Cytauxzoon and one of Rangelia infecting captive and wild carnivores, including members of Canidae, Felidae, Mustelidae, Procyonidae, Ursidae, Viverridae, Hyaenidae and Herpestidae in the Americas, Eurasia and Africa. However, the number of piroplasmid species is likely higher than currently accepted due to the reported existence of DNA sequences that may correspond to new species and the lack of studies on many host species and biogeographical areas. Indeed, many species have been recognized in the last few years with the advancement of molecular analyses. Disease and mortality have been documented in some wild carnivores, whereas other species appear to act as natural, subclinical reservoirs. Various factors (e.g. unnatural hosts, stress due to captivity, habitat degradation, climate fluctuation or immunosuppression) have been associated with disease susceptibility to piroplasmid infections in some species in captivity. We aimed to review the current knowledge on the epidemiology of piroplasmid infections in wild carnivores and associated tick vectors. Emphasis is given to the role of wild carnivores as reservoirs of clinical piroplasmosis for domestic dogs and cats, and to the importance of piroplasmids as disease agents for endangered carnivores.

Anaplasma marginale and Theileria annulata in questing ticks from Portugal

Ticks are ubiquitous arthropods and vectors of several pathogenic agents in animals and humans. Monitoring questing ticks is of great importance to ascertain the occurrence of pathogens and the potential vector species, offering an insight into the risk of disease transmission in a given area. In this study 428 host-seeking ticks, belonging to nine species of Ixodidae and collected from 17 of the 23 Portuguese mainland subregions, were screened for several tick-borne agents with veterinary relevance: Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma ovis, Anaplasma centrale, Babesia spp., Coxiella burnetii and Theileria spp. Prevalence was assessed by PCR and amplified amplicons sequenced for validation of results. Twenty ticks, in a total of 428, were found positive: one Ixodes ventalloi for Theileria annulata and four Dermacentor marginatus, one Haemaphysalis punctata, five Ixodes ricinus, five I. ventalloi, and four Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato for A. marginale. According to the reviewed literature, this is the first report of A. marginale and T. annulata detection in I. ventalloi. Furthermore, the amplification of A. marginale DNA in several tick species suggests a broad range for this agent in Portugal that might include other uncommon species as R. sanguineus s.l. This work provides new data towards a better understanding of tick-pathogen associations and also contributes to the surveillance of tick-borne agents in geographic areas with limited information.

Vector-borne pathogens in dogs and red foxes from the federal state of Brandenburg, Germany

Dirofilaria repens is endemic in eastern and southern European regions but was recently found in Germany in dogs, mosquitoes and one human patient. Since some of the positive dog and mosquito samples were collected in Brandenburg, it was aimed to systematically assess the prevalence of D. repens and other canine vector-borne pathogens in Brandenburg. Dog owners also received a questionnaire and were asked to provide more information about the dogs including travel history. In total, 1023 dog blood samples as well as 195 fox spleen and 179 fox blood samples were collected. DNA was analysed by PCR for the presence of filariae, piroplasms, anaplasmataceae and Rickettsia spp. Filariae were detected in six dogs (0.6%), two were positive for DNA from D. repens, two from Dirofilaria immitis and two from Acanthocheilonema reconditum. One of the D. repens positive dogs originated from an animal shelter in Brandenburg, but the origin of the other one remained unknown. Interestingly, both D. repens ITS-1 sequences showed 100% identity to a D. repens sample obtained from a Japanese woman that travelled in Europe and were 97% identical to a newly proposed species Dirofilaria sp. 'hongkongensis' described from Hong Kong. However, identity to other D. repens sequences from Thailand was considerably lower (81%). Identity of 12S rRNA and cytochrome oxidase I to D. repens samples from southern Europe was 99%. Due to the low number of Dirofilaria spp. positive dogs and since the origin of these was unknown, endemic occurrence of Dirofilaria in Brandenburg could not be confirmed. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was found in 15 dogs (1.5%), Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis in three dogs (0.3%) and E. canis in one dog (0.1%), which was co-infected with D. repens. Rickettsia spp. were detected in 8 dogs (0.8%), seven were Rickettsia raoultii and one was Rickettsia felis. To the author's knowledge, R. raoultii DNA was detected for the first time in dogs in Germany in this study and Candidatus N. mikurensis for the second time. In spleen samples of red foxes with 47.5% a high prevalence of piroplasms was found. Sequencing of 11 samples identified 10 as Theileria annae. Despite the high prevalence of this pathogen in its reservoir host, it was absent in dog samples. In one dog (0.1%), Babesia canis was detected but there was no further information about the dog's origin. Evaluation of the questionnaire identified a high proportion of dogs (74.2%, n=233) which was not protected by ectoparasiticides. Moreover, 21.2% (n=236) of the dogs originated from inland or abroad shelters, and therefore might potentially come from areas endemic for dirofilariosis or babesiosis.

Rickettsia felis, an Emerging Flea-Borne Rickettsiosis

Rickettsia felis is an emerging insect-borne rickettsial pathogen and the causative agent of flea-borne spotted fever. First described as a human pathogen from the USA in 1991, R. felis is now identified throughout the world and considered a common cause of fever in Africa. The cosmopolitan distribution of this pathogen is credited to the equally widespread occurrence of cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis), the primary vector and reservoir of R. felis. Although R. felis is a relatively new member of the pathogenic Rickettsia, limited knowledge of basic R. felis biology continues to hinder research progression of this unique bacterium. This is a comprehensive review examining what is known and unknown relative to R. felis transmission biology, epidemiology of the disease, and genetics, with an insight into areas of needed investigation.

Sarcoptic mange and other ectoparasitic infections in a red fox (Vulpes vulpes) population from central Italy

Fifty red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from the district of Pisa (central Italy) were examined for ectoparasites. Sarcoptic mange was diagnosed on the presence of clearly visible skin lesions with confirmatory demonstration of Sarcoptes scabiei at parasitological and histopathological analysis. Ticks and fleas were collected directly from the carcases during post mortem examination, fixed and identified by morphological examination. For the detection of ear Malassezia and mite infections, cytological and parasitological examinations of ear wax samples were performed. All data were statistically analysed using a χ2 test with the Yates correction. An overall prevalence of 84% for ectoparasitic infections was found in examined subjects. In regard to isolated ectoparasites, 38%, 8%, 82%, 6% and 8% of foxes resulted positive for S. scabiei, Otodectes cynotis, Malassezia spp., fleas (Archaeopsylla erinacei, Pulex irritans, Ctenocephalides canis) and ticks (Ixodes ricinus and Rhipicephalus sanguineus), respectively. Malassezia ear infection was significantly more prevalent in animals older than 1 year (P < 0.01). Prevalence (38%), severity of lesions and poor body conditions observed in most Sarcoptes-infected animals indicate that sarcoptic mange should be considered the most important ectoparasitic infection of red foxes in the examined area.

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An overall prevalence of 84% for ectoparasitic infections was found in 50 Italian red foxes.

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Red foxes were infected by ticks, mites, fleas and Malassezia yeasts.

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Auricular infection with Malassezia was significantly more prevalent in animals older than 1 year.

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Malassezia was almost constantly associated with the presence of Sarcoptes mites and skin lesions.

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Based on prevalence, lesions and body condition, sarcoptic mange was the most relevant disease.

Endoparasitic fauna of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and golden jackals (Canis aureus) in Serbia

Wild canides have a high epizootiological - epidemiological significance, considering that they are hosts for some parasites which spread vector born diseases. Increased frequency of certain interactions between domestic and wild canides increases the risk of occurrence, spreading and maintaining the infection of parasitic etiology in domestic canides. The research was conducted in 232 wild canides (172 red foxes and 60 golden jackals). The examined material was sampled from foxes and jackals, which were hunted down between 2010 and 2014, from 8 epizootiological areas of Serbia (North-Bačka, West-Bačka, Southern-Banat, Moravički, Zlatiborski, Raški, Rasinski and Zaječarski district). On completing the parasitological dissection and the coprological diagnostics, in wild canides protozoa from the genus Isospora were identified, 3 species of trematoda (Alaria alata, Pseudamphistomum truncatum and Metagonimus yokogawai), cestods from the genus Taenia and 5 species of nematodes (Toxocara canis, Ancylostomatidae, Trichuris vulpis and Capillaria aerophila). The finding of M. yokogawai in golden jackals were, to the best of our knowledge, one of the first diagnosed cases of metagonimosis in golden jackals in Serbia. The continued monitoring of the parasitic fauna of wild canides is needed to establish the widespread of the zoonoses in different regions of Serbia, because they present the reservoirs and/or sources of these infections.

Molecular detection of vector-borne pathogens in wild and domestic carnivores and their ticks at the human-wildlife interface

Urbanization of natural areas is considered one of the causes of the current apparent emergence of infectious diseases. Carnivores are among the species that adapt well to urban and periurban environments, facilitating cross-species disease transmission with domestic dogs and cats, and potentially with their owners. The prevalence of vector-borne pathogens (VBP) of zoonotic and veterinary interest was studied in sympatric wild and domestic carnivores into Barcelona Metropolitan Area (NE Spain). Blood or spleen samples from 130 animals, including 34 common genets (Genetta genetta), 12 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 10 stone martens (Martes foina), three Eurasian badgers (Meles meles), 34 free-roaming domestic cats and 37 dogs with outdoor access, were collected either in protected or adjacent residential areas. A total of 309 ticks (chiefly Rhipicephalus turanicus) were collected on these animals. The samples were analyzed with a battery of PCR assays targeting the DNA of Rickettsia spp., Anaplasmataceae, Coxiella burnetii, Bartonella spp., and Piroplasmida, and the amplicons were sequenced. The fox showed the highest prevalence (58%) and diversity of VBP (four pathogens), whereas none of the dogs were infected. Bartonella spp. (including B. clarridgeiae, B. henselae, and B. rochalimae) was the most prevalent pathogen. Infection of wild carnivores with Ehrlichia canis, C. burnetii, Theileria annae and Babesia vogeli was also confirmed, with some cases of coinfection observed. The presence of DNA of T. annae and B. vogeli was also confirmed in tick pools from four species of wild carnivores, supporting their role in piroplasmid life-cycle. By the sequencing of several target genes, DNA of Rickettsia massiliae was confirmed in 17 pools of Rh. turanicus, Rh. sanguineous, and Rh. pusillus from five different species, and Rickettsia conorii in one pool of Rh. sanguineous from a dog. None of the hosts from which these ticks were collected was infected by Rickettsia. Although carnivores may not be reservoir hosts for zoonotic Rickettsia, they can have an important role as mechanical dispersers of infected ticks.

Anaplasmataceae in wild ungulates and carnivores in northern Spain

Wild vertebrates are essential hosts for tick-borne diseases but data on the prevalence and diversity of Anaplasma spp. in wildlife are scarce. In this study, we used real-time PCR to investigate the distribution of Anaplasma species in spleen samples collected from 625 wild animals (137 cervids, 227 wild boar, and 261 carnivores) in two regions in northern Spain. A first generic real-time PCR assay was used to screen for the presence of Anaplasma spp. followed by a second species-specific multiplex real-time PCR or partial sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene for species identification. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was highly prevalent in cervids (64.2%), but it was absent from wild boar and carnivores. Interestingly, Anaplasma marginale and Anaplasma ovis were not detected in cervids, but Anaplasma centrale was identified in 1 roe deer and 1 red deer, A. bovis in 4 roe deer, and a novel Ehrlichia sp. in one badger. These findings were highly associated with the tick burden identified in the different hosts. Thus, Ixodes ricinus, the recognized vector of A. phagocytophilum in Europe, was the main tick species parasitizing cervids (93.5%, 1674/1791), whereas Dermacentor reticulatus was the most abundant in wild boar (76.1%, 35/46) and Ixodes hexagonus in carnivores (58.4%, 265/454). More investigations are needed to assess the impact of the different Anaplasma species in wildlife and the risk of transmission to domestic animals.

Antibodies to Rickettsia spp. and Borrelia burgdorferi in Spanish Wild Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes)

We examined 314 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from the province of Soria, Spain, for Rickettsia typhi, Rickettsia slovaca, and Borrelia burgdorferi infection. Immunofluorescence assays showed 1.9% had antibodies to R. typhi, 6.7% had antibodies to R. slovaca, and 8.3% had antibodies to B. burgdorferi. Serostatus was not correlated with sex or age. Because red foxes can be infected by Rickettsiae and B. burgdorferi, presence of red foxes may be and indicator for the presence of these pathogens.

Detection of Tick-Borne Pathogens in the Korean Water Deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus) from Jeonbuk Province, Korea

The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in the Korean water deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus). Pathogens were identified using PCR which included Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Rickettsia, and Theileria. Rickettsia was not detected, whereas Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, and Theileria infections were detected in 4, 2, and 8 animals, respectively. The most prevalent pathogen was Theileria. Of the 8 Theileria-positive animals, 2 were mixed-infected with 3 pathogens (Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, and Theileria) and another 2 animals showed mixed-infection with 2 pathogens (Anaplasma and Theileria). Sequencing analysis was used to verify the PCR results. The pathogens found in this study were identified as Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia canis, and Theileria sp. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report identifying these 3 pathogens in the Korean water deer. Our results suggest that the Korean water deer may serve as a major reservoir for these tick-borne pathogens, leading to spread of tick-borne diseases to domestic animals, livestock, and humans. Further studies are needed to investigate their roles in this respect.

The role of wild canids and felids in spreading parasites to dogs and cats in Europe. Part II: Helminths and arthropods

Over the last few decades, ecological factors, combined with everchanging landscapes mainly linked to human activities (e.g. encroachment and tourism) have contributed to modifications in the transmission of parasitic diseases from domestic to wildlife carnivores and vice versa. In the first of this two-part review article, we have provided an account of diseases caused by protozoan parasites characterised by a two-way transmission route between domestic and wild carnivore species. In this second and final part, we focus our attention on parasitic diseases caused by helminth and arthropod parasites shared between domestic and wild canids and felids in Europe. While a complete understanding of the biology, ecology and epidemiology of these parasites is particularly challenging to achieve, especially given the complexity of the environments in which these diseases perpetuate, advancements in current knowledge of transmission routes is crucial to provide policy-makers with clear indications on strategies to reduce the impact of these diseases on changing ecosystems.

The role of wild canids and felids in spreading parasites to dogs and cats in Europe. Part I: Protozoa and tick-borne agents

Over the last few decades, the world has witnessed radical changes in climate, landscape, and ecosystems. These events, together with other factors such as increasing illegal wildlife trade and changing human behaviour towards wildlife, are resulting into thinning boundaries between wild canids and felids and their domestic counterparts. As a consequence, the epidemiology of diseases caused by a number of infectious agents is undergoing profound readjustements, as pathogens adapt to new hosts and environments. Therefore, there is a risk for diseases of wildlife to spread to domestic carnivores and vice versa, and for zoonotic agents to emerge or re-emerge in human populations. Hence, the identification of the hazards arising from the co-habitation of these species is critical in order to plan and develop adequate control strategies against these pathogens. In the first of this two-part article, we review the role that wild canids and felids may play in the transmission of protozoa and arthropod-borne agents to dogs and cats in Europe, and provide an account of how current and future progress in our understanding of the ecology and epidemiology of parasites, as well as of host-parasite interactions, can assist efforts aimed at controlling parasite transmission.

Wildlife reservoirs for vector-borne canine, feline and zoonotic infections in Austria

Austria's mammalian wildlife comprises a large variety of species, acting and interacting in different ways as reservoir and intermediate and definitive hosts for different pathogens that can be transmitted to pets and/or humans. Foxes and other wild canids are responsible for maintaining zoonotic agents, e.g. Echinococcus multilocularis, as well as pet-relevant pathogens, e.g. Hepatozoon canis. Together with the canids, and less commonly felids, rodents play a major role as intermediate and paratenic hosts. They carry viruses such as tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), bacteria including Borrelia spp., protozoa such as Toxoplasma gondii, and helminths such as Toxocara canis. The role of wild ungulates, especially ruminants, as reservoirs for zoonotic disease on the other hand seems to be negligible, although the deer filaroid Onchocerca jakutensis has been described to infect humans. Deer may also harbour certain Anaplasma phagocytophilum strains with so far unclear potential to infect humans. The major role of deer as reservoirs is for ticks, mainly adults, thus maintaining the life cycle of these vectors and their distribution. Wild boar seem to be an exception among the ungulates as, in their interaction with the fox, they can introduce food-borne zoonotic agents such as Trichinella britovi and Alaria alata into the human food chain.

First report of Anaplasma platys infection in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and molecular detection of Ehrlichia canis and Leishmania infantum in foxes from Portugal

Background

The bacteria Anaplasma platys and Ehrlichia canis and the protozoan Leishmania infantum are vector-borne agents that cause canine vector-borne diseases, some of which are zoonotic. The present survey investigated the prevalence of Anaplasma, Ehrlichia and Leishmania in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Portugal by molecular analysis, in order to evaluate the epidemiological role of these canids as reservoirs of infection.

Methods

Blood and/or bone marrow samples were collected from 78 red foxes obtained in eight districts of northern, central and southern Portugal. Real-time polymerase chain reactions (PCR) amplified a 123 bp fragment of the 16S rRNA gene of Anaplasma spp. and Ehrlichia spp. and a 265 bp fragment of the L. infantum internal transcribed spacer one (ITS1) region of the rRNA operon evaluated by PCR-high resolution melt analysis (PCR-HRM), with sequencing of the DNA products. A phylogenetic analysis was carried out to compare these to other sequences from Anaplasma spp. and Ehrlichia spp. deposited in GenBank®.

Results

A. platys was detected in 10 (14.5%) and E. canis in two (2.9%) out of 69 foxes; and L. infantum was detected in one (1.3%) of the 78 foxes. The prevalence of A. platys was significantly different from the prevalence of E. canis (p=0.016) and from that of L. infantum (p=0.002). No co-infections were found in any one of the 78 foxes. No statistically significant differences were found between the type of sample (blood and bone marrow), geographic regions (north/centre and south), age (<2 years and ≥2 years) and gender for any one of the agents.

Conclusions

This is the first known report of A. platys in red foxes worldwide, as well as the first molecular evidence of E. canis in foxes from Portugal. The moderate prevalence of A. platys suggests that red foxes may play a role in the epidemiology of infection with this bacterium and serve as a reservoir for domestic dogs.

A molecular survey of vector-borne pathogens in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Bosnia and Herzegovina

BACKGROUND

Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) have recently been recognized as potential reservoirs of several vector-borne pathogens and a source of infection for domestic dogs and humans, mostly due to their close vicinity to urban areas and frequent exposure to different arthropod vectors. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence and distribution of Babesia spp., Hepatozoon canis, Anaplasma spp., Bartonella spp., 'Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis', Ehrlichia canis, Rickettsia spp. and blood filaroid nematodes in free-ranging red foxes from Bosnia and Herzegovina.

METHODS

Spleen samples from a total of 119 red foxes, shot during the hunting season between October 2013 and April 2014 throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina, were examined for the presence of blood vector-borne pathogens by conventional PCRs and sequencing.

RESULTS

In the present study, three species of apicomplexan parasites were molecularly identified in 73 red foxes from the entire sample area, with an overall prevalence of 60.8%. The DNA of B. canis, B. cf. microti and H. canis was found in 1 (0.8%), 38 (31.9%) and 46 (38.6%) spleen samples, respectively. In 11 samples (9.2%) co-infections with B. cf. microti and H. canis were detected and one fox harboured all three parasites (0.8%). There were no statistically significant differences between geographical region, sex or age of the host in the infection prevalence of B. cf. microti, although females (52.9%; 18/34) were significantly more infected with H. canis than males (32.9%; 28/85). The presence of vector-borne bacteria and filaroid nematodes was not detected in our study.

CONCLUSION

This is the first report of B. canis, B. cf. microti and H. canis parasites in foxes from Bosnia and Herzegovina and the data presented here provide a first insight into the distribution of these pathogens among the red fox population. Moreover, the relatively high prevalence of B. cf. microti and H. canis reinforces the assumption that this wild canid species might be a possible reservoir and source of infection for domestic dogs.

Guideline for veterinary practitioners on canine ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis in Europe

Canine ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis are important tick-borne diseases with a worldwide distribution. Information has been continuously collected on these infections in Europe, and publications have increased in recent years. Prevalence rates are high for Ehrlichia and Anaplasma spp. infections in dogs from different European countries. The goal of this article was to provide a practical guideline for veterinary practitioners on the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis in dogs from Europe. This guideline is intended to answer the most common questions on these diseases from a practical point of view.

A molecular survey of Rickettsia felis in fleas from cats and dogs in Sicily (Southern Italy)

Rickettsia felis, the agent of flea-borne spotted fever, has a cosmopolitan distribution. Its pathogenic role in humans has been demonstrated through molecular and serologic tests in several cases. The cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis) is considered the main reservoir and the biological vector. The aim of this study was to assess the presence and occurrence of R. felis in fleas collected from dogs and cats in various sites of Palermo (Sicily). Between August and October 2012, 134 fleas were collected from 42 animals: 37 fleas from 13 dogs and 97 fleas from 29 cats. Two species of fleas were identified: 132 Ctenocephalides felis (98.51%) collected on all animals and only two C. canis (1.49%) on one dog. Out of 132 C. felis, 34 (25.76%), 12 from dogs (32.43%) and 22 (22.68%) from cats, were positive for R. felis DNA by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR), confirmed by sequencing. The only two C. canis fleas were negative. About half of examined animals (47.62%, 20/42) were infested with at least one infected flea; in particular 46.15% of dogs (6/13) and 48.28% of cats (14/29). It seems that in the Palermo district there is a peri-domestic cycle, with a relatively high prevalence of R. felis infection in the cat flea, an insect widely diffused in home environments and which can frequently bite humans. The results also suggest that R. felis should be considered in the human differential diagnosis of any spotted-like fever or febrile illness without a clear source of infection in Sicily, especially if the patient is known to have been exposed to flea bites.