After-effects of nerve impulses on signalling in the central nervous system of the leech

Cell anatomy and network input explain differences within but not between leech touch cells at two different locations

Mechanosensory cells in the leech share several common features with mechanoreceptors in the human glabrous skin. Previous studies showed that the six T (touch) cells in each body segment of the leech are highly variable in their responses to somatic current injection and change their excitability over time. Here, we investigate three potential reasons for this variability in excitability by comparing the responses of T cells at two soma locations (T2 and T3): (1) Differential effects of time-dependent changes in excitability, (2) divergent synaptic input from the network, and (3) different anatomical structures. These hypotheses were explored with a combination of electrophysiological double recordings, 3D reconstruction of neurobiotin-filled cells, and compartmental model simulations. Current injection triggered significantly more spikes with shorter latency and larger amplitudes in cells at soma location T2 than at T3. During longer recordings, cells at both locations increased their excitability over time in the same way. T2 and T3 cells received the same amount of synaptic input from the unstimulated network, and the polysynaptic connections between both T cells were mutually symmetric. However, we found a striking anatomical difference: While in our data set all T2 cells innervated two roots connecting the ganglion with the skin, 50% of the T3 cells had only one root process. The sub-sample of T3 cells with one root process was significantly less excitable than the T3 cells with two root processes and the T2 cells. To test if the additional root process causes higher excitability, we simulated the responses of 3D reconstructed cells of both anatomies with detailed multi-compartment models. The anatomical subtypes do not differ in excitability when identical biophysical parameters and a homogeneous channel distribution are assumed. Hence, all three hypotheses may contribute to the highly variable T cell responses, but none of them is the only factor accounting for the observed systematic difference in excitability between cells at T2 vs. T3 soma location. Therefore, future patch clamp and modeling studies are needed to analyze how biophysical properties and spatial distribution of ion channels on the cell surface contribute to the variability and systematic differences of electrophysiological phenotypes.

Initial Variability and Time-Dependent Changes of Neuronal Response Features Are Cell-Type-Specific

Different cell types are commonly defined by their distinct response features. But several studies proved substantial variability between cells of the same type, suggesting rather the appraisal of response feature distributions than a limitation to "typical" responses. Moreover, there is growing evidence that time-dependent changes of response features contribute to robust and functional network output in many neuronal systems. The individually characterized Touch (T), Pressure (P), and Retzius (Rz) cells in the medicinal leech allow for a rigid analysis of response features, elucidating differences between and variability within cell types, as well as their changes over time. The initial responses of T and P cells to somatic current injection cover a wide range of spike counts, and their first spike is generated with a high temporal precision after a short latency. In contrast, all Rz cells elicit very similar low spike counts with variable, long latencies. During prolonged electrical stimulation the resting membrane potential of all three cell types hyperpolarizes. At the same time, Rz cells reduce their spiking activity as expected for a departure from the spike threshold. In contrast, both mechanoreceptor types increase their spike counts during repeated stimulation, consistent with previous findings in T cells. A control experiment reveals that neither a massive current stimulation nor the hyperpolarization of the membrane potential is necessary for the mechanoreceptors' increase in excitability over time. These findings challenge the previously proposed involvement of slow K+-channels in the time-dependent activity changes. We also find no indication for a run-down of HCN channels over time, and a rigid statistical analysis contradicts several potential experimental confounders as the basis of the observed variability. We conclude that the time-dependent change in excitability of T and P cells could indicate a cell-type-specific shift between different spiking regimes, which also could explain the high variability in the initial responses. The underlying mechanism needs to be further investigated in more naturalistic experimental situations to disentangle the effects of varying membrane properties versus network interactions. They will show if variability in individual response features serves as flexible adaptation to behavioral contexts rather than just "randomness".

Effects of calcium-activated potassium channel modulators on afterhyperpolarizing potentials in identified motor and mechanosensory neurons of the medicinal leech

Calcium-activated potassium (K_Ca) channels contribute to multiple neuronal properties including spike frequency and afterhyperpolarizing potentials (AHPs). K_Ca channels are classified as K_Ca1.1, K_Ca2, or K_Ca3.1 based on single-channel conductance and pharmacology. Ca²⁺-dependent AHPs in vertebrates are categorized as fast, medium, or slow. Fast and medium AHPs are generated by K_Ca1.1 and K_Ca2 channels, respectively. The K_Ca subtype responsible for slow AHPs is unclear. Prolonged, Ca²⁺-dependent AHPs have been described in several leech neurons. Unfortunately, apamin and other K_Ca blockers often prove ineffective in the leech. An alternative approach is to utilize K_Ca modulators, which alter channel sensitivity to Ca²⁺. Vertebrate K_Ca2 channels are targeted selectively by the positive modulator CyPPA and the negative modulator NS8593. Here we show that AHPs in identified motor and mechanosensory leech neurons are enhanced by CyPPA and suppressed by NS8593. Our results indicate that K_Ca2 channels underlie prolonged AHPs in these neurons and suggest that K_Ca2 modulators may serve as effective tools to explore the role of K_Ca channels in leech physiology.

Genetic 3'UTR variations and clinical factors significantly contribute to survival prediction and clinical response in breast cancer patients

The study describes a relationship between the 3′UTR variants, clinicopathological parameters and response to chemotherapy. We analyzed 33 germline polymorphisms in 3′UTRs of ADME genes in 305 breast cancer women treated with FAC regime. Clinical endpoints of this study were: overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS), recurrence-free survival (RFS) and overall response defined as treatment failure-free survival (TFFS). The shortened OS was connected with the presence of NR1/2 rs3732359 AA, SLC22A16 rs7756222 CC, as well as SLC22A16 rs9487402 allele G and clinical factors belonging to TNM classification: tumor size >1 cm, nodal involvement and presence of metastases. PFS was related to two polymorphisms PGR rs1824125 GG, PGR rs12224560 CC and SLC22A16 rs7756222 CC as well as preexisting metastases. The RFS was shortened due to the DPYD rs291593 CC, AKR1C3 rs3209896 AG and negative expression of PGR. The presence of ALDH5A1 rs1054899 allele A, lack of pre-chemotherapy surgery and negative status of PGR correlated with worse treatment response. The germline variants commonly present in the population are important factors determining the response to treatment. We observed the effect of the accumulation of genetic and clinical factors on poor survival prognosis and overall treatment response.

Non-synaptic Plasticity in Leech Touch Cells

The role of Na⁺/K⁺-pumps in activity-dependent synaptic plasticity has been described in both vertebrates and invertebrates. Here, we provide evidence that the Na⁺/K⁺-pump is also involved in activity-dependent non-synaptic cellular plasticity in leech sensory neurons. We show that the resting membrane potential (RMP) of T cells hyperpolarizes in response to repeated somatic current injection, while at the same time their spike count (SC) and the input resistance (IR) increase. Our Hodgkin–Huxley-type neuron model, adjusted to physiological T cell properties, suggests that repetitive action potential discharges lead to increased Na⁺/K⁺-pump activity, which then hyperpolarizes the RMP. In consequence, a slow, non-inactivating current decreases, which is presumably mediated by voltage-dependent, low-threshold potassium channels. Closing of these putative M-type channels due to hyperpolarization of the resting potential increases the IR of the cell, leading to a larger number of spikes. By this mechanism, the response behavior switches from rapidly to slowly adapting spiking. These changes in spiking behavior also effect other T cells on the same side of the ganglion, which are connected via a combination of electrical and chemical synapses. An increased SC in the presynaptic T cell results in larger postsynaptic responses (PRs) in the other T cells. However, when the number of elicited presynaptic spikes is kept constant, the PR does not change. These results suggest that T cells change their responses in an activity-dependent manner through non-synaptic rather than synaptic plasticity. These changes might act as a gain-control mechanism. Depending on the previous activity, this gain could scale the relative impacts of synaptic inputs from other mechanoreceptors, versus the spike responses to tactile skin stimulation. This multi-tasking ability, and its flexible adaptation to previous activity, might make the T cell a key player in a preparatory network, enabling the leech to perform fast behavioral reactions to skin stimulation.

Sodium pump regulation of locomotor control circuits

Sodium pumps are ubiquitously expressed membrane proteins that extrude three Na⁺ ions in exchange for two K⁺ ions, using ATP as an energy source. Recent studies have illuminated additional, dynamic roles for sodium pumps in regulating the excitability of neuronal networks in an activity-dependent fashion. We review their role in a novel form of short-term memory within rhythmic locomotor networks. The data we review derives mainly from recent studies on Xenopus tadpoles and neonatal mice. The role and underlying mechanisms of pump action broadly match previously published data from an invertebrate, the Drosophila larva. We therefore propose a highly conserved mechanism by which sodium pump activity increases following a bout of locomotion. This results in an ultraslow afterhyperpolarization (usAHP) of the membrane potential that lasts around 1 min, but which only occurs in around half the network neurons. This usAHP in turn alters network excitability so that network output is reduced in a locomotor interval-dependent manner. The pumps therefore confer on spinal locomotor networks a temporary memory trace of recent network performance.

Na(+)/K(+) pump interacts with the h-current to control bursting activity in central pattern generator neurons of leeches

The dynamics of different ionic currents shape the bursting activity of neurons and networks that control motor output. Despite being ubiquitous in all animal cells, the contribution of the Na(+)/K(+) pump current to such bursting activity has not been well studied. We used monensin, a Na(+)/H(+) antiporter, to examine the role of the pump on the bursting activity of oscillator heart interneurons in leeches. When we stimulated the pump with monensin, the period of these neurons decreased significantly, an effect that was prevented or reversed when the h-current was blocked by Cs(+). The decreased period could also occur if the pump was inhibited with strophanthidin or K(+)-free saline. Our monensin results were reproduced in model, which explains the pump's contributions to bursting activity based on Na(+) dynamics. Our results indicate that a dynamically oscillating pump current that interacts with the h-current can regulate the bursting activity of neurons and networks.

Octopamine stabilizes conduction reliability of an unmyelinated axon during hypoxic stress

Mechanisms that could mitigate the effects of hypoxia on neuronal signaling are incompletely understood. We show that axonal performance of a locust visual interneuron varied depending on oxygen availability. To induce hypoxia, tracheae supplying the thoracic nervous system were surgically lesioned and action potentials in the axon of the descending contralateral movement detector (DCMD) neuron passing through this region were monitored extracellularly. The conduction velocity and fidelity of action potentials decreased throughout a 45-min experiment in hypoxic preparations, whereas conduction reliability remained constant when the tracheae were left intact. The reduction in conduction velocity was exacerbated for action potentials firing at high instantaneous frequencies. Bath application of octopamine mitigated the loss of conduction velocity and fidelity. Action potential conduction was more vulnerable in portions of the axon passing through the mesothoracic ganglion than in the connectives between ganglia, indicating that hypoxic modulation of the extracellular environment of the neuropil has an important role to play. In intact locusts, octopamine and its antagonist, epinastine, had effects on the entry to, and recovery from, anoxic coma consistent with octopamine increasing overall neural performance during hypoxia. These effects could have functional relevance for the animal during periods of environmental or activity-induced hypoxia.

A sodium-pump-mediated afterhyperpolarization in pyramidal neurons

The sodium-potassium ATPase (i.e., the "sodium pump") plays a central role in maintaining ionic homeostasis in all cells. Although the sodium pump is intrinsically electrogenic and responsive to dynamic changes in intracellular sodium concentration, its role in regulating neuronal excitability remains unclear. Here we describe a physiological role for the sodium pump in regulating the excitability of mouse neocortical layer 5 and hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. Trains of action potentials produced long-lasting (∼20 s) afterhyperpolarizations (AHPs) that were insensitive to blockade of voltage-gated calcium channels or chelation of intracellular calcium, but were blocked by tetrodotoxin, ouabain, or the removal of extracellular potassium. Correspondingly, the AHP time course was similar to the decay of activity-induced increases in intracellular sodium, whereas intracellular calcium decayed at much faster rates. To determine whether physiological patterns of activity engage the sodium pump, we replayed in vitro a place-specific burst of 15 action potentials recorded originally in vivo in a CA1 "place cell" as the animal traversed the associated place field. In both layer 5 and CA1 pyramidal neurons, this "place cell train" generated small, long-lasting AHPs capable of reducing neuronal excitability for many seconds. Place-cell-train-induced AHPs were blocked by ouabain or removal of extracellular potassium, but not by intracellular calcium chelation. Finally, we found calcium contributions to the AHP to be temperature dependent: prominent at room temperature, but largely absent at 35°C. Our results demonstrate a previously unappreciated role for the sodium-potassium ATPase in regulating the excitability of neocortical and hippocampal pyramidal neurons.

Acetyl-l-carnitine prevents serotonin-induced behavioural sensitization and dishabituation in Hirudo medicinalis

Several studies suggest that acetyl-l-carnitine (ALC) might influence learning processes. Along this line of investigation, we have previously shown that ALC impaired sensitization and dishabituation induced by nociceptive stimulation of the dorsal skin of the leech Hirudo medicinalis, in the behavioural paradigm of the swim induction (SI). In previous works we showed that 5HT was involved in both sensitization and dishabituation of SI acting through the second messenger cAMP. In this work, we have reported that for given doses and temporal ranges ALC was able to block sensitization and to impair dishabituation mimicked by the injection of 5-HT or 8Br-cAMP, a membrane permeable analogue of cAMP. Our results show that a single treatment with 2mM ALC was the most effective concentration to block the onset of sensitization induced by 5-HT injection and its major effects occurred 11 days after ALC treatment. 2mM ALC also blocked sensitization induced by 8Br-cAMP injection, whereas, ALC did not completely abolish dishabituation induced by 5-HT or 8Br-cAMP injection at the tested concentrations and at every time point.

Real-time measurements of synaptic autoinhibition produced by serotonin release in cultured leech neurons

We studied autoinhibition produced immediately after synaptic serotonin (5-HT) release in identified leech Retzius neurons, cultured singly or forming synapses onto pressure-sensitive neurons. Cultured Retzius neurons are isopotential, thus allowing accurate recordings of synaptic events using intracellular microelectrodes. The effects of autoinhibition on distant neuropilar presynaptic endings were predicted from model simulations. Following action potentials (APs), cultured neurons produced a slow hyperpolarization with a rise time of 85.4 +/- 5.2 ms and a half-decay time of 252 +/- 17.4 ms. These inhibitory postpotentials were reproduced by the iontophoretic application of 5-HT and became depolarizing after inverting the transmembranal chloride gradient by using microelectrodes filled with potassium chloride. The inhibitory postpotentials were reversibly abolished in the absence of extracellular calcium and absent in reserpine-treated neurons, suggesting an autoinhibition due to 5-HT acting on autoreceptors coupled to chloride channels. The autoinhibitory responses increased the membrane conductance and decreased subsequent excitability. Increasing 5-HT release by stimulating with trains of ten pulses at 10 or 30 Hz produced 23 +/- 6 and 47 +/- 2% of AP failures, respectively. These failures were reversibly abolished by the serotonergic antagonist methysergide (140 muM). Moreover, reserpine-treated neurons had only 5 +/- 4% of failures during trains at 10 Hz. This percentage was increased to 35 +/- 4% by iontophoretic application of 5-HT. Increases in AP failures correlated with smaller postsynaptic currents. Model simulations predicted that the autoinhibitory chloride conductance reduces the amplitude of APs arriving at neuropilar presynaptic endings. Altogether, our results suggest that 5-HT autoinhibits its subsequent release by decreasing the excitability of presynaptic endings within the same neuron.

Sodium-dependent potassium channels in leech P neurons

In leech P neurons the inhibition of the Na(+)-K(+) pump by ouabain or omission of bath K(+) leaves the membrane potential unaffected for a prolonged period or even induces a marked membrane hyperpolarization, although the concentration gradients for K(+) and Na(+) are attenuated substantially. As shown previously, this stabilization of the membrane potential is caused by an increase in the K(+) conductance of the plasma membrane, which compensates for the reduction of the K(+) gradient. The data presented here strongly suggest that the increased K(+) conductance is due to Na(+)-activated K(+) (K(Na)) channels. Specifically, an increase in the cytosolic Na(+) concentration ([Na(+)](i)) was paralleled by a membrane hyperpolarization, a decrease in the input resistance (R(in)) of the cells, and by the occurrence of an outwardly directed membrane current. The relationship between R(in) and [Na(+)](i) followed a simple model in which the R(in) decrease was attributed to K(+) channels that are activated by the binding of three Na(+) ions, with half-maximal activation at [Na(+)](i) between 45 and 70 mM. At maximum channel activation, R(in) was reduced by more than 90%, suggesting a significant contribution of the K(Na) channels to the physiological functioning of the cells, although evidence for such a contribution is still lacking. Injection experiments showed that the K(Na) channels in leech P neurons are also activated by Li(+).

Sodium pumps adapt spike bursting to stimulus statistics

Pump activity is a homeostatic mechanism that maintains ionic gradients. Here we examined whether the slow reduction in excitability induced by sodium-pump activity that has been seen in many neuronal types is also involved in neuronal coding. We took intracellular recordings from a spike-bursting sensory neuron in the leech Hirudo medicinalis in response to naturalistic tactile stimuli with different statistical distributions. We show that regulation of excitability by sodium pumps is necessary for the neuron to make different responses depending on the statistical context of the stimuli. In particular, sodium-pump activity allowed spike-burst sizes and rates to code not for stimulus values per se, but for their ratio with the standard deviation of the stimulus distribution. Modeling further showed that sodium pumps can be a general mechanism of adaptation to statistics on the time scale of 1 min. These results implicate the ubiquitous pump activity in the adaptation of neural codes to statistics.

Postactivation inhibition of spontaneously active neurosecretory neurons in the medicinal leech

Spontaneously active neurosecretory neurons in vertebrate and invertebrate nervous systems share similarities in firing frequencies, spike shapes, inhibition by the transmitters they themselves release and postactivation inhibition, an intensity-dependent period of suppressed spontaneous generation of action potentials following phases of high-frequency activity. High-frequency activation of spontaneously active serotonin-containing Retzius cells in isolated ganglia of the leech Hirudo medicinalis induced prolonged membrane hyperpolarisations causing periods of postactivation inhibition of up to 33 s. The duration of the inhibitory periods was directly related to both the number and rate of spikes during activation and was inversely proportional to a cell's spontaneous firing frequency. The periods of postactivation inhibition remained unaffected by both serotonin depletion through repeated injections of 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine and suppressing the afterhyperpolarisation following each action potential with tetraethylammonium (TEA), iberiotoxin or charybdotoxin, suggesting that neither autoinhibition by synaptic release of serotonin nor calcium-activated potassium channels contribute to the underlying mechanism. In contrast, the postactivation inhibitory period was significantly affected both by differential electrical stimulation of the same Retzius cells via microelectrodes filled with molar concentrations of either Na(+)-acetate or K(+)-acetate, and by partial inhibition of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase with ouabain. Thus, postactivation inhibition in Retzius cells results from prolonged hyperpolarising activity of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase stimulated by the accumulation of cytosolic Na(+ )during phases of high-frequency spike activity.

Activity-dependent suppression of spontaneous spike generation in the Retzius neurons of the leech Hirudo medicinalis L

We report on factors affecting the spontaneous firing pattern of the identified serotonin-containing Retzius neurons of the medicinal leech. Increased firing activity induced by intracellular current injection is followed by a 'post-stimulus-depression' (PSD) without spiking for up to 23 s. PSD duration depends both on the duration and the amplitude of the injected current and correlates inversely with the spontaneous spiking activity. In contrast to serotonin-containing neurons in mammals, serotonin release from the Retzius cells presumably does not mediate the observed spike suppression in a self-inhibitory manner since robust PSD persists after synaptic isolation. Moreover, single additional spikes elicited at specific delays after spontaneously occurring action potentials are sufficient to significantly alter the firing pattern. Since sub-threshold current injections do not affect the ongoing spiking pattern and PSD persists in synaptically isolated preparations our data suggest that PSD reflects an endogenous and 'spike-dependent' mechanism controlling the spiking activity of Retzius cells in a use-dependent way.

Myomodulin increases Ih and inhibits the NA/K pump to modulate bursting in leech heart interneurons

In the medicinal leech, a rhythmically active 14-interneuron network composes the central pattern generator for heartbeat. In two segmental ganglia, bilateral pairs of reciprocally inhibitory heart interneurons (oscillator interneurons) produce a rhythm of alternating bursts of action potentials that paces activity in the pattern-generating network. The neuropeptide myomodulin decreases the period of this bursting and increases the intraburst spike frequency when applied to isolated ganglia containing these oscillator interneurons. Myomodulin also decreases period, increases spike frequency, and increases the robustness of endogenous bursting in synaptically isolated (with bicuculline) oscillator interneurons. In voltage-clamp experiments using hyperpolarizing ramps, we identify an increase in membrane conductance elicited by myomodulin with the properties of a hyperpolarization-activated current. Voltage steps confirm that myomodulin indeed increases the maximum conductance of the hyperpolarization-activated current I(h). In similar experiments using Cs(+) to block I(h), we demonstrate that myomodulin also causes a steady offset in the ramp current that is not associated with an increase in conductance. This current offset is blocked by ouabain, indicating that myomodulin inhibits the Na/K pump. In current-clamp experiments, when I(h) is blocked with Cs(+), myomodulin decreases period and increases spike frequency of alternating bursting in synaptically connected oscillator interneurons, suggesting that inhibiting the Na/K pump modulates these burst characteristics. These observations indicate that myomodulin decreases period and increases spike frequency of endogenous bursting in synaptically isolated oscillator heart interneurons and alternating bursting of reciprocally inhibitory pairs of interneurons, at least in part, by increasing I(h) and by decreasing the Na/K pump.

Stimulation of sodium pump restores membrane potential to neurons excited by glutamate in zebrafish distal retina

Glutamate either depolarizes or hyperpolarizes retinal neurons. Those are the initial and primary effects. Using a voltage probe (oxonol, DiBaC4 (5)) to study dissociated zebrafish retinal neurons, we find a secondary, longer-term effect: a post-excitatory restoration of membrane potential, termed after-hyperpolarization (AHP). AHP occurs only in neurons that are depolarized by glutamate and typically peaks about 5 min after glutamate application. AHP is seen in dissociated horizontal cells (HCs) and hyperpolarizing, or OFF type, bipolar cells (HBCs). These cells commonly respond with only an AHP component. AHP never occurs in depolarizing, or ON type, bipolar cells (DBCs), which are cell types hyperpolarized by glutamate. AHP is blocked by 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX). It is evoked by kainate, AMPA and the AMPA-selective agonist (S)-5-fluorowillardiine, but not by NMDA, D-aspartate, the kainate-selective agonist SYM 2081 or by DL-2-amino-4-phosphonobutyric acid (DL-AP4). Cells with exclusively AHP responses are tonically depolarized. Resting potentials can be restored by nifedipine, suggesting a tonic, depolarizing action of L-type Ca2+ channels. However AHP is not blocked by nifedipine and is insensitive to [Cl-]o. AHP is blocked by Li+o substitution for Na+o and by ouabain. A mechanism is proposed in which Na+ entering through ionotropic AMPA channels stimulates Na+,K+-ATPase, which, by electrogenic action, restores membrane potential, generating the AHP response. Patterns of ATPase immunoreactivity support localization in the outer plexiform layer (OPL) as cone pedicles, HCs and BCs were positively labelled. Labelling was weaker in the inner plexiform layer (IPL) than in nuclear layers, though two IPL bands of immunoreactive BC terminals could be discerned, one in sublamina a and the other in sublamina b. Persistent stimulation of distal retina by photoreceptor glutamate may induce increased expression and activity of Na+,K+-ATPase, with a consequent impact on distal glutamate responses.

Activity-dependent increase of the AHP amplitude in T sensory neurons of the leech

We identified a new form of activity-dependent modulation of the afterhyperpolarization (AHP) in tactile (T) sensory neurons of the leech Hirudo medicinalis. Repetitive intracellular stimulation with 30 trains of depolarizing impulses at 15-s inter-stimulus interval (ISI) led to an increase of the AHP amplitude (~60% of the control). The enhancement of AHP lasted for >/=15 min. The AHP increase was also elicited when a T neuron was activated by repetitive stimulation of its receptive field. The ISI was a critical parameter for the induction and maintenance of AHP enhancement. ISI duration had to fit within a time window with the upper limit of 20 s to make the training effective to induce an enhancement of the AHP amplitude. After recovery from potentiation, AHP amplitude could be enhanced once again by delivering another training session. The increase of AHP amplitude persisted in high Mg(2+) saline, suggesting an intrinsic cellular mechanism for its induction. Previous investigations reported that AHP of leech T neurons was mainly due to the activity of the Na(+)/K(+) ATPase and to a Ca(2+)-dependent K(+) current (I(K/Ca)). In addition, it has been demonstrated that serotonin (5HT) reduces AHP amplitude through the inhibition of the Na(+)/K(+) ATPase. By blocking the I(K/Ca) with pharmacological agents, such as cadmium and apamin, we still observed an increase of the AHP amplitude after repetitive stimulation, whereas 5HT application completely inhibited the AHP increment. These data indicate that the Na(+)/K(+) ATPase is involved in the induction and maintenance of the AHP increase after repetitive stimulation. Moreover, the AHP increase was affected by the level of serotonin in the CNS. Finally, the increase of the AHP amplitude produced a lasting depression of the synaptic connection between two T neurons, suggesting that this activity-dependent phenomenon might be involved in short-term plasticity associated with learning processes.

Caulerpenyne, a toxin from the seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia, depresses afterhyperpolarization in invertebrate neurons

The massive invasion of the Mediterranean Sea by the tropical seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia (Vahl) C. Agardh has stimulated several investigations in order to test the environmental risk from an ecotoxicological point of view. The studies carried out on various experimental models have shown that caulerpenyne, the major metabolite synthesized by the seaweed, affects several cellular and molecular targets. In addition, neurological disorders have been reported in patients who accidentally ate C. taxifolia, but no evidence about the potential effects of the seaweed and of its metabolites on nerve cells were up to now available. Herein we describe that caulerpenyne modifies the electrical properties of touch mechanosensory cells of the leech Hirudo medicinalis. The physiological firing of these cells causes an afterhyperpolarization that is mainly due to the activity of the Na+/K+-ATPase and to a lesser extent to a calcium-dependent potassium current. Caulerpenyne depressed this afterhyperpolarization; the effect was dose-dependent and partially reversible. Experiments have been carried out in order to understand the mechanism through which caulerpenyne reduced the afterhyperpolarization. The action of the biotoxin has been tested in the presence of pharmacological blockers of calcium-dependent potassium channels such as cadmium and apamin. In these experimental conditions, caulerpenyne still reduced the residual afterhyperpolarization, suggesting a direct effect of the toxin on the Na+/K+-ATPase. In order to test this hypothesis, we have performed experiments where the Na+/K+-ATPase was activated by the intracellular injection of sodium and where also its basal activity was modified as well. From the data collected we suggest that caulerpenyne inhibits both the basal and the sodium-induced activity of the Na+/K+-ATPase in leech touch neurons.

Coding and adaptation during mechanical stimulation in the leech nervous system

The experiments described here were designed to characterise sensory coding and adaptation during mechanical stimulation in the leech (Hirudo medicinalis). A chain of three ganglia and a segment of the body wall connected to the central ganglion were used. Eight extracellular suction pipettes and one or two intracellular electrodes were used to record action potentials from all mechanosensory neurones of the three ganglia. When the skin of the body wall was briefly touched with a filament exerting a force of about 2 mN, touch (T) cells in the central ganglion, but also those in adjacent ganglia (i.e. anterior and posterior), fired one or two action potentials. However, the threshold for action potential initiation was lower for T cells in the central ganglion than for those in adjacent ganglia. The timing of the first evoked action potential in a T cell was very reproducible with a jitter often lower than 100 us. Action potentials in T cells were not significantly correlated. When the force exerted by the filament was increased above 20 mN, pressure (P) cells in the central and neighbouring ganglia fired action potentials. Action potentials in P cells usually followed those evoked in T cells with a delay of about 20 ms and had a larger jitter of 0.5-10 ms. With stronger stimulations exceeding 50 mN, noxious (N) cells also fired action potentials. With such stimulations the majority of mechanosensory neurones in the three ganglia fired action potentials. The spatial properties of the whole receptive field of the mechanosensory neurones were explored by touching different parts of the skin. When the mechanical stimulation was applied for a longer time, i.e. 1 s, only P cells in the central ganglion continued to fire action potentials. P cells in neighbouring ganglia fully adapted after firing two or three action potentials.P cells in adjacent ganglia, having fully adapted to a steady mechanical stimulation of one part of the skin, fired action potentials following stimulation of a different region of the skin. These results indicate that a brief and localised stimulation of the skin can activate more than a dozen different mechanosensory neurones in the three ganglia and after 100 ms of steady stimulation many of these mechanosensory neurones stop firing action potentials and fully adapt. Adaptation occurs primarily at the nerve endings and mechanosensory neurones can quickly respond to mechanical stimulation at a different location on the skin.

Neurotoxic effects of caulerpenyne

1. In this paper the authors tested the effect of caulerpenyne (CYN), a sesquiterpene synthesized by the green alga Caulerpa taxifolia onto the central nervous system of the leech Hirudo medicinalis. Investigations have been performed with three different approaches: neuroethological, electrophysiological and neurochemical techniques. 2. CYN application mimics the effect of a nociceptive stimulation (brushing), eliciting a clear-cut potentiation of the animal swim response to the test stimulus (non associative learning process such as sensitization). This effect is similar to that one induced by the endogenous neurotransmitter serotonin (5HT). 3. CYN strongly reduces the after-hyperpolarization (AHP) recorded from T sensory neurons. This effect overlaps that one produced by 5HT, but it is not affected by the serotonergic antagonist methysergide. 4. The decrease of AHP amplitude due to CYN application is observed also in presence of apamin, a blocking agent of Ca++-dependent K+ channels, suggesting that CYN is acting through the inhibition of the Na+/K+ electrogenic pump. 5. The depression of the AHP driven by CYN is not prevented by application of MDL 12330A, an adenylate cyclase inhibitor. On the other hand MDL 12330A counteracts the reduction of AHP due to 5HT application. 6. Incubation of the leech central nervous system with CYN induces the phosphorylation of proteins of 29, 50, 66 and 100 kDa. This pattern of phosphorylation is similar to that one elicited by 5HT treatment. 7. The data demonstrate that CYN exerts remarkable effects on leech neurons by acting onto specific molecular targets such as the Na+/K+ ATPase. This effect may influence important neural integrative functions and may explain the sensitizing action produced by the toxin on swim induction. Finally, caulerpenyne does not act through the pathways involved in the 5HT action, and its effect is not mediated by the second messenger cyclic AMP. The mechanism of action of CYN are still under investigations.

Activity-dependent extracellular K+ accumulation in rat optic nerve: the role of glial and axonal Na+ pumps

1. We measured activity-dependent changes in [K+]o with K(+)-selective microelectrodes in adult rat optic nerve, a CNS white matter tract, to investigate the factors responsible for post-stimulus recovery of [K+]o. 2. Post-stimulus recovery of [K+]o followed a double-exponential time course with an initial, fast time constant, tau fast, of 0.9 +/- 0.2 s (mean +/- S.D.) and a later, slow time constant, tau slow, of 4.2 +/- 1 s following a 1 s, 100 Hz stimulus. tau fast, but not tau slow, decreased with increasing activity-dependent rises in [K+]o. tau slow, but not tau fast, increased with increasing stimulus duration. 3. Post-stimulus recovery of [K+]o was temperature sensitive. The apparent temperature coefficients (Q10, 27-37 degrees C) for the fast and slow components following a 1 s, 100 Hz stimulus were 1.7 and 2.6, respectively. 4. Post-stimulus recovery of [K+]o was sensitive to Na+ pump inhibition with 50 microM strophanthidin. Following a 1 s, 100 Hz stimulus, 50 microM strophanthidin increased tau fast and tau slow by 81 and 464%, respectively. Strophanthidin reduced the temperature sensitivity of post-stimulus recovery of [K+]o. 5. Post-stimulus recovery of [K+]o was minimally affected by the K+ channel blocker Ba2+ (0.2 mM). Following a 10 s, 100 Hz stimulus, 0.2 mM Ba2+ increased tau fast and tau slow by 24 and 18%, respectively. 6. Stimulated increases in [K+]o were followed by undershoots of [K+]o. Post-stimulus undershoot amplitude increased with stimulus duration but was independent of the peak preceding [K+]o increase. 7. These observations imply that two distinct processes contribute to post-stimulus recovery of [K+]o in central white matter. The results are compatible with a model of K+ removal that attributes the fast, initial phase of K+ removal to K+ uptake by glial Na+ pumps and the slower, sustained decline to K+ uptake via axonal Na+ pumps.

Modulation of conduction block in leech mechanosensory neurons

Conduction block is a mechanism of activity-dependent neuronal plasticity, but little is known about its possible neuromodulation. Extensive activity in leech touch (T), pressure (P), and nociceptive (N) mechanosensory neurons results in conduction block of their minor receptive fields. We have examined whether the duration of conduction block could be modulated by the serotonergic Retzius neurons or by application of serotonin (5-HT). Activation of one Retzius cell reduced the duration of conduction block in T and P cell posterior fields, but their anterior fields and N cell fields were unaffected. Perfusion with 5-HT had stronger effects, reducing the duration of conduction block in T, P, and lateral N cells in the posterior fields and either reducing or more often enhancing the expression of conduction block in anterior fields. The effects of 5-HT on posterior fields were blocked by the nonspecific 5-HT antagonist methysergide and were partly suppressed by the 5-HT2 antagonist ketanserin. To determine the site of 5-HT action, the central ganglion or peripheral skin was perfused independently. T and to a greater extent P cells showed a preferential sensitivity to application of 5-HT onto the central ganglion. Interestingly, medial N cells exhibited a progressive decrease in the duration of conduction block during repeated trials ("wind-up") that was unaffected by 5-HT. We conclude that secretion of 5-HT by the Retzius cells has a central modulatory effect on the duration of conduction block in T, P, and lateral N cells.

Modulation of conduction block in leech mechanosensory neurons

Conduction block is a mechanism of activity-dependent neuronal plasticity, but little is known about its possible neuromodulation. Extensive activity in leech touch (T), pressure (P), and nociceptive (N) mechanosensory neurons results in conduction block of their minor receptive fields. We have examined whether the duration of conduction block could be modulated by the serotonergic Retzius neurons or by application of serotonin (5-HT). Activation of one Retzius cell reduced the duration of conduction block in T and P cell posterior fields, but their anterior fields and N cell fields were unaffected. Perfusion with 5-HT had stronger effects, reducing the duration of conduction block in T, P, and lateral N cells in the posterior fields and either reducing or more often enhancing the expression of conduction block in anterior fields. The effects of 5-HT on posterior fields were blocked by the nonspecific 5-HT antagonist methysergide and were partly suppressed by the 5-HT2 antagonist ketanserin. To determine the site of 5-HT action, the central ganglion or peripheral skin was perfused independently. T and to a greater extent P cells showed a preferential sensitivity to application of 5-HT onto the central ganglion. Interestingly, medial N cells exhibited a progressive decrease in the duration of conduction block during repeated trials ("wind-up") that was unaffected by 5-HT. We conclude that secretion of 5-HT by the Retzius cells has a central modulatory effect on the duration of conduction block in T, P, and lateral N cells.

Localization of the myomodulin-like immunoreactivity in the leech CNS

The distribution of myomodulinlike immunoreactivity in the leech CNS was determined using an antiserum raised against Aplysia myomodulin. Segmental ganglia contained approximately 60 immunoreactive neurons. In addition, numerous fibers containing immunoreactive varicosities were found throughout the neuropil. Using a combination of Lucifer Yellow injections and immunocytochemistry, we identified neurons including the anterior Pagodas (AP), annulus erector (AE), motor neurons, Leydig, longitudinal muscle motoneurons (L), S cells, and coupling interneurons, all of which are active during the touch-elicited shortening reflex. FMRF-amide-like immunoreactivity in three of these cells (L, AP, and AE) was previously demonstrated. Specific staining for myomodulin was abolished by preadsorption of the antiserum with synthetic myomodulin, but not with FMRF-amide. These results suggest a potential role for myomodulin in both intrinsic and extrinsic modulation of the leech touch-elicited shortening reflex. Further, it is possible that several neurons mediating this reflex contain multiple neuromodulatory peptides.

CCD imaging of the electrical activity in the leech nervous system

A single ganglion of the nervous system of the leech Hirudo medicinalis was isolated. One or both roots emerging from each side of the ganglion were sucked into suction pipettes used either for extracellular stimulation or for recording the gross electrical activity. The ganglion was stained with the fluorescence voltage sensitive dye Di-4-Anepps. The fluorescence was measured with a nitrogen cooled CCD camera. Our recording system allowed us to measure in real time slow optical signals corresponding to changes in light intensity of at least 5/1000. These signals were caused by the direct polarization of neuronal structures, the afterhyperpolarization or the afterdischarge induced by a prolonged stimulation. When images were acquired at fixed times, several of them could be averaged and optical signals of at least 2/1000 could be reliably measured. These optical signals originated from well identified neurons, such as T, P and N sensory neurons. By taking images at different times and at different focal planes, electrical events could be followed at a temporal resolution of 50 Hz. The three dimensional dynamics of electrical events, initiated by a specific stimulation, was imaged and the spread of excitation among leech neurons was followed. When two roots were selectively stimulated, their neuronal interactions could be imaged and the linear and non-linear terms of the interaction could be characterized.

Octopamine and Leydig cell stimulation depress the afterhyperpolarization in touch sensory neurons of the leech

In touch sensory neurons of the leech, a train of spikes evoked by intracellular electrical stimulation leads to an afterhyperpolarization, mainly due to the activation of the Na+/K+ electrogenic pump and partly to a Ca(2+)-activated K+ conductance. It has been found that serotonin is able to reduce the afterhyperpolarization through the inhibition of the Na+/K+ electrogenic pump. We have investigated the possible modulation of the afterhyperpolarization by other endogenous neurotransmitters and we have found that octopamine is also able to reduce its amplitude. The electrical stimulation of the octopaminergic Leydig neurons mimics this effect. We have compared the actions of the two amines and found that the effect of serotonin is blocked by methysergide but not by high [Mg2+] or by phentolamine, and it is still present in touch cells isolated in culture. On the contrary, the octopamine modulation of the afterhyperpolarization does not occur in single touch cells in culture and it is blocked by all these treatments. These data suggest that while serotonin should act monosynaptically, octopamine should act through a serotonergic pathway.

Cyclic AMP mediates inhibition of the Na(+)-K+ electrogenic pump by serotonin in tactile sensory neurones of the leech

1. Serotonin (5-HT) reduced the after-hyperpolarization (AHP) amplitude in tactile sensory neurones (T) but not in pressor (P) or nociceptive (N) cells of the leech. 2. Adenylate cyclase activators, phosphodiesterase inhibitors and membrane permeant analogues of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP) mimicked the effect of 5-HT in reducing the AHP amplitude in T neurones. 3. Ionophoretic injection of cyclic AMP in T cells reduced the AHP amplitude, while cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cyclic GMP) or adenosine-5'-monophosphate (AMP) were without effect. 4. Inhibition of adenylate cyclase by the drug RMI 12330A (also known as MDL 12330A) suggested that 5-HT reduced the AHP amplitude through cyclic AMP. 5. 8-Bromoadenosine-3'-5'-cyclic monophosphate (8-Br-cyclic AMP) was still able to reduce the AHP amplitude after blocking the Ca(2+)-activated K+ conductance with CdCl2 and converted the normal hyperpolarization which follows the intracellular injection of Na+ into a depolarization. In addition, the cyclic AMP analogue slowed down and reduced the repolarization usually induced by CsCl after perfusion with K(+)-free solution. It is proposed that, in T sensory neurones, cyclic AMP mediates the inhibition of the Na(+)-K+ electrogenic pump induced by 5-HT application.

Seasonal variation of serotonin content and nonassociative learning of swim induction in the leech Hirudo medicinalis

It is possible to obtain habituation of swim induction by stimulating the leech with repetitive light electrical trains. After obtaining this simple form of non-associative learning, it is also possible to potentiate its response by a series of nociceptive skin brushings (dishabituation). Serotonin applied to the animal is the only neurotransmitter found to mimick dishabituation. We have observed that in the period April-June most animals did not exhibit potentiation of the swimming response after nociceptive stimulation while injection of serotonin mimicked dishabituation as in the animals treated in the period October-March. We have seen correlation between the changes in nonassociative learning and the seasonal variation of serotonin levels in segmental ganglia. This finding strengthens the hypothesis of serotonin as the neurotransmitter mediating dishabituation in swim induction of the leech.

Electrogenic pump (Na+/K(+)-ATPase) activity in rat optic nerve

Rat optic nerves were studied in a sucrose gap chamber in order to study the origin of a late afterhyperpolarization that follows repetitive activity. The results provide evidence for electrogenic pump (Na+/K(+)-ATPase) activity in central nervous system myelinated axons and demonstrate an effect on axonal excitability. Repetitive stimulation (25-200 Hz; 200-5000 ms) led to a prolonged, temperature-dependent post-train afterhyperpolarization with duration up to about 40 s. The post-train afterhyperpolarization was blocked by the Na+/K(+)-ATPase blockers strophanthidin and ouabain, and the substitution of Li+ for Na+ in the test solution, which also blocks Na+/K(+)-ATPase. The peak amplitude of the post-train afterhyperpolarization was minimally changed by the potassium-channel blocker tetraethylammonium (10 mM), and the Ca2(+)-channel blocker CoCl2 (4 mM). Hyperpolarizing constant current did not reverse the afterhyperpolarization. The amplitude of the hyperpolarization was increased in the presence of the potassium-channel blocker 4-aminopyridine (1 mM). In the presence of 4-amino-pyridine, the post-train hyperpolarization was much reduced by strophanthidin, except for a residual early component lasting several hundred milliseconds which was blocked by the potassium-channel blocker tetraethylammonium. This finding indicates that after exposure to 4-aminopyridine, repetitive stimulation leads to activation of a tetraethylammonium-sensitive K(+)-channel that contributes during the first several hundred milliseconds to the post-train afterhyperpolarization. The amplitude of the compound action potential elicited by a single submaximal stimulus during the post-train hyperpolarization was smaller than that of the control response. The decrement in amplitude was not present under identical stimulation conditions when the post-train hyperpolarization was blocked by strophanthidin, indicating that the hyperpolarization associated with repetitive stimulation reduced excitability.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Hyperpolarization and short-circuiting as mechanisms of seizure prevention following febrile convulsions

Though children with febrile convulsions only have seizures in the early stage of a febrile illness and not later, these seizures have been attributed to the fever. We studied the serum electrolyte and metabolite profiles in the later stage to see if there were fuel responses resulting in electrophysiological changes which prevented further seizure activity. On admission there was intracellular glucose starvation, as evidenced by increased ketones and lactate, and the possibility of the failure of some electrolyte pumps, as suggested by hyperuricaemia (energy crisis) and decreased serum Na+, Cl- and Ca2+. However, there was adaptive hyperglycemia and decreased serum K+. It seems likely that the hyperglycemia, induced the uptake of K+ by neurones, enabling their repolarization and hyperpolarization, which prevented further seizure activity, while Cl- influx short-circuited depolarizing currents produced by Na+ influx. Studies during recovery showed a gradual return of the metabolic and electrolyte aberrations to normality, suggesting that the provision of energy through adaptation to the stress, enabled recovery of the aforementioned pumps.

Studies of axon-glial cell interactions and periaxonal K- homeostasis--I. The influence of Na+, K+, Cl- and cholinergic agents on the membrane potential of the adaxonal glia of the crayfish medial giant axon

The ionic basis for the low (-40 mV) resting membrane potential of glial cells surrounding the giant axons of the crayfish and their hyperpolarization by cholinergic agents (to -55 mV) was studied using standard electrophysiological techniques, ionic substitutions and pharmacological agents. The resting membrane potential of the glial cell was depolarized by increasing [K+]o, but the response was not Nernstian. Na+ depletion caused a small depolarization of the glial resting membrane potential, whereas Cl- depletion resulted in a hyperpolarization comparable to that seen with carbachol at various [K+]o. Both furosemide (1 mM) and bumetanide (0.1 mM) produced an 8-10 mV hyperpolarization as compared to 15-17 mV seen with Cl- depletion or carbachol. Carbachol has no further effect on the potential following furosemide treatment or Cl- depletion. After carbachol administration or Cl- depletion the resting membrane potential of the glial cell responded to [K+]o in a more Nernstian manner. The data indicate that the low resting membrane potential of glial cells is due to a combination of a low [K+]i and an outwardly-directed (depolarizing) Cl- electrochemical gradient. Carbachol acts to decrease Cl- conductance, resulting in the hyperpolarization of the glial cell membrane and a decrease in the outwardly-directed K+ electrochemical gradient by approximately two-thirds. We hypothesize that this mechanism for modulation of the glial cell membrane potential and the K+ electrochemical gradient serves to enhance the uptake of K+ by the glial cell transport system.

Interaction among different sensory units within a single fungiform papilla in the frog tongue

The possible interaction among different sensory units in the frog tongue was studied using several single papillae dually innervated by the medial and lateral branches of the glossopharyngeal (IXth) nerve. The afferent activity in one branch exposed to NaCl stimulation of the papilla revealed marked inhibition after antidromic electrical stimulation (100 Hz, 30 s, and 3 V) of the other branch. The degree of inhibition depended on the number of sensory responses observed in the electrically stimulated branch as well as the nature of the stimulated sensory units. Statistical analysis suggested that antidromic activation of gustatory units conducting the responses to NaCl and quinine and slowly adapting mechanosensitive units produced a large antidromic inhibition amounting to 19-25%, but that of gustatory units conducting the responses to acetic acid and rapidly adapting mechanosensitive units gave rise to only a slight inhibition. To examine the differential effects of these sensory units in antidromic inhibition, antidromic impulses were evoked by chemical stimulation of the adjacent papilla neuronally connected with the dually innervated papilla under study. Antidromic volleys of impulses elicited by NaCl or quinine stimulation produced a large inhibition of the afferent activity in the other branch, as induced by NaCl stimulation of the dually innervated papilla. Plausible mechanisms of synaptic interaction in peripheral gustatory systems are considered.

A ouabain-sensitive hyperpolarization in rat striatal neurones in vitro

Intracellular recordings were made from rat striatal neurones in vitro. In the presence of intracellular caesium and extracellular tetraethylammonium chloride (TEA) (5 mM) and barium (3 mM), long-lasting plateau potentials developed followed by a prominent voltage independent hyperpolarization which lasted several seconds. A similar afterhyperpolarization was observed when calcium was replaced by barium. The afterhyperpolarization was reduced in a potassium free medium and reversibly abolished in a Na+-free solution or by cooling the slice to 21-24 degrees C. It was also irreversibly blocked by ouabain (50 microM). This hyperpolarization may therefore result from the activation of a Na+,K+-ATPase electrogenic pump.

Conduction block silences parts of a chemical synapse in the leech central nervous system

1. The pressure (P) sensory neurones innervating the ventral skin of the medicinal leech have receptive fields comprising a central region of skin innervated by two thicker axons and two neighbouring regions innervated by two thinner axons. Impulses originating in the thinner axons may fail to propagate through the central ganglion, apparently blocked at the branch point of large and small axons. 2. The P neurone excites the longitudinal (L) motoneurone, and blocked impulses originating in the anterior fine axon produce e.p.s.p.s that are less than one-half normal amplitude. Blocked impulses in the posterior fine axon are typically ineffective. 3. The branches of P and L neurones, marked with intracellularly injected horseradish peroxidase or with Lucifer Yellow, make synaptic contact at up to sixty-six sites within the neuropile. Of P neurone branches emerging from two fine axons, those from the posterior axon make fewer contacts, usually one or two at most, while branches from the anterior axon represent no more than half the total contacts. From cell to cell there is some variation in the total number of contacts, the distribution of branches, and the strength of transmission. 4. The locations of contacts measured morphologically correlate well with their distributions as predicted from reductions in e.p.s.p. amplitude during conduction block.

Calcium-dependent after-potentials in visceral afferent neurones of the rabbit

Intracellular recordings were made from neurones in nodose ganglia excised from rabbits. In C neurones, 1-60 action potentials were followed by an after-hyperpolarization with a peak amplitude of 16 mV and a time constant of decay ranging from 3 to 10 s. In A neurones, the action potentials were followed only by a brief (up to 50 ms) after-hyperpolarization. The after-hyperpolarization was associated with an increase in the membrane conductance to potassium ions; it reversed polarity at the potassium equilibrium potential. The increase in conductance following the action potentials was blocked by removal of calcium ions, or addition of cobalt to the extracellular solution. Intracellular injection of ethyleneglycol-bis(beta-aminoethylether)-N,N'-tetraacetic acid (EGTA) abolished the after-hyperpolarization; intracellular injection of calcium mimicked the after-hyperpolarization. It is concluded that calcium entry during the action potential leads to a long-lasting increase in potassium conductance in visceral afferent C neurones.