Toward a Common Understanding of Diet-Exercise Strategies to Manipulate Fuel Availability for Training and Competition Preparation in Endurance Sport

Nutrition for optimising immune function and recovery from injury in sports

The immune system, sports injuries, physical activity and clinical sports nutrition are closely linked. Inadequate nutrition and intense stress in athletes increase the risk of immune dysfunction, injury and disease, while injury reduces the positive effects of physical activity, creating a vicious cycle affecting health and performance. Nutritional support is key to reducing the risk of injury, speeding up recovery and shortening rehabilitation. The intake of energy, protein, carbohydrates, fats and micronutrients should be adapted to the needs following injury. Quality nutrition is preferred over the use of dietary supplements, which are limited to cases of identified deficiencies (e.g. vitamin D or iron deficiencies). Health professionals with knowledge of clinical nutrition have a key role to play in injury prevention, treatment and rehabilitation, and nutritional interventions are an indispensable part of a holistic approach to athletes' health.

A Novel Method to Predict Carbohydrate and Energy Expenditure During Endurance Exercise Using Measures of Training Load

BACKGROUND

Sports nutrition guidelines recommend carbohydrate (CHO) intake be individualized to the athlete and modulated according to changes in training load. However, there are limited methods to assess CHO utilization during training sessions.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to (1) quantify bivariate relationships between both CHO and overall energy expenditure (EE) during exercise and commonly used, non-invasive measures of training load across sessions of varying duration and intensity and (2) build and evaluate prediction models to estimate CHO utilization and EE with the same training load measures and easily quantified individual factors.

METHODS

This study was undertaken in two parts: a primary study, where participants performed four different laboratory-based cycle training sessions, and a validation study where different participants performed a single laboratory-based training session using one of three exercise modalities (cycling, running, or kayaking). The primary study included 15 cyclists (five female; maximal oxygen consumption [ V ˙ O2max], 51.9 ± 7.2 mL/kg/min), the validation study included 21 cyclists (seven female; V ˙ O2max 53.5 ± 11.0 mL/kg/min), 20 runners (six female; V ˙ O2max 57.5 ± 7.2 mL/kg/min), and 18 kayakers (five female; V ˙ O2max 45.6 ± 4.8 mL/kg/min). Training sessions were quantified using six training load metrics: two using heart rate, three using power, and one using perceived exertion. Carbohydrate use and EE were determined separately for aerobic (gas exchange) and anaerobic (net lactate accumulation, body mass, and O2 lactate equivalent method) energy systems and summed. Repeated-measures correlations were used to examine relationships between training load and both CHO utilization and EE. General estimating equations were used to model CHO utilization and EE, using training load alongside measures of fitness and sex. Models were built in the primary study and tested in the validation study. Model performance is reported as the coefficient of determination (R2) and mean absolute error, with measures of calibration used for model evaluation and for sport-specific model re-calibration.

RESULTS

Very-large to near-perfect within-subject correlations (r = 0.76-0.96) were evident between all training load metrics and both CHO utilization and EE. In the primary study, all models explained a large amount of variance (R2 = 0.77-0.96) and displayed good accuracy (mean absolute error; CHO = 16-21 g [10-14%], EE = 53-82 kcal [7-11%]). In the validation study, the mean absolute error ranged from 16-50 g [15-45%] for CHO models to 53-182 kcal [9-31%] for EE models. The calibrated mean absolute error ranged from 9-20 g [8-18%] for CHO models to 36-72 kcal [6-12%] for EE models.

CONCLUSIONS

At the individual level, there are strong linear relationships between all measures of training load and both CHO utilization and EE during cycling. When combined with other measures of fitness, EE and CHO utilization during cycling can be estimated accurately. These models can be applied in running and kayaking when used with a calibration adjustment.

Nutritional Interventions to Attenuate Quadriceps Muscle Deficits following Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury and Reconstruction

Following anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury, quadriceps muscle atrophy persists despite rehabilitation, leading to loss of lower limb strength, osteoarthritis, poor knee joint health and reduced quality of life. However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for these deficits in hypertrophic adaptations within the quadriceps muscle following ACL injury and reconstruction are poorly understood. While resistance exercise training stimulates skeletal muscle hypertrophy, attenuation of these hypertrophic pathways can hinder rehabilitation following ACL injury and reconstruction, and ultimately lead to skeletal muscle atrophy that persists beyond ACL reconstruction, similar to disuse atrophy. Numerous studies have documented beneficial roles of nutritional support, including nutritional supplementation, in maintaining and/or increasing muscle mass. There are three main mechanisms by which nutritional supplementation may attenuate muscle atrophy and promote hypertrophy: (1) by directly affecting muscle protein synthetic machinery; (2) indirectly increasing an individual's ability to work harder; and/or (3) directly affecting satellite cell proliferation and differentiation. We propose that nutritional support may enhance rehabilitative responses to exercise training and positively impact molecular machinery underlying muscle hypertrophy. As one of the fastest growing knee injuries worldwide, a better understanding of the potential mechanisms involved in quadriceps muscle deficits following ACL injury and reconstruction, and potential benefits of nutritional support, are required to help restore quadriceps muscle mass and/or strength. This review discusses our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in muscle hypertrophy and disuse atrophy, and how nutritional supplements may leverage these pathways to maximise recovery from ACL injury and reconstruction.

The race within a race: Together on the marathon starting line but miles apart in the experience

Every four years the world's best athletes come together to compete in the Olympic games, electrifying audiences with incredible feats of speed, strength, endurance and skill as personal best performances and new records are set. However, the exceptional talent that underpin such performances is incomprehensible to most casual observers who often cannot appreciate how unique these athletes are. In this regard, endurance running, specifically the marathon, a 42.195 km foot race, provides one of the few occasions in sport outside of Olympic, world and national competitions, that permits sport scientists and fans alike to directly compare differences in the physiology between recreational and elite competitors. While these individuals may all cover the same distance, on the same course, on the same day - their experience and the physiological and psychological demands placed upon them are vastly different. There is, in effect, a "race within a race". In the current review we highlight the superior physiology of the elite endurance athlete, emphasizing the gap between elite competitors and well-trained, but less genetically endowed athletes. We draw attention to a range of inconsistencies in how current sports science practices are understood, implemented, and communicated in terms of the elite and not-so-elite endurance athlete.

Carbohydrate Restriction During Recovery from High-Intensity-Interval Training Enhances Fat Oxidation During Subsequent Exercise and Does Not Compromise Performance When Combined With Caffeine

Background

Carbohydrate restriction can alter substrate utilization and potentially impair endurance performance in female athletes. Caffeine intake may mitigate this performance decrements.

Objectives

The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that maximal fat oxidation (MFO) rate would be enhanced in the carbohydrate (CHO) restricted state in trained females. Additionally, the impact of caffeine intake before exercise under conditions of low CHO availability was examined on time-trial performance.

Methods

By using a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover design, 17 female endurance athletes completed 3 experimental blocks. Each block consisted of high-intensity-interval-training (HIT) in the evening, followed by a fat oxidation test to measure MFO rate and a 20-min time trial (20TT) performance the next morning. The females received standardized, isoenergetic diets with different timing of CHO intake: No CHO between exercise sessions without (FASTED) or with 300 mg caffeine (4.1-4.9 mg/kg body mass) (FASTED+CAFF) before morning exercise tests or CHO ingestion after HIT (FED).

Results

MFO rate was higher in FASTED+CAFF (0.57 ± 0.04 g/min) than that in FED (0.50 ± 0.04 g/min, P = 0.039) but not different from FASTED condition. Power output performed during the 20TT was higher after FASTED+CAFF (189 ± 9 W) than that after FASTED (+6.9%, P = 0.022) and FED (+4.2%, P = 0.054).

Conclusions

CHO restriction during recovery from HIT enhances MFO rate during subsequent exercise compared with the condition where CHOs were consumed during the recovery period, but the effect was only significant when CHO restriction was combined with caffeine supplementation before the MFO test. In addition, caffeine ingestion before exercise in the CHO-restricted state compensates for the decreased work capacity associated with the CHO-restricted state.

Responses to Exercise with Low Carbohydrate Availability on Muscle Glycogen and Cell Signaling: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The growing interest in how exercise and carbohydrate (CHO) restriction may modify molecular responses that promote endurance adaptations has led to many interesting controversies.

OBJECTIVE

We conducted a systematic review and a meta-analysis regarding the effect of low-carbohydrate availability (LOW) pre-, during, or post-exercise, on the mRNA content of commonly measured genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis (PGC-1α, TFAM mRNA) and metabolism (PDK4, UCP3 and GLUT4 mRNA), and on muscle glycogen levels, compared with a high-CHO (CON) condition.

METHODS

MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were searched following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines (with an end date of November 2023). In total, 19 randomized-controlled studies were considered for inclusion. We evaluated the methodological quality of all studies using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool for randomized clinical studies. A meta-analysis was performed using a random effects model to calculate the standardized mean difference (SMD), estimated by Hedges' g, and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

The LOW condition was associated with an increased mRNA content of several genes during the early recovery period post-exercise, such as PDK4 (SMD 1.61; 95% CI 0.80-2.42), GLUT4 (SMD 1.38; 95% CI 0.46-2.30), and UCP3 (SMD 2.05; 95% CI 0.40-3.69). However, overall, there was no significant effect on the mRNA content of PGC-1α or TFAM. Finally, CHO restriction and exercise significantly reduced muscle glycogen levels (SMD 3.69; 95% CI 2.82-5.09). A meta-analysis of subgroups from studies with a difference in muscle glycogen concentration of > 200 mmol kg dw-1 between the LOW and CON conditions showed an increase in exercise-induced PGC-1α mRNA (SMD 2.08; 95% CI 0.64-3.52; p = 0.005; I2 = 75%) and a greater effect in PDK4 and GLUT4 mRNA.

CONCLUSION

The meta-analysis results show that CHO restriction was associated with an increase in the exercise-induced mRNA content of PDK4, UCP3, and GLUT4, but not the exercise-induced mRNA content of PGC-1ɑ and TFAM. However, when there were substantial differences in glycogen depletion between CON and LOW CHO conditions (> 200 mmol kg dw-1), there was a greater effect of CHO restriction on the exercise-induced mRNA content of metabolic genes, and an increase in exercise-induced PGC-1α mRNA.

The whole-body and skeletal muscle metabolic response to 14 days of highly controlled low energy availability in endurance-trained females

This study investigated the effects of 14 days low energy availability (LEA) versus optimal energy availability (OEA) in endurance-trained females on substrate utilization, insulin sensitivity, and skeletal muscle mitochondrial oxidative capacity; and the impact of metabolic changes on exercise performance. Twelve endurance-trained females (V̇O2max 55.2 ± 5.1 mL × min-1 × kg-1) completed two 14-day randomized, blinded, cross-over, controlled dietary interventions: (1) OEA (51.9 ± 2.0 kcal × kg fat-free mass (FFM)-1 × day-1) and (2) LEA (22.3 ± 1.5 kcal × kg FFM-1 × day-1), followed by 3 days OEA. Participants maintained their exercise training volume during both interventions (approx. 8 h × week-1 at 79% heart rate max). Skeletal muscle mitochondrial respiratory capacity, glycogen, and maximal activity of CS, HAD, and PFK were unaltered with LEA. 20-min time trial endurance performance was impaired by 7.8% (Δ -16.8 W, 95% CI: -23.3 to -10.4, p < .001) which persisted following 3 days refueling post-LEA (p < .001). Fat utilization was increased post-LEA as evidenced by: (1) 99.4% (p < .001) increase in resting plasma free fatty acids (FFA); (2) 270% (p = .007) larger reduction in FFA in response to acute exercise; and (3) 28.2% (p = .015) increase in resting fat oxidation which persisted during submaximal exercise (p < .001). These responses were reversed with 3 days refueling. Daily glucose control (via CGM), HOMA-IR, HOMA-β, were unaffected by LEA. Skeletal muscle O2 utilization and carbohydrate availability were not limiting factors for aerobic exercise capacity and performance; therefore, whether LEA per se affects aspects of training quality/recovery requires investigation.

What if gastrointestinal complications in endurance athletes were gut injuries in response to a high consumption of ultra-processed foods? Please take care of your bugs if you want to improve endurance performance: a narrative review

To improve performance and recovery faster, athletes are advised to eat more often than usual and consume higher doses of simple carbohydrates, during and after exercise. Sports energetic supplements contain food additives, such as artificial sweeteners, emulsifiers, acidity regulators, preservatives, and salts, which could be harmful to the gut microbiota and impair the intestinal barrier function. The intestinal barrier plays a critical function in bidirectionally regulation of the selective transfer of nutrients, water, and electrolytes, while preventing at the same time, the entrance of harmful substances (selective permeability). The gut microbiota helps to the host to regulate intestinal homeostasis through metabolic, protective, and immune functions. Globally, the gut health is essential to maintain systemic homeostasis in athletes, and to ensure proper digestion, metabolization, and substrate absorption. Gastrointestinal complaints are an important cause of underperformance and dropout during endurance events. These complications are directly related to the loss of gut equilibrium, mainly linked to microbiota dysbiosis and leaky gut. In summary, athletes must be cautious with the elevated intake of ultra-processed foods and specifically those contained on sports nutrition supplements. This review points out the specific nutritional interventions that should be implemented and/or discontinued depending on individual gut functionality.

A Five-Week Periodized Carbohydrate Diet Does Not Improve Maximal Lactate Steady-State Exercise Capacity and Substrate Oxidation in Well-Trained Cyclists compared to a High-Carbohydrate Diet

There is a growing interest in studies involving carbohydrate (CHO) manipulation and subsequent adaptations to endurance training. This study aimed to analyze whether a periodized carbohydrate feeding strategy based on a daily training session has any advantages compared to a high-carbohydrate diet in well-trained cyclists. Seventeen trained cyclists (VO2peak = 70.8 ± 6.5 mL·kg-1·min-1) were divided into two groups, a periodized (PCHO) group and a high-carbohydrate (HCHO) group. Both groups performed the same training sessions for five weeks. In the PCHO group, 13 training sessions were performed with low carbohydrate availability. In the HCHO group, all sessions were completed following previous carbohydrate intake to ensure high pre-exercise glycogen levels. In both groups, there was an increase in the maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) (PCHO: 244.1 ± 29.9 W to 253.2 ± 28.4 W; p = 0.008; HCHO: 235.8 ± 21.4 W to 246.9 ± 16.7 W; p = 0.012) but not in the time to exhaustion at MLSS intensity. Both groups increased the percentage of muscle mass (PCHO: p = 0.021; HCHO: p = 0.042) and decreased the percent body fat (PCHO: p = 0.021; HCHO: p = 0.012). We found no differences in carbohydrate or lipid oxidation, heart rate, and post-exercise lactate concentration. Periodizing the CHO intake in well-trained cyclists during a 5-week intervention did not elicit superior results to an energy intake-matched high-carbohydrate diet in any of the measured outcomes.

Iron Absorption in Highly Trained Male Runners: Does it Matter When and Where You Eat Your Iron?

PURPOSE

We examined iron absorption and its regulation during two common scenarios experienced by endurance athletes. Our aims were to: (i) compare the effects of preexercise versus postexercise iron intake on iron absorption; and (ii) compare the impact of training at altitude (1800 m) on iron absorption preexercise.

METHODS

Male runners (n = 18) completed three exercise trials over a 5-wk period, each preceded by 24 h of standardized low-iron diets. First, athletes completed two 60-min treadmill running trials at 65% V̇O2max at near sea-level (580 m). In a randomized order, preexercise and postexercise test meals labeled with 4 mg of 57Fe or 58Fe were consumed 30 min before or 30 min after exercise. Then, the same exercise trial was performed after living and training at altitude (~1800 m) for 7 d, with the labeled test meal consumed 30 min preexercise. We collected venous blood samples preexercise and postexercise for markers of iron status and regulation, and 14 d later to measure erythrocyte isotope incorporation.

RESULTS

No differences in fractional iron absorption were evident when test meals were consumed preexercise (7.3% [4.4, 12.1]) or postexercise (6.2% [3.1, 12.5]) (n = 18; P = 0.058). Iron absorption preexercise was greater at altitude (18.4% [10.6, 32.0]) than at near sea-level (n = 17; P < 0.001) and hepcidin concentrations at altitude were lower at rest and 3 h postexercise compared with near sea level (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

In an acute setting, preexercise and postexercise iron absorption is comparable if consumed within 30 min of exercise. Preexercise iron absorption increases 2.6-fold at altitude compared with near sea-level, likely due to the homeostatic response to provide iron for enhanced erythropoiesis and maintain iron stores.

International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete

Based on a comprehensive review and critical analysis of the literature regarding the nutritional concerns of female athletes, conducted by experts in the field and selected members of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN), the following conclusions represent the official Position of the Society: 1. Female athletes have unique and unpredictable hormone profiles, which influence their physiology and nutritional needs across their lifespan. To understand how perturbations in these hormones affect the individual, we recommend that female athletes of reproductive age should track their hormonal status (natural, hormone driven) against training and recovery to determine their individual patterns and needs and peri and post-menopausal athletes should track against training and recovery metrics to determine the individuals' unique patterns. 2. The primary nutritional consideration for all athletes, and in particular, female athletes, should be achieving adequate energy intake to meet their energy requirements and to achieve an optimal energy availability (EA); with a focus on the timing of meals in relation to exercise to improve training adaptations, performance, and athlete health. 3. Significant sex differences and sex hormone influences on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism are apparent, therefore we recommend first ensuring athletes meet their carbohydrate needs across all phases of the menstrual cycle. Secondly, tailoring carbohydrate intake to hormonal status with an emphasis on greater carbohydrate intake and availability during the active pill weeks of oral contraceptive users and during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle where there is a greater effect of sex hormone suppression on gluconogenesis output during exercise. 4. Based upon the limited research available, we recommend that pre-menopausal, eumenorrheic, and oral contraceptives using female athletes should aim to consume a source of high-quality protein as close to beginning and/or after completion of exercise as possible to reduce exercise-induced amino acid oxidative losses and initiate muscle protein remodeling and repair at a dose of 0.32-0.38 g·kg-1. For eumenorrheic women, ingestion during the luteal phase should aim for the upper end of the range due to the catabolic actions of progesterone and greater need for amino acids. 5. Close to the beginning and/or after completion of exercise, peri- and post-menopausal athletes should aim for a bolus of high EAA-containing (~10 g) intact protein sources or supplements to overcome anabolic resistance. 6. Daily protein intake should fall within the mid- to upper ranges of current sport nutrition guidelines (1.4-2.2 g·kg-1·day-1) for women at all stages of menstrual function (pre-, peri-, post-menopausal, and contraceptive users) with protein doses evenly distributed, every 3-4 h, across the day. Eumenorrheic athletes in the luteal phase and peri/post-menopausal athletes, regardless of sport, should aim for the upper end of the range. 7. Female sex hormones affect fluid dynamics and electrolyte handling. A greater predisposition to hyponatremia occurs in times of elevated progesterone, and in menopausal women, who are slower to excrete water. Additionally, females have less absolute and relative fluid available to lose via sweating than males, making the physiological consequences of fluid loss more severe, particularly in the luteal phase. 8. Evidence for sex-specific supplementation is lacking due to the paucity of female-specific research and any differential effects in females. Caffeine, iron, and creatine have the most evidence for use in females. Both iron and creatine are highly efficacious for female athletes. Creatine supplementation of 3 to 5 g per day is recommended for the mechanistic support of creatine supplementation with regard to muscle protein kinetics, growth factors, satellite cells, myogenic transcription factors, glycogen and calcium regulation, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Post-menopausal females benefit from bone health, mental health, and skeletal muscle size and function when consuming higher doses of creatine (0.3 g·kg-1·d-1). 9. To foster and promote high-quality research investigations involving female athletes, researchers are first encouraged to stop excluding females unless the primary endpoints are directly influenced by sex-specific mechanisms. In all investigative scenarios, researchers across the globe are encouraged to inquire and report upon more detailed information surrounding the athlete's hormonal status, including menstrual status (days since menses, length of period, duration of cycle, etc.) and/or hormonal contraceptive details and/or menopausal status.

Improved physical performance of elite soccer players based on GPS results after 4 days of carbohydrate loading followed by 3 days of low carbohydrate diet

BACKGROUND

Carbohydrate loading is an established sports nutrition strategy for endur- 16 ance exercise performance. We tested if carbohydrate loading could improve the performance of 17 elite soccer players under ecologically valid circumstances using Global Positioning System (GPS) data.

METHODS

Twenty-two adult Iran Premier league soccer players were divided into a carbohydrate-loading group (CLG) and Control group (CG). The carbohydrate loading group restricted carbohydrate intake for three days to 1.5 g/kg/d while increasing exercise intensity. From days four to seven, exercise intensity was decreased and carbohydrate intake was considerably increased up to 7.5 g/kg/d on the day of the match, during which performance was analyzed using GPS data. The control group performed the same exercise training but maintained their habitual carbohydrate intake of 5-6 g/kg/d. The data were analyzed using a univariate ANCOVA with baseline data from a pre-intervention match as the control variable.

RESULTS

The carbohydrate loading team scored significantly higher on running distance, maximum speed and the number of top and repeated sprints; the carbohydrate loading group scored significantly lower on player load, metabolic power and running imbalance compared to the control team during their match.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest carbohydrate loading enabled elite soccer players to achieve greater running outputs with greater metabolic efficiency and lower fatigue compared to their habitual diets.

An online exploratory survey of Australian athletes' and exercisers' use of and attitudes towards ultra-processed sports foods

Sports foods are convenient alternatives to everyday foods to fuel performance. Strong scientific evidence supports their use; however, commercial sports foods are classified by the NOVA system as ultra-processed foods (UPF). Consumption of UPF has been associated with poor mental and physical health, but little is known about athletes' consumption of and attitudes towards sports foods as a source of UPF. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess Australian athletes' intake of and attitudes towards sports foods and UPF. Adult athletes were recruited to complete an anonymous online survey via social media between October 2021 and February 2022. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, and Pearson's χ2 test was used to assess potential relationships between categorical demographic variables and consumption of sports foods. One hundred forty Australian adults participating in recreational (n 55), local/regional (n 52), state (n 11), national (n 14) or international (n 9) sports completed the survey. Ninety-five percent reported consuming sports foods within the past 12 months. Participants consumed sports drinks most commonly (73 %) and isolated protein supplements most frequently (40 % at least once per week). Participants reported everyday foods to be more affordable, taste better, present less risk of banned substances, but less convenient and greater risk of spoilage. Half (51 %) of participants reported concern about health effects of UPF. Participants reported regular UPF consumption despite taste and cost-related preferences for everyday foods and health concerns regarding UPF intake. Athletes may need support to identify and access safe, affordable, convenient, minimally processed alternatives to sports foods.

Short Severe Energy Restriction with Refueling Reduces Body Mass without Altering Training-Associated Performance Improvement

PURPOSE

We investigated short-term (9 d) exposure to low energy availability (LEA) in elite endurance athletes during a block of intensified training on self-reported well-being, body composition, and performance.

METHODS

Twenty-three highly trained race walkers undertook an ~3-wk research-embedded training camp during which they undertook baseline testing and 6 d of high energy/carbohydrate (HCHO) availability (40 kcal·kg FFM -1 ·d -1 ) before being allocated to 9 d continuation of this diet ( n = 10 M, 2 F) or a significant decrease in energy availability to 15 kcal·kg FFM -1 ·d -1 (LEA: n = 10 M, 1 F). A real-world 10,000-m race walking event was undertaken before (baseline) and after (adaptation) these phases, with races being preceded by standardized carbohydrate fueling (8 g·kg body mass [BM] -1 for 24 h and 2 g·kg BM -1 prerace meal).

RESULTS

Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry-assessed body composition showed BM loss (2.0 kg, P < 0.001), primarily due to a 1.6-kg fat mass reduction ( P < 0.001) in LEA, with smaller losses (BM = 0.9 kg, P = 0.008; fat mass = 0.9 kg, P < 0.001) in HCHO. The 76-item Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes, undertaken at the end of each dietary phase, showed significant diet-trial effects for overall stress ( P = 0.021), overall recovery ( P = 0.024), sport-specific stress ( P = 0.003), and sport-specific recovery ( P = 0.012). However, improvements in race performance were similar: 4.5% ± 4.1% and 3.5% ± 1.8% for HCHO and LEA, respectively ( P < 0.001). The relationship between changes in performance and prerace BM was not significant ( r = -0.08 [-0.49 to 0.35], P = 0.717).

CONCLUSIONS

A series of strategically timed but brief phases of substantially restricted energy availability might achieve ideal race weight as part of a long-term periodization of physique by high-performance athletes, but the relationship between BM, training quality, and performance in weight-dependent endurance sports is complicated.

The molecular athlete: exercise physiology from mechanisms to medals

Human skeletal muscle demonstrates remarkable plasticity, adapting to numerous external stimuli including the habitual level of contractile loading. Accordingly, muscle function and exercise capacity encompass a broad spectrum, from inactive individuals with low levels of endurance and strength to elite athletes who produce prodigious performances underpinned by pleiotropic training-induced muscular adaptations. Our current understanding of the signal integration, interpretation, and output coordination of the cellular and molecular mechanisms that govern muscle plasticity across this continuum is incomplete. As such, training methods and their application to elite athletes largely rely on a "trial-and-error" approach, with the experience and practices of successful coaches and athletes often providing the bases for "post hoc" scientific enquiry and research. This review provides a synopsis of the morphological and functional changes along with the molecular mechanisms underlying exercise adaptation to endurance- and resistance-based training. These traits are placed in the context of innate genetic and interindividual differences in exercise capacity and performance, with special consideration given to aging athletes. Collectively, we provide a comprehensive overview of skeletal muscle plasticity in response to different modes of exercise and how such adaptations translate from "molecules to medals."

Adherence to a Ketogenic Low-Carbohydrate, High-Fat Diet Is Associated With Diminished Training Quality in Elite Racewalkers

PURPOSE

To examine the effects of a high-carbohydrate diet (HCHO), periodized-carbohydrate (CHO) diet (PCHO), and ketogenic low-CHO high-fat diet (LCHF) on training capacity.

METHODS

Elite male racewalkers completed 3 weeks of periodic training while adhering to their dietary intervention. Twenty-nine data sets were collected from 21 athletes. Each week, 6 mandatory training sessions were completed, with additional sessions performed at the athlete's discretion. Mandatory sessions included an interval session (10 × 1-km efforts on a 6-min cycle), tempo session (14 km with a 450-m elevation gain), 2 long walks (25-40 km), and 2 easy walks (8-12 km) where "sleep-low" and "train-low" dietary strategies were employed for PCHO. Racewalking speed, heart rate, rating of perceived exhaustion, and blood metabolites were collected around key sessions.

RESULTS

LCHF covered less total distance than HCHO and PCHO (P < .001); however, no differences in training load between groups were evident (P = .285). During the interval sessions, walking speed was slower in LCHF (P = .001), equating to a 2.8% and 5.6% faster speed in HCHO and PCHO, respectively. LCHF was also 3.2% slower in completing the tempo session than HCHO and PCHO (P = .001). Heart rate was higher (P = .002) and lactate concentrations were lower (P < .001) in LCHF compared to other groups, despite slower walking speeds during the interval session. No between-groups differences in rating of perceived exhaustion were evident (P = .077).

CONCLUSION

Athletes adhering to an LCHF diet showed impaired training capacity relative to their high-CHO-supported counterparts, completing lower training volumes at slower speeds, with higher heart rates.

Habitual low carbohydrate high fat diet compared with omnivorous, vegan, and vegetarian diets

Background

Dietary patterns which exclude whole food groups, such as vegetarian, vegan and low carbohydrate high fat diet (LCHF), are increasingly popular in general public. When carefully planned, all these diets have some known benefits for health, but concerns are also raised in particular for LCHF. The quality of LCHF diet which individuals follow in real life without supervision is not known.

Methods

One hundred thirty healthy individuals with stable body mass following LCHF, vegan, vegetarian and omnivorous diet for at least six months, were compared in a cross-sectional study. Diet was analyzed through 3-day food records and FFQ, anthropometric measurements were performed and serum metabolic biomarkers determined from fasting blood.

Results

Participants on LCHF diet had the intakes of micronutrients comparable to other groups, while the intakes of macronutrients differed in line with the definition of each diet. The intakes of saturated fats, cholesterol and animal proteins were significantly higher and the intakes of sugars and dietary fibers were lower compared to other groups. Healthy eating index 2015 in this group was the lowest. There were no differences in the levels of glucose, triacylglycerols and CRP among groups. Total and LDL cholesterol levels were significantly higher in LCHF group, in particular in participants with higher ketogenic ratio. Fatty acids intakes and intakes of cholesterol, dietary fibers and animal proteins explained 40% of variance in total cholesterol level, with saturated fatty acids being the strongest positive predictor and monounsaturated fatty acids a negative predictor.

Conclusion

None of the self-advised diets provided all the necessary nutrients in optimal levels. Due to the detected increased levels of serum cholesterols, selection of healthy fat sources, higher intake of dietary fibers and partial replacing of animal sources with plant sources of foods should be recommended to the individuals selecting LCFH dietary pattern.Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT04347213.

The Use of Continuous Glucose Monitors in Sport: Possible Applications and Considerations

This review discusses the potential value of tracking interstitial glucose with continuous glucose monitors (CGMs) in athletes, highlighting possible applications and important considerations in the collection and interpretation of interstitial glucose data. CGMs are sensors that provide real time, longitudinal tracking of interstitial glucose with a range of commercial monitors currently available. Recent advancements in CGM technology have led to the development of athlete-specific devices targeting glucose monitoring in sport. Although largely untested, the capacity of CGMs to capture the duration, magnitude, and frequency of interstitial glucose fluctuations every 1-15 min may present a unique opportunity to monitor fueling adequacy around competitive events and training sessions, with applications for applied research and sports nutrition practice. Indeed, manufacturers of athlete-specific devices market these products as a "fueling gauge," enabling athletes to "push their limits longer and get bigger gains." However, as glucose homeostasis is a complex phenomenon, extensive research is required to ascertain whether systemic glucose availability (estimated by CGM-derived interstitial glucose) has any meaning in relation to the intended purposes in sport. Whether CGMs will provide reliable and accurate information and enhance sports nutrition knowledge and practice is currently untested. Caveats around the use of CGMs include technical issues (dislodging of sensors during periods of surveillance, loss of data due to synchronization issues), practical issues (potential bans on their use in some sporting scenarios, expense), and challenges to the underpinning principles of data interpretation, which highlight the role of sports nutrition professionals to provide context and interpretation.

Factors Influencing Substrate Oxidation During Submaximal Cycling: A Modelling Analysis

BACKGROUND

Multiple factors influence substrate oxidation during exercise including exercise duration and intensity, sex, and dietary intake before and during exercise. However, the relative influence and interaction between these factors is unclear.

OBJECTIVES

Our aim was to investigate factors influencing the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) during continuous exercise and formulate multivariable regression models to determine which factors best explain RER during exercise, as well as their relative influence.

METHODS

Data were extracted from 434 studies reporting RER during continuous cycling exercise. General linear mixed-effect models were used to determine relationships between RER and factors purported to influence RER (e.g., exercise duration and intensity, muscle glycogen, dietary intake, age, and sex), and to examine which factors influenced RER, with standardized coefficients used to assess their relative influence.

RESULTS

The RER decreases with exercise duration, dietary fat intake, age, VO2max, and percentage of type I muscle fibers, and increases with dietary carbohydrate intake, exercise intensity, male sex, and carbohydrate intake before and during exercise. The modelling could explain up to 59% of the variation in RER, and a model using exclusively easily modified factors (exercise duration and intensity, and dietary intake before and during exercise) could only explain 36% of the variation in RER. Variables with the largest effect on RER were sex, dietary intake, and exercise duration. Among the diet-related factors, daily fat and carbohydrate intake have a larger influence than carbohydrate ingestion during exercise.

CONCLUSION

Variability in RER during exercise cannot be fully accounted for by models incorporating a range of participant, diet, exercise, and physiological characteristics. To better understand what influences substrate oxidation during exercise further research is required on older subjects and females, and on other factors that could explain additional variability in RER.

Intersection of Diet and Exercise with the Gut Microbiome and Circulating Metabolites in Male Bodybuilders: A Pilot Study

Diet, exercise and the gut microbiome are all factors recognised to be significant contributors to cardiometabolic health. However, diet and exercise interventions to modify the gut microbiota to improve health are limited by poor understanding of the interactions between them. In this pilot study, we explored diet–exercise–microbiome dynamics in bodybuilders as they represent a distinctive group that typically employ well-defined dietary strategies and exercise regimes to alter their body composition. We performed longitudinal characterisation of diet, exercise, the faecal microbial community composition and serum metabolites in five bodybuilders during competition preparation and post-competition. All participants reduced fat mass while conserving lean mass during competition preparation, corresponding with dietary energy intake and exercise load, respectively. There was individual variability in food choices that aligned to individualised gut microbial community compositions throughout the study. However, there was a common shift from a high protein, low carbohydrate diet during pre-competition to a more macronutrient-balanced diet post-competition, which was associated with similar changes in the gut microbial diversity across participants. The circulating metabolite profiles also reflected individuality, but a subset of metabolites relating to lipid metabolism distinguished between pre- and post-competition. Changes in the gut microbiome and circulating metabolome were distinct for each individual, but showed common patterns. We conclude that further longitudinal studies will have greater potential than cross-sectional studies in informing personalisation of diet and exercise regimes to enhance exercise outcomes and improve health.

Patterns of energy availability of free-living athletes display day-to-day variability that is not reflected in laboratory-based protocols: Insights from elite male road cyclists

The physiological effects of low energy availability (EA) have been studied using a homogenous daily EA pattern in laboratory settings. However, whether this daily EA pattern represents those of free-living athletes and is therefore ecologically valid is unknown. To investigate this, we assessed daily exercise energy expenditure, energy intake and EA in 10 free-living elite male road cyclists (20 min Mean Maximal Power: 5.27 ± 0.25 W · kg^-1) during 7 consecutive days of late pre-season training. Energy intake was measured using the remote-food photography method and exercise energy expenditure estimated from cycling crank-based power-metres. Seven-day mean ± SD energy intake and exercise energy expenditure was 57.9 ± 10.4 and 38.4 ± 8.6 kcal · kg FFM^-1 · day^-1, respectively. EA was 19.5 ± 9.1 kcal · kg FFM^-1 · day^-1. Within-participants correlation between daily energy intake and exercise energy expenditure was .62 (95% CI: .43 - .75; P < .001), and .60 (95% CI: .41 - .74; P < .001) between carbohydrate intake and exercise energy expenditure. However, energy intake only partially compensated for exercise energy expenditure, increasing 210 kcal · day^-1 per 1000 kcal · day^-1 increase in expenditure. EA patterns displayed marked day-to-day fluctuation (range: -22 to 76 kcal · kg FFM^-1 · day^-1). The validity of research using homogenous low EA patterns therefore requires further investigation.

Effects of the ketogenic diet on performance and body composition in athletes and trained adults: a systematic review and Bayesian multivariate multilevel meta-analysis and meta-regression

This systematic review with meta-analysis aimed to determine the effects of the ketogenic diet (KD) against carbohydrate (CHO)-rich diets on physical performance and body composition in trained individuals. The MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, and The Cochrane Library were searched. Randomized and non-randomized controlled trials in athletes/trained adults were included. Meta-analytic models were carried out using Bayesian multilevel models. Eighteen studies were included providing estimates on cyclic exercise modes and strength one-maximum repetition (1-RM) performances and for total, fat, and free-fat masses. There were more favorable effects for CHO-rich than KD on time-trial performance (mode [95% credible interval]; -3.3% [-8.5%, 1.7%]), 1-RM (-5.7% [-14.9%, 2.6%]), and free-fat mass (-0.8 [-3.4, 1.9] kg); effects were more favorable to KD on total (-2.4 [-6.2, 1.8] kg) and fat mass losses (-2.4 [-5.4, 0.2] kg). Likely modifying effects on cyclic performance were the subject's sex and VO2max, intervention and performance durations, and mode of exercise. The intervention duration and subjects' sex were likely to modify effects on total body mass. KD can be a useful strategy for total and fat body losses, but a small negative effect on free-fat mass was observed. KD was not suitable for enhancing strength 1-RM or high-intensity cyclic performances.

Gut Microbial Stability is Associated with Greater Endurance Performance in Athletes Undertaking Dietary Periodization

Dietary manipulation with high-protein or high-carbohydrate content are frequently employed during elite athletic training, aiming to enhance athletic performance. Such interventions are likely to impact upon gut microbial content. This study explored the impact of acute high-protein or high-carbohydrate diets on measured endurance performance and associated gut microbial community changes. In a cohort of well-matched, highly trained endurance runners, we measured performance outcomes, as well as gut bacterial, viral (FVP), and bacteriophage (IV) communities in a double-blind, repeated-measures design randomized control trial (RCT) to explore the impact of dietary intervention with either high-protein or high-carbohydrate content. High-dietary carbohydrate improved time-trial performance by +6.5% (P < 0.03) and was associated with expansion of Ruminococcus and Collinsella bacterial spp. Conversely, high dietary protein led to a reduction in performance by −23.3% (P = 0.001). This impact was accompanied by significantly reduced diversity (IV: P = 0.04) and altered composition (IV and FVP: P = 0.02) of the gut phageome as well as enrichment of both free and inducible Sk1virus and Leuconostoc bacterial populations. Greatest performance during dietary modification was observed in participants with less substantial shifts in community composition. Gut microbial stability during acute dietary periodization was associated with greater athletic performance in this highly trained, well-matched cohort. Athletes, and those supporting them, should be mindful of the potential consequences of dietary manipulation on gut flora and implications for performance, and periodize appropriately.

IMPORTANCE Dietary periodization is employed to improve endurance exercise performance but may impact on gut microbial communities. Bacteriophage are implicated in bacterial cell homeostasis and have been identified as biomarkers of disequilibrium in the gut ecosystem possibly brought about through dietary periodization. We find high-carbohydrate and high-protein diets to have opposing impacts on endurance performance in highly trained athlete populations. Reduced performance is linked with disturbance of microbial stasis in the gut. We demonstrate bacteriophage communities are the most sensitive component of the gut microbiota to increased gut stress following dietary manipulation. Athletes undertaking dietary periodization should be aware of potential negative impacts of drastic changes to dietary composition on gut microbial stasis and, in turn, endurance performance.

What Is the Evidence That Dietary Macronutrient Composition Influences Exercise Performance? A Narrative Review

The introduction of the needle muscle biopsy technique in the 1960s allowed muscle tissue to be sampled from exercising humans for the first time. The finding that muscle glycogen content reached low levels at exhaustion suggested that the metabolic cause of fatigue during prolonged exercise had been discovered. A special pre-exercise diet that maximized pre-exercise muscle glycogen storage also increased time to fatigue during prolonged exercise. The logical conclusion was that the athlete's pre-exercise muscle glycogen content is the single most important acutely modifiable determinant of endurance capacity. Muscle biochemists proposed that skeletal muscle has an obligatory dependence on high rates of muscle glycogen/carbohydrate oxidation, especially during high intensity or prolonged exercise. Without this obligatory carbohydrate oxidation from muscle glycogen, optimum muscle metabolism cannot be sustained; fatigue develops and exercise performance is impaired. As plausible as this explanation may appear, it has never been proven. Here, I propose an alternate explanation. All the original studies overlooked one crucial finding, specifically that not only were muscle glycogen concentrations low at exhaustion in all trials, but hypoglycemia was also always present. Here, I provide the historical and modern evidence showing that the blood glucose concentration-reflecting the liver glycogen rather than the muscle glycogen content-is the homeostatically-regulated (protected) variable that drives the metabolic response to prolonged exercise. If this is so, nutritional interventions that enhance exercise performance, especially during prolonged exercise, will be those that assist the body in its efforts to maintain the blood glucose concentration within the normal range.

Feeding Tolerance, Glucose Availability, and Whole-Body Total Carbohydrate and Fat Oxidation in Male Endurance and Ultra-Endurance Runners in Response to Prolonged Exercise, Consuming a Habitual Mixed Macronutrient Diet and Carbohydrate Feeding During Exercise

Using metadata from previously published research, this investigation sought to explore: (1) whole-body total carbohydrate and fat oxidation rates of endurance (e.g., half and full marathon) and ultra-endurance runners during an incremental exercise test to volitional exhaustion and steady-state exercise while consuming a mixed macronutrient diet and consuming carbohydrate during steady-state running and (2) feeding tolerance and glucose availability while consuming different carbohydrate regimes during steady-state running. Competitively trained male endurance and ultra-endurance runners (n = 28) consuming a balanced macronutrient diet (57 ± 6% carbohydrate, 21 ± 16% protein, and 22 ± 9% fat) performed an incremental exercise test to exhaustion and one of three 3 h steady-state running protocols involving a carbohydrate feeding regime (76-90 g/h). Indirect calorimetry was used to determine maximum fat oxidation (MFO) in the incremental exercise and carbohydrate and fat oxidation rates during steady-state running. Gastrointestinal symptoms (GIS), breath hydrogen (H2), and blood glucose responses were measured throughout the steady-state running protocols. Despite high variability between participants, high rates of MFO [mean (range): 0.66 (0.22-1.89) g/min], Fatmax [63 (40-94) % V̇O2max], and Fatmin [94 (77-100) % V̇O2max] were observed in the majority of participants in response to the incremental exercise test to volitional exhaustion. Whole-body total fat oxidation rate was 0.8 ± 0.3 g/min at the end of steady-state exercise, with 43% of participants presenting rates of ≥1.0 g/min, despite the state of hyperglycemia above resting homeostatic range [mean (95%CI): 6.9 (6.7-7.2) mmol/L]. In response to the carbohydrate feeding interventions of 90 g/h 2:1 glucose-fructose formulation, 38% of participants showed breath H2 responses indicative of carbohydrate malabsorption. Greater gastrointestinal symptom severity and feeding intolerance was observed with higher carbohydrate intakes (90 vs. 76 g/h) during steady-state exercise and was greatest when high exercise intensity was performed (i.e., performance test). Endurance and ultra-endurance runners can attain relatively high rates of whole-body fat oxidation during exercise in a post-prandial state and with carbohydrate provisions during exercise, despite consuming a mixed macronutrient diet. Higher carbohydrate intake during exercise may lead to greater gastrointestinal symptom severity and feeding intolerance.

New Horizons in Carbohydrate Research and Application for Endurance Athletes

The importance of carbohydrate as a fuel source for exercise and athletic performance is well established. Equally well developed are dietary carbohydrate intake guidelines for endurance athletes seeking to optimize their performance. This narrative review provides a contemporary perspective on research into the role of, and application of, carbohydrate in the diet of endurance athletes. The review discusses how recommendations could become increasingly refined and what future research would further our understanding of how to optimize dietary carbohydrate intake to positively impact endurance performance. High carbohydrate availability for prolonged intense exercise and competition performance remains a priority. Recent advances have been made on the recommended type and quantity of carbohydrates to be ingested before, during and after intense exercise bouts. Whilst reducing carbohydrate availability around selected exercise bouts to augment metabolic adaptations to training is now widely recommended, a contemporary view of the so-called train-low approach based on the totality of the current evidence suggests limited utility for enhancing performance benefits from training. Nonetheless, such studies have focused importance on periodizing carbohydrate intake based on, among other factors, the goal and demand of training or competition. This calls for a much more personalized approach to carbohydrate recommendations that could be further supported through future research and technological innovation (e.g., continuous glucose monitoring). Despite more than a century of investigations into carbohydrate nutrition, exercise metabolism and endurance performance, there are numerous new important discoveries, both from an applied and mechanistic perspective, on the horizon.

Nutrition in Cycling

Cycling is predominantly an endurance sport in which fuel utilization for energy production relies on the availability and delivery of oxygen to exercising muscle. Nutrition and training interventions to improve endurance performance are continually evolving, but ultimately, prescription should aim to generate improvements in cycling power and velocity while prioritizing athlete health and well-being. The wide range of cycling events and the different environments in which events take place pose a variety of nutrition-related challenges for cyclists. This review addresses some of these challenges and highlights recent advancements in nutrition for cycling performance.

Nutritional approaches to counter performance constraints in high-level sports competition

New Findings

What is the topic of this review?

The nutritional strategies that athletes use during competition events to optimize performance and the reasons they use them.

What advances does it highlight?

A range of nutritional strategies can be used by competitive athletes, alone or in combination, to address various event‐specific factors that constrain event performance. Evidence for such practices is constantly evolving but must be combined with understanding of the complexities of real‐life sport for optimal implementation.

Abstract

High‐performance athletes share a common goal despite the unique nature of their sport: to pace or manage their performance to achieve the highest sustainable outputs over the duration of the event. Periodic or sustained decline in the optimal performance of event tasks, involves an interplay between central and peripheral phenomena that can often be reduced or delayed in onset by nutritional strategies. Contemporary nutrition practices undertaken before, during or between events include strategies to ensure the availability of limited muscle fuel stores. This includes creatine supplementation to increase muscle phosphocreatine content and consideration of the type, amount and timing of dietary carbohydrate intake to optimize muscle and liver glycogen stores or to provide additional exogenous substrate. Although there is interest in ketogenic low‐carbohydrate high‐fat diets and exogenous ketone supplements to provide alternative fuels to spare muscle carbohydrate use, present evidence suggests a limited utility of these strategies. Mouth sensing of a range of food tastants (e.g., carbohydrate, quinine, menthol, caffeine, fluid, acetic acid) may provide a central nervous system derived boost to sports performance. Finally, despite decades of research on hypohydration and exercise capacity, there is still contention around their effect on sports performance and the best guidance around hydration for sporting events. A unifying model proposes that some scenarios require personalized fluid plans while others might be managed by an ad hoc approach (ad libitum or thirst‐driven drinking) to fluid intake.

The influence of a basic military training diet on whole blood fatty acid profile and the Omega-3 Index of Australian Army recruits

This study described the whole blood fatty acid profile and Omega-3 Index (O3I) of Australian Army recruits at the commencement and completion of basic military training (BMT). Eighty (80) males (17-34 y, 77.4±13.0 kg, 43.5±4.3 mL/kg/min) and 37 females (17-45 y, 64.3±8.8 kg, 39.3±2.7 mL/kg/min) volunteered to participate (N=117). Whole blood samples of each recruit were collected using a finger prick in weeks 1 and 11 (n=82) and analysed via gas chromatography for the relative proportions of each fatty acid (mean [95% CI]). The macronutrient characteristics of the diet offerings was also determined. At commencement there was a low omega-3 status (sum of omega-3; 4.95% [4.82-5.07]) and O3I (5.03% [4.90-5.16]) and no recruit recorded an O3I >8% (desirable). The omega-6/omega-3 (7.04 [6.85-7.23]) and arachidonic acid / eicosapentaenoic acid (AA/EPA) (18.70 [17.86-19.53]) ratios for the cohort were also undesirable. The BMT mess menu provided a maximum of 190 mg/day of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and 260 mg/day of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The O3I of the recruits was lower by week 11 (4.62% [4.51-4.78], p<0.05), the omega-6/omega-3 increased (7.27 [7.07-7.47] p<0.05) and the AA/EPA remained elevated (17.85 [16.89-18.81]). In conclusion, Australian Army recruits' omega-3 status remained undesirable during BMT and deserves nutritional attention. Novelty Bullets • Australian Army recruits' Omega-3 Index, at the commencement of BMT, was reflective of the Western-style diet. • The BMT diet offered minimum opportunity for daily EPA and DHA consumption. • Every recruit experienced a further reduction of their Omega-3 Index during BMT.

Neither Beetroot Juice Supplementation nor Increased Carbohydrate Oxidation Enhance Economy of Prolonged Exercise in Elite Race Walkers

Given the importance of exercise economy to endurance performance, we implemented two strategies purported to reduce the oxygen cost of exercise within a 4 week training camp in 21 elite male race walkers. Fourteen athletes undertook a crossover investigation with beetroot juice (BRJ) or placebo (PLA) [2 d preload, 2 h pre-exercise + 35 min during exercise] during a 26 km race walking at speeds simulating competitive events. Separately, 19 athletes undertook a parallel group investigation of a multi-pronged strategy (MAX; n = 9) involving chronic (2 w high carbohydrate [CHO] diet + gut training) and acute (CHO loading + 90 g/h CHO during exercise) strategies to promote endogenous and exogenous CHO availability, compared with strategies reflecting lower ranges of current guidelines (CON; n = 10). There were no differences between BRJ and PLA trials for rates of CHO (p = 0.203) or fat (p = 0.818) oxidation or oxygen consumption (p = 0.090). Compared with CON, MAX was associated with higher rates of CHO oxidation during exercise, with increased exogenous CHO use (CON; peak = ~0.45 g/min; MAX: peak = ~1.45 g/min, p < 0.001). High rates of exogenous CHO use were achieved prior to gut training, without further improvement, suggesting that elite athletes already optimise intestinal CHO absorption via habitual practices. No differences in exercise economy were detected despite small differences in substrate use. Future studies should investigate the impact of these strategies on sub-elite athletes’ economy as well as the performance effects in elite groups.

Under the Hood: Skeletal Muscle Determinants of Endurance Performance

In the past decades, researchers have extensively studied (elite) athletes' physiological responses to understand how to maximize their endurance performance. In endurance sports, whole-body measurements such as the maximal oxygen consumption, lactate threshold, and efficiency/economy play a key role in performance. Although these determinants are known to interact, it has also been demonstrated that athletes rarely excel in all three. The leading question is how athletes reach exceptional values in one or all of these determinants to optimize their endurance performance, and how such performance can be explained by (combinations of) underlying physiological determinants. In this review, we advance on Joyner and Coyle's conceptual framework of endurance performance, by integrating a meta-analysis of the interrelationships, and corresponding effect sizes between endurance performance and its key physiological determinants at the macroscopic (whole-body) and the microscopic level (muscle tissue, i.e., muscle fiber oxidative capacity, oxygen supply, muscle fiber size, and fiber type). Moreover, we discuss how these physiological determinants can be improved by training and what potential physiological challenges endurance athletes may face when trying to maximize their performance. This review highlights that integrative assessment of skeletal muscle determinants points toward efficient type-I fibers with a high mitochondrial oxidative capacity and strongly encourages well-adjusted capillarization and myoglobin concentrations to accommodate the required oxygen flux during endurance performance, especially in large muscle fibers. Optimisation of endurance performance requires careful design of training interventions that fine tune modulation of exercise intensity, frequency and duration, and particularly periodisation with respect to the skeletal muscle determinants.

Hepcidin as a Prospective Individualized Biomarker for Individuals at Risk of Low Energy Availability

Hepcidin, a peptide hormone with an acknowledged evolutionary function in iron homeostasis, was discovered at the turn of the 21st century. Since then, the implications of increased hepcidin activity have been investigated as a potential advocate for the increased risk of iron deficiency in various health settings. Such implications are particularly relevant in the sporting community where peaks in hepcidin postexercise (∼3-6 hr) are suggested to reduce iron absorption and recycling, and contribute to the development of exercise-induced iron deficiency in athletes. Over the last decade, hepcidin research in sport has focused on acute and chronic hepcidin activity following single and repeated training blocks. This research has led to investigations examining possible methods to attenuate postexercise hepcidin expression through dietary interventions. The majority of macronutrient dietary interventions have focused on manipulating the carbohydrate content of the diet in an attempt to determine the health of athletes adopting the low-carbohydrate or ketogenic diets, a practice that is a growing trend among endurance athletes. During the process of these macronutrient dietary intervention studies, an observable coincidence of increased cumulative hepcidin activity to low energy availability has emerged. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the existing literature on nutritional interventions on hepcidin activity, thus, highlighting the link of hepcidin to energy availability, while also making a case for the use of hepcidin as an individualized biomarker for low energy availability in males and females.

Overtraining Syndrome (OTS) and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S): Shared Pathways, Symptoms and Complexities

The symptom similarities between training-overload (with or without an Overtraining Syndrome (OTS) diagnosis) and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) are significant, with both initiating from a hypothalamic-pituitary origin, that can be influenced by low carbohydrate (CHO) and energy availability (EA). In this narrative review we wish to showcase that many of the negative outcomes of training-overload (with, or without an OTS diagnosis) may be primarily due to misdiagnosed under-fueling, or RED-S, via low EA and/or low CHO availability. Accordingly, we undertook an analysis of training-overload/OTS type studies that have also collected and analyzed for energy intake (EI), CHO, exercise energy expenditure (EEE) and/or EA. Eighteen of the 21 studies (86%) that met our criteria showed indications of an EA decrease or difference between two cohorts within a given study (n = 14 studies) or CHO availability decrease (n = 4 studies) during the training-overload/OTS period, resulting in both training-overload/OTS and RED-S symptom outcomes compared to control conditions. Furthermore, we demonstrate significantly similar symptom overlaps across much of the OTS (n = 57 studies) and RED-S/Female Athlete Triad (n = 88 studies) literature. It is important to note that the prevention of under-recovery is multi-factorial, but many aspects are based around EA and CHO availability. Herein we have demonstrated that OTS and RED-S have many shared pathways, symptoms, and diagnostic complexities. Substantial attention is required to increase the knowledge and awareness of RED-S, and to enhance the diagnostic accuracy of both OTS and RED-S, to allow clinicians to more accurately exclude LEA/RED-S from OTS diagnoses.

Effects of short-term graded dietary carbohydrate intake on intramuscular and whole body metabolism during moderate-intensity exercise

Altering dietary carbohydrate (CHO) intake modulates fuel utilization during exercise. However, there has been no systematic evaluation of metabolic responses to graded changes in short-term (< 1 wk) dietary CHO intake. Thirteen active men performed interval running exercise combined with isocaloric diets over 3 days before evaluation of metabolic responses to 60-min running at 65% V̇O_2max on three occasions. Diets contained lower [LOW, 2.40 ± 0.66 g CHO·kg^-1·day^-1, 21.3 ± 0.5% of energy intake (EI)], moderate (MOD, 4.98 ± 1.31 g CHO·kg^-1·day^-1, 46.3 ± 0.7% EI), or higher (HIGH, 6.48 ± 1.56 g CHO·kg^-1·day^-1, 60.5 ± 1.6% EI) CHO. Preexercise muscle glycogen content was lower in LOW [54.3 ± 26.4 mmol·kg^-1 wet weight (ww)] compared with MOD (82.6 ± 18.8 mmol·kg ^-1 ww) and HIGH (80.4 ± 26.0 mmol·kg^-1 ww, P < 0.001; MOD vs. HIGH, P = 0.85). Whole body substrate oxidation, systemic responses, and muscle substrate utilization during exercise indicated increased fat and decreased CHO metabolism in LOW [respiratory exchange ratio (RER): 0.81 ± 0.01] compared with MOD (RER 0.86 ± 0.01, P = 0.0005) and HIGH (RER: 0.88 ± 0.01, P < 0.0001; MOD vs. HIGH, P = 0.14). Higher basal muscle expression of genes encoding proteins implicated in fat utilization was observed in LOW. In conclusion, muscle glycogen availability and subsequent metabolic responses to exercise were resistant to increases in dietary CHO intake from ∼5.0 to ∼6.5 g CHO·kg^-1·day^-1 (46% to 61% EI), while muscle glycogen, gene expression, and metabolic responses were sensitive to more marked reductions in CHO intake (∼2.4 g CHO·kg^-1·day^-1, ∼21% EI).NEW & NOTEWORTHY The data presented here suggest that metabolic responses to steady-state aerobic exercise are somewhat resistant to short-term changes in dietary carbohydrate (CHO) intake within the 5-6.5 g CHO·kg^-1·day^-1 [46-61% energy intake (EI)] range. In contrast, reduction in short-term dietary CHO intake to ∼2.4 g CHO·kg^-1·day^-1 (21% EI) evoked clear changes indicative of increased fat and decreased CHO metabolism during exercise.

The Effects of an Acute "Train-Low" Nutritional Protocol on Markers of Recovery Optimization in Endurance-Trained Male Athletes

PURPOSE

This study aimed to determine the effects of an acute "train-low" nutritional protocol on markers of recovery optimization compared to standard recovery nutrition protocol.

METHODS

After completing a 2-hour high-intensity interval running protocol, 8 male endurance athletes consumed a standard dairy milk recovery beverage (CHO; 1.2 g/kg body mass [BM] of carbohydrate and 0.4 g/kg BM of protein) and a low-carbohydrate (L-CHO; isovolumetric with 0.35 g/kg BM of carbohydrate and 0.5 g/kg BM of protein) dairy milk beverage in a double-blind randomized crossover design. Venous blood and breath samples, nude BM, body water, and gastrointestinal symptom measurements were collected preexercise and during recovery. Muscle biopsy was performed at 0 hour and 2 hours of recovery. Participants returned to the laboratory the following morning to measure energy substrate oxidation and perform a 1-hour distance test.

RESULTS

The exercise protocol resulted in depletion of muscle glycogen stores (250 mmol/kg dry weight) and mild body-water losses (BM loss = 1.8%). Neither recovery beverage replenished muscle glycogen stores (279 mmol/kg dry weight) or prevented a decrease in bacterially stimulated neutrophil function (-21%). Both recovery beverages increased phosphorylation of mTORSer2448 (main effect of time = P < .001) and returned hydration status to baseline. A greater fold increase in p-GSK-3βSer9/total-GSK-3β occurred on CHO (P = .012). Blood glucose (P = .005) and insulin (P = .012) responses were significantly greater on CHO (618 mmol/L per 2 h and 3507 μIU/mL per 2 h, respectively) compared to L-CHO (559 mmol/L per 2 h and 1147 μIU/mL per 2 h, respectively). Rates of total fat oxidation were greater on CHO, but performance was not affected.

CONCLUSION

A lower-carbohydrate recovery beverage consumed after exercise in a "train-low" nutritional protocol does not negatively impact recovery optimization outcomes.

Fuelling the female athlete: Carbohydrate and protein recommendations

Optimal carbohydrate and protein intakes are vital for modulating training adaptation, recovery, and exercise performance. However, the research base underpinning contemporary sport nutrition guidelines has largely been conducted in male populations with a lack of consensus on whether the menstrual phase and associated changes in sex hormones allow broad application of these principles to female athletes. The present review will summarise our current understanding of carbohydrate and protein requirements in female athletes across the menstrual cycle and provide a critical analysis on how they compare to male athletes. On the basis of current evidence, we consider it premature to conclude that female athletes require sex specific guidelines in relation to CHO or protein requirements provided energy needs are met. However, there is a need for further research using sport-specific competition and training related exercise protocols that rigorously control for prior exercise, CHO/energy intake, contraceptive use and phase of menstrual cycle. Our overarching recommendation is to use current recommendations as a basis for adopting an individualised approach that takes into account athlete specific training and competition goals whilst also considering personal symptoms associated with the menstrual cycle.

Performance effects of periodized carbohydrate restriction in endurance trained athletes - a systematic review and meta-analysis

Endurance athletes typically consume carbohydrate-rich diets to allow for optimal performance during competitions and intense training. However, acute exercise studies have revealed that training or recovery with low muscle glycogen stimulates factors of importance for mitochondrial biogenesis in addition to favourable metabolic adaptations in trained athletes. Compromised training quality and particularly lower intensities in peak intervals seem to be a major drawback from dietary interventions with chronic carbohydrate (CHO) restriction. Therefore, the concept of undertaking only selected training sessions with restricted CHO availability (periodized CHO restriction) has been proposed for endurance athletes. However, the overall performance effect of this concept has not been systematically reviewed in highly adapted endurance-trained athletes. We therefore conducted a meta-analysis of training studies that fulfilled the following criteria: a) inclusion of females and males demonstrating a VO₂max ≥ 55 and 60 ml · kg^− 1 · min^− 1, respectively; b) total intervention and training periods ≥ 1 week, c) use of interventions including training and/or recovery with periodized carbohydrate restriction at least three times per week, and d) measurements of endurance performance before and after the training period. The literature search resulted in 407 papers of which nine studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The subsequent meta-analysis demonstrated no overall effect of CHO periodization on endurance performance compared to control endurance training with normal (high) CHO availability (standardized mean difference = 0.17 [− 0.15, 0.49]; P = 0.29). Based on the available literature, we therefore conclude that periodized CHO restriction does not per se enhance performance in endurance-trained athletes. The review discusses different approaches to CHO periodization across studies with a focus on identifying potential physiological benefits.

Specific dietary practices in female athletes and their association with positive screening for disordered eating

BACKGROUND

To determine if following specific diets was associated with reporting behaviors that are consistent with disordered eating compared to non-diet-adherent athletes. We hypothesized that athletes adhering to specific diets were more likely to report disordered eating than those not following a diet.

METHODS

One thousand female athletes (15-30 years) completed a comprehensive survey about athletic health and wellness. Athletes were asked to specify their diet and completed 3 eating disorder screening tools: the Brief Eating Disorder in Athletes Questionnaire, the Eating Disorder Screen for Primary Care, and self-reported current or past history of eating disorder or disordered eating. Descriptive statistics were calculated for all study measures and chi-squared tests assessed relationships between athletes' dietary practices and their responses to eating disorder screening tools. Statistical significance was defined as p < 0.05.

RESULTS

Two hundred thirty-four of 1000 female athletes reported adherence to specific diets. 69 of the 234 diet-adhering athletes (29.5%) were excluded due to medically-indicated dietary practices or vague dietary descriptions. Of the 165 diet-adherent athletes, 113 (68.5%) screened positively to ≥1 of the 3 eating disorder screening tools. Specifically, athletes practicing a low-carbohydrate diet were more likely to report disordered eating vs. athletes without dietary restrictions (80% vs. 41.8%; p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Specific diet adherence in female athletes may be associated with reporting behaviors that are consistent with disordered eating. Health practitioners should consider further questioning of athletes reporting specific diet adherence in order to enhance nutritional knowledge and help treat and prevent eating disorders or disordered eating.

A Qualitative Investigation of Factors Influencing the Dietary Intakes of Professional Australian Football Players

(1) Background: Many professional Australian Football (AF) players do not meet recommended sports nutrition guidelines despite having access to nutrition advice. There are a range of factors that can influence players′ ability to meet their nutrition goals and awareness of the barriers players face is essential to ensure that dietary advice translates into practice. Therefore, this qualitative research study aimed to explore the factors influencing AF players’ dietary intakes and food choice. (2) Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twelve professional male AF players. (3) Results: Less experienced players restricted their carbohydrate intake to meet body composition goals, particularly during preseason and surrounding body composition assessment. During the competition season players had a greater focus on performance and placed more emphasis on carbohydrate intake in the lead up to matches. Players felt nutrition goals were easier to achieve when dietary choices were supported by their families and peers. One-on-one consultations provided by a sports dietitian were players′ preferred mode of nutrition intervention. Individualized nutrition advice is required for less experienced AF players who may be vulnerable to unsustainable dietary habits. Experienced AF players can support junior teammates by promoting positive team culture related to body composition, nutrition and performance.

Pre-Exercise Carbohydrate or Protein Ingestion Influences Substrate Oxidation but Not Performance or Hunger Compared with Cycling in the Fasted State

Nutritional intake can influence exercise metabolism and performance, but there is a lack of research comparing protein-rich pre-exercise meals with endurance exercise performed both in the fasted state and following a carbohydrate-rich breakfast. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of three pre-exercise nutrition strategies on metabolism and exercise capacity during cycling. On three occasions, seventeen trained male cyclists (VO_2peak 62.2 ± 5.8 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹, 31.2 ± 12.4 years, 74.8 ± 9.6 kg) performed twenty minutes of submaximal cycling (4 × 5 min stages at 60%, 80%, and 100% of ventilatory threshold (VT), and 20% of the difference between power at the VT and peak power), followed by 3 × 3 min intervals at 80% peak aerobic power and 3 × 3 min intervals at maximal effort, 30 min after consuming a carbohydrate-rich meal (CARB; 1 g/kg CHO), a protein-rich meal (PROTEIN; 0.45 g/kg protein + 0.24 g/kg fat), or water (FASTED), in a randomized and counter-balanced order. Fat oxidation was lower for CARB compared with FASTED at and below the VT, and compared with PROTEIN at 60% VT. There were no differences between trials for average power during high-intensity intervals (367 ± 51 W, p = 0.516). Oxidative stress (F₂-Isoprostanes), perceived exertion, and hunger were not different between trials. Overall, exercising in the overnight-fasted state increased fat oxidation during submaximal exercise compared with exercise following a CHO-rich breakfast, and pre-exercise protein ingestion allowed similarly high levels of fat oxidation. There were no differences in perceived exertion, hunger, or performance, and we provide novel data showing no influence of pre-exercise nutrition ingestion on exercise-induced oxidative stress.

Acute Ketogenic Diet and Ketone Ester Supplementation Impairs Race Walk Performance

PURPOSE

This study aimed to determine if LCHF and ketone ester (KE) supplementation can synergistically alter exercise metabolism and improve performance.

METHODS

Elite race walkers (n = 18, 15 males and 3 females; V˙O2peak, 62 ± 6 mL·min-1·kg-1) undertook a four-stage exercise economy test and real-life 10,000-m race before and after a 5-d isoenergetic high-CHO (HCHO, ~60%-65% fat; CHO, 20% fat; n = 9) or LCHF (75%-80% fat, <50 g·d-1 CHO, n = 9) diet. The LCHF group performed additional economy tests before and after diet after supplementation with 573 mg·kg-1 body mass KE (HVMN; HVMN Inc., San Francisco, CA), which was also consumed for race 2.

RESULTS

The oxygen cost of exercise (relative V˙O2, mL·min-1·kg-1) increased across all four stages after LCHF (P < 0.005). This occurred in association with increased fat oxidation rates, with a reciprocal decrease in CHO oxidation (P < 0.001). Substrate utilization in the HCHO group remained unaltered. The consumption of KE before the LCHF diet increased circulating KB (P < 0.05), peaking at 3.2 ± 0.6 mM, but did not alter V˙O2 or RER. LCHF diet elevated resting circulating KB (0.3 ± 0.1 vs 0.1 ± 0.1 mM), but concentrations after supplementation did not differ from the earlier ketone trial. Critically, race performance was impaired by ~6% (P < 0.0001) relative to baseline in the LCHF group but was unaltered in HCHO.

CONCLUSION

Despite elevating endogenous KB production, an LCHF diet does not augment the metabolic responses to KE supplementation and negatively affects race performance.

Carbohydrate improves exercise capacity but does not affect subcellular lipid droplet morphology, AMPK and p53 signalling in human skeletal muscle

KEY POINTS

Muscle glycogen and intramuscular triglycerides (IMTG, stored in lipid droplets) are important energy substrates during prolonged exercise. Exercise-induced changes in lipid droplet (LD) morphology (i.e. LD size and number) have not yet been studied under nutritional conditions typically adopted by elite endurance athletes, that is, after carbohydrate (CHO) loading and CHO feeding during exercise. We report for the first time that exercise reduces IMTG content in both central and peripheral regions of type I and IIa fibres, reflective of decreased LD number in both fibre types whereas reductions in LD size were exclusive to type I fibres. Additionally, CHO feeding does not alter subcellular IMTG utilisation, LD morphology or muscle glycogen utilisation in type I or IIa/II fibres. In the absence of alterations to muscle fuel selection, CHO feeding does not attenuate cell signalling pathways with regulatory roles in mitochondrial biogenesis.

ABSTRACT

We examined the effects of carbohydrate (CHO) feeding on lipid droplet (LD) morphology, muscle glycogen utilisation and exercise-induced skeletal muscle cell signalling. After a 36 h CHO loading protocol and pre-exercise meal (12 and 2 g kg^-1 , respectively), eight trained males ingested 0, 45 or 90 g CHO h^-1 during 180 min cycling at lactate threshold followed by an exercise capacity test (150% lactate threshold). Muscle biopsies were obtained pre- and post-completion of submaximal exercise. Exercise decreased (P < 0.01) glycogen concentration to comparable levels (∼700 to 250 mmol kg^-1 DW), though utilisation was greater in type I (∼40%) versus type II fibres (∼10%) (P < 0.01). LD content decreased in type I (∼50%) and type IIa fibres (∼30%) (P < 0.01), with greater utilisation in type I fibres (P < 0.01). CHO feeding did not affect glycogen or IMTG utilisation in type I or II fibres (all P > 0.05). Exercise decreased LD number within central and peripheral regions of both type I and IIa fibres, though reduced LD size was exclusive to type I fibres. Exercise induced (all P < 0.05) comparable AMPK^Thr172 (∼4-fold), p53^Ser15 (∼2-fold) and CaMKII^Thr268 phosphorylation (∼2-fold) with no effects of CHO feeding (all P > 0.05). CHO increased exercise capacity where 90 g h^-1 (233 ± 133 s) > 45 g h^-1 (156 ± 66 s; P = 0.06) > 0 g h^-1 (108 ± 54 s; P = 0.03). In conditions of high pre-exercise CHO availability, we conclude CHO feeding does not influence exercise-induced changes in LD morphology, glycogen utilisation or cell signalling pathways with regulatory roles in mitochondrial biogenesis.

Effects of a Short-Term "Fat Adaptation with Carbohydrate Restoration" Diet on Metabolic Responses and Exercise Performance in Well-Trained Runners

Periodized carbohydrate availability can enhance exercise capacity, but the effects of short-term fat adaptation carbohydrate restoration (FACR) diets on metabolic responses and exercise performance in endurance athletes have not been conclusively determined. This study aimed to investigate the effect of a FACR diet on measures of resting metabolism, exercise metabolism, and exercise performance. Well-trained male runners (n = 8) completed a FACR dietary intervention (five days' carbohydrate < 20% and fat > 60% energy, plus one-day carbohydrate ≥ 70% energy), and a control high-carbohydrate (HCHO) diet for six days (carbohydrate > 60% energy; fat < 20% energy) in a randomized crossover design. Pre- and post-intervention metabolic measures included resting metabolic rate (RMR), respiratory quotient (RQ), maximum fat oxidation rate during exercise (MFO), and maximum fat oxidation intensity (FATmax). Measures of exercise performance included maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max), running economy (RE), and 5 km running time trial (5 km-TT). In FACR compared with HCHO, there were significant improvements in FATmax (p = 0.006) and RE (p = 0.048). There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) between FACR and HCHO in RMR, RQ, VO₂max, or 5 km-TT. Findings suggest that a short-term (six days) FACR diet may facilitate increased fat oxidation and submaximal exercise economy but does not improve 5 km-TT performance.

Relationships between Workload, Heart Rate Variability, and Performance in a Recreational Endurance Runner

BACKGROUND

The association between heart rate variability (HRV), training load (TL), and performance is poorly understood.

METHODS

A middle-aged recreational female runner was monitored during a competitive 20-wk macrocycle divided into first (M1) and second mesocycle (M2) in which best performances over 10 km and 21 km were recorded. Volume (km), session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE), TL, and monotony (mean TL/SD TL) were the workload parameters recorded. The root mean square of the successive differences in R-R intervals (RMSSD), its coefficient of variation (RMSSDcv), and the RMSSD:RR ratio were the HRV parameters monitored.

RESULTS

During M2, RMSSD (p = 0.006) and RMSSD:RR (p = 0.002) were significantly increased, while RR was significantly reduced (p = 0.017). Significant correlations were identified between monotony and volume (r = 0.552; p = 0.012), RR (r = 0.447; p = 0.048), and RMSSD:RR (r = -0.458; p = 0.042). A sudden reduction in RMSSD (from 40.31 to 24.34 ms) was observed the day before the first symptoms of an influenza.

CONCLUSIONS

The current results confirm the practicality of concurrent HRV and sRPE monitoring in recreational runners, with the RMSSD:RR ratio indicative of specific adaptations. Excessive training volume may be associated to both elevated monotony and reduced RMSSD:RR. Identification of mesocycle patterns is recommended for better individualization of the periodization used.

Metabolic Adaptations to Weight Loss: A Brief Review

ABSTRACT

Martínez-Gómez, MG and Roberts, BM. Metabolic adaptations to weight loss: A brief review. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2021-As the scientific literature has continuously shown, body mass loss attempts do not always follow a linear fashion nor always go as expected even when the intervention is calculated with precise tools. One of the main reasons why this tends to happen relies on our body's biological drive to regain the body mass we lose to survive. This phenomenon has been referred to as "metabolic adaptation" many times in the literature and plays a very relevant role in the management of obesity and human weight loss. This review will provide insights into some of the theoretical models for the etiology of metabolic adaptation as well as a quick look into the physiological and endocrine mechanisms that underlie it. Nutritional strategies and dietetic tools are thus necessary to confront these so-called adaptations to body mass loss. Among some of these strategies, we can highlight increasing protein needs, opting for high-fiber foods or programming-controlled diet refeeds, and diet breaks over a large body mass loss phase. Outside the nutritional aspects, it might be wise to increase the physical activity and thus the energy flux of an individual when possible to maintain diet-induced body mass loss in the long term. This review will examine these protocols and their viability in the context of adherence and sustainability for the individual toward successful body mass loss.

Ketogenic low-CHO, high-fat diet: the future of elite endurance sport?

The ability of ketogenic low-carbohydrate (CHO) high-fat (K-LCHF) diets to enhance muscle fat oxidation has led to claims that it is the 'future of elite endurance sport'. There is robust evidence that substantial increases in fat oxidation occur, even in elite athletes, within 3-4 weeks and possibly 5-10 days of adherence to a K-LCHF diet. Retooling of the muscle can double exercise fat use to ∼1.5 g min-1 , with the intensity of maximal rates of oxidation shifting from ∼45% to ∼70% of maximal aerobic capacity. Reciprocal reductions in CHO oxidation during exercise are clear, but current evidence to support the hypothesis of the normalization of muscle glycogen content with longer-term adaptation is weak. Importantly, keto-adaptation may impair the muscle's ability to use glycogen for oxidative fates, compromising the use of a more economical energy source when the oxygen supply becomes limiting and, thus, the performance of higher-intensity exercise (>80% maximal aerobic capacity). Even with moderate intensity exercise, individual responsiveness to K-LCHF is varied, with extremes at both ends of the performance spectrum. Periodisation of K-LCHF with high CHO availability might offer opportunities to restore capacity for higher-intensity exercise, but investigations of various models have failed to find a benefit over dietary approaches based on current sports nutrition guidelines. Endurance athletes who are contemplating the use of K-LCHF should undertake an audit of event characteristics and personal experiences to balance the risk of impaired performance of higher-intensity exercise with the likelihood of an unavoidable depletion of carbohydrate stores.

Effect of low- and high-carbohydrate diets on swimming economy: a crossover study

Background

Swimming economy refers to the rate of energy expenditure relative to swimming speed of movement, is inversely related to the energetic cost of swimming, and is as a key factor influencing endurance swimming performance. The objective of this study was to determine if high-carbohydrate, low-fat (HCLF) and low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) diets affect energetic cost of submaximal swimming.

Methods

Eight recreational swimmers consumed two 3-day isoenergetic diets in a crossover design. Diets were tailored to individual food preferences, and macronutrient consumption was 69–16-16% and 16–67-18% carbohydrate-fat-protein for the HCLF and LCHF diets, respectively. Following each 3-day dietary intervention, participants swam in a flume at velocities associated with 50, 60, and 70% of their maximal aerobic capacity (VO_2max). Expired breath was collected and analyzed while they swam which enabled calculation of the energetic cost of swimming. A paired t-test compared macronutrient distribution between HCLF and LCHF diets, while repeated-measures ANOVA determined effects of diet and exercise intensity on physiological endpoints.

Results

Respiratory exchange ratio was significantly higher in HCLF compared to LCHF (p = 0.003), but there were no significant differences in the rate of oxygen consumption (p = 0.499) or energetic cost of swimming (p = 0.324) between diets. Heart rate did not differ between diets (p = 0.712), but oxygen pulse, a non-invasive surrogate for stroke volume, was greater following the HCLF diet (p = 0.029).

Conclusions

A 3-day high-carbohydrate diet increased carbohydrate utilization but did not affect swimming economy at 50–70% VO_2max. As these intensities are applicable to ultramarathon swims, future studies should use higher intensities that would be more relevant to shorter duration events.

Iron Metabolism: Interactions with Energy and Carbohydrate Availability

The provision or restriction of select nutrients in an athlete's diet can elicit a variety of changes in fuel utilization, training adaptation, and performance outcomes. Furthermore, nutrient availability can also influence athlete health, with one key system of interest being iron metabolism. The aim of this review was to synthesize the current evidence examining the impact of dietary manipulations on the iron regulatory response to exercise. Specifically, we assessed the impact of both acute and chronic carbohydrate (CHO) restriction on iron metabolism, with relevance to contemporary sports nutrition approaches, including models of periodized CHO availability and ketogenic low CHO high fat diets. Additionally, we reviewed the current evidence linking poor iron status and altered hepcidin activity with low energy availability in athletes. A cohesive understanding of these interactions guides nutritional recommendations for athletes struggling to maintain healthy iron stores, and highlights future directions and knowledge gaps specific to elite athletes.

Low-carbohydrate diets: Effects on metabolism and exercise - A comprehensive literature review

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Low-carbohydrate diets (LCD) have gained substantial attention in recent years for their potential in health promotion and treatment of diseases, but they remain controversial in nutrition guidelines and exercise performance. Herein, through a literature review, we discuss the current evidence base by considering management of LCD and potential coupling of these dietary regiments with physical exercise.

METHODS

We performed a comprehensive literature review with no date limits as a means of including seminal to current studies.

RESULTS

Reduction of CHO intake decreases muscle glycogen, yielding greater fat oxidation and associated metabolic benefits. LCD may promote fat mass loss and regulation of biochemical parameters, such as lipid and glycemic biomarkers. The therapeutic potential of LCD towards noncommunicable diseases, particularly obesity and its comorbidities, is therefore reasonable as a dietary candidate in this context. Potential benefits to this approach are linked to enhancement of mitochondrial gene expression and mitochondrial biogenesis. As such, LCD may be a feasible tool in a 'periodized nutrition' for athletes and within clinical scenarios. Long-term observational follow-up studies have demonstrated increased mortality and cardiovascular implications of LCD. However, harmful associations may depend on the food source (e.g., animal-based vs. plant-based foods).

CONCLUSION

LCD may decrease body mass, waist circumference, and improve fat and carbohydrate metabolism. When combined with exercise, LCD seems to be an effective strategy in regulating metabolic factors of cardiovascular diseases. Conversely, LCD may be associated with higher mortality and metabolic dysregulations if it contains large amounts of animal-based foods, particularly saturated fat.