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Ricci AA, Evans C, Stull C, Peacock CA, French DN, Stout JR, Fukuda DH, La Bounty P, Kalman D, Galpin AJ, Tartar J, Johnson S, Kreider RB, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, Jeffery A, Algieri C, Antonio J. International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutrition and weight cut strategies for mixed martial arts and other combat sports. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2025; 22:2467909. [PMID: 40059405 PMCID: PMC11894756 DOI: 10.1080/15502783.2025.2467909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2025] [Accepted: 02/04/2025] [Indexed: 03/14/2025] Open
Abstract
Following an extensive literature review, the International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) has developed an official position on nutritional and weight cut strategies for combat sports. The type of combat sport, length of the fight camp, and time between weigh-in and competition are factors influencing nutritional and weight cut strategies. The following 16 points constitute the Position Statement of the Society; the Research Committee has approved them. 1. Combat sports have differing weight categories, official weigh-in times, and competition frequencies, influencing the nutritional and weight cut strategies for training and competition. 2. As the duration of a combat match increases, >4 min, contribution of the aerobic system can rise to >70%, yet anaerobic alactic pathways and anaerobic glycolytic pathways support high-output bursts. 3. During the off camp/general preparation phase, athletes should maintain a weight ranging 12% to 15% above the weight division requirement. 4. Supplements including creatine, beta-alanine, beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate, and caffeine have been shown to enhance performance and/or recovery during preparation phases, competition, and post-competition. 5. During fight camp, strategic decreases in calorie intake are necessary for an efficient longitudinal weight descent. Individual caloric needs can be determined using indirect calorimetry or validated equations such as Mifflin St. Jeor or Cunningham. 6. Protein should be prioritized during longitudinal weight descents to preserve lean body mass, and the timely delivery of carbohydrates supports training demands. Macronutrients should not drop below the following: carbohydrates 3.0-4.0 g/kg, protein 1.2-2.0 g/kg, and fat 0.5 to 1.0 g/kg/day. 7. Suitable losses in body mass range from 6.7% at 72 h, 5.7% at 48 h, and 4.4% at 24 h, prior to weigh-in. 8. Sodium restriction and water loading are effective for inducing polyuria and acute water loss. 9. During fight week, water-bound glycogen stores can be depleted through exercise and carbohydrate restriction, facilitating a 1% to 2% loss in body mass, with equivalent losses from a low-fiber intake of <10 g/day for 4 days. 10. During fight week, acute water loss strategies, including sauna, hot water immersion, and mummy wraps, can be used effectively with appropriate supervision (optimally ~2-4% of body mass within 24 h of weigh-in). 11. Post-weigh-in, rapid weight gain strategies are utilized to recover lost body fluid/mass before competition with the intent of gaining a competitive advantage. 12. Oral rehydration solutions (1 to 1.5 liters/h) combined with a sodium range of 50-90 mmol/dL should take precedence immediately post-weigh-in. 13. Fast-acting carbohydrates at a tolerable rate of ≤ 60 g/h should follow oral rehydration solutions. Post weigh-in intake of fiber should be limited to avoid gastrointestinal distress. 14. Post-weigh-in carbohydrate intake at 8-12 g/kg may be appropriate for combat athletes that undertook significant glycogen depletion strategies during fight week. About 4-7 g/kg may be suitable for modest carbohydrate restriction. 15. Post weigh-in, rehydration/refueling protocols should aim to regain ≥10% of body mass to mitigate declines in performance and the negative effects of rapid weight loss. 16. The long-term effects of frequent weight cuts on health and performance are unknown, necessitating further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony A. Ricci
- Nova Southeastern University, Department of Health and Human Performance, Fight Science Lab, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
- Nova Southeastern University, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
| | - Cassandra Evans
- Nova Southeastern University, Department of Health and Human Performance, Fight Science Lab, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
| | | | - Corey A. Peacock
- Nova Southeastern University, Department of Health and Human Performance, Fight Science Lab, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
| | | | - Jeffery R. Stout
- University of Central Florida, Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, School of Kinesiology and Rehabilitation Sciences, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - David H. Fukuda
- University of Central Florida, Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, School of Kinesiology and Rehabilitation Sciences, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Paul La Bounty
- University of Mary Hardin Baylor, Mayborn College of Health Sciences, Belton, TX, USA
| | - Douglas Kalman
- Nova Southeastern University, Department of Nutrition, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
| | | | - Jaime Tartar
- Nova Southeastern University, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
| | - Sarah Johnson
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Richard B. Kreider
- Texas A&M University, Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Department of Kinesiology and Sports Management, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Chad M. Kerksick
- Lindenwood University, Exercise and Performance Nutrition Laboratory, St. Charles, MO, USA
| | - Bill I. Campbell
- University of South Florida, Performance & Physique Enhancement Laboratory, Tampa, FL, USA
| | | | - Chris Algieri
- Nova Southeastern University, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Davie, FL USA
| | - Jose Antonio
- Nova Southeastern University, Department of Health and Human Performance, Fight Science Lab, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
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Bulínová V, Wagner A, Kumstát M. Weight cycling and relative energy deficiency in sport syndrome in an elite female muaythai athlete: a case study. Front Sports Act Living 2025; 7:1599131. [PMID: 40443978 PMCID: PMC12119504 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2025.1599131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2025] [Accepted: 05/05/2025] [Indexed: 06/02/2025] Open
Abstract
Introduction Weight cycling-defined as repeated, chronic, and often extreme weight loss is a widespread practice in combat sports. However, it may lead to symptoms related to Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs). This case study investigates the impact of a five-week fight camp on the health and performance of an elite female Muaythai athlete, with a particular focus on metabolic and physiological adaptations. Methods A 23-year-old professional Muaythai fighter was monitored over a seven-week period, encompassing a control phase, a five-week fight camp, the fight week, and post-fight recovery. Measurements included body composition, resting metabolic rate (RMR), blood biomarkers, and performance in a cycling power test. Dietary intake and training load were also tracked. Results The athlete's RMR decreased by 253 kilocalories per day. Blood markers indicated increased creatinine and urea levels, along with unfavorable changes in lipid profile. Maximum cycling power output decreased by 27%. Despite a significant energy deficit, fat-free mass loss was limited to 0.6. These findings suggest metabolic adaptations, signs of renal strain, and symptoms of REDs. Conclusion Weight cycling induced physiological and metabolic adaptations consistent with REDs, negatively affecting health and performance. The results highlight the importance for individualized and evidence-based weight management strategies to mitigate negative health outcomes and enhance athletic performance in combat sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktorie Bulínová
- Department of Sport Performance and Exercise Testing, Faculty of Sport Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
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Sarıakçalı B, Şahin FN, Başoğlu B, Ceylan L, Güler Ö, Yamak B, Arıkan G, Acar GC, Sekban G, Durmuşoğlu MV, Çimen Polat S, Küçük H. The dual impact: physiological and psychological effects of rapid weight loss in wrestling. Front Psychol 2025; 15:1513129. [PMID: 39834765 PMCID: PMC11743537 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1513129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2024] [Accepted: 12/06/2024] [Indexed: 01/22/2025] Open
Abstract
Introduction Athletes competing in weight-class sports often seek to gain an advantage by competing at lower weights. Athletes competing in weight-class sports often seek to gain an advantage by competing at lower weights. To achieve this, they aim to lose weight during the competition period, leading to various physiological and psychological changes. This study aimed to investigate the biochemical, hormonal, and psychological effects of weight reduction in elite wrestlers during the competition phase. Methods Thirty-seven elite male free style wrestlers (age: 19.02 ± 1.27) participated in the study. Samples were collected 5 days before and on the day of the match. Results A significant decrease in body weight was observed (p < 0.05). Levels of creatine, BUN, sodium, hematocrit, hemoglobin, LDH, and cortisol increased, while albumin, testosterone, and FSH levels decreased. There were no significant differences in potassium, ALT, AST, TSH levels. State and trait anxiety scores of the wrestlers increased significantly during the RWL period. Conclusion The study concluded that elite wrestlers experienced significant changes in physiological and psychological parameters during the competition periods. These findings underscore the importance of careful monitoring of RWL strategies by coaches and athletes to mitigate the adverse effects on nutritional status, psychological well-being, and physical performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barış Sarıakçalı
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Türkiye
| | - Fatma Neşe Şahin
- Department of Coaching Education, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Ankara University, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Burhan Başoğlu
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Nevşehir Haci Bektaş Veli University, Nevşehir, Türkiye
| | - Levent Ceylan
- Department of Sport Management, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Hitit University, Corum, Türkiye
| | - Özkan Güler
- Department of Coaching Education, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Ankara University, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Bade Yamak
- Department of Recreation, Yasar Dogu Faculty of Sport Sciences, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Türkiye
| | - Gökhan Arıkan
- Mehmet Arabaci School of Physical Education and Sport, Harran University, Sanliurfa, Türkiye
| | - Gizem Ceylan Acar
- Department of Sport Management, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Mus Alsarslan University, Mus, Türkiye
| | - Gülşah Sekban
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Sinop University, Sinop, Türkiye
| | | | - Sezen Çimen Polat
- Department of Coaching Education, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Gazi University, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Hamza Küçük
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Yasar Dogu Faculty of Sport Sciences, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Türkiye
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Cox AM, Langan-Evans C, Jenkins D, Reale R, Pelly F, Slater GJ. Body Mass Management Practices of Olympic Weightlifting Athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2025; 35:67-75. [PMID: 39467540 DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2024-0064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2024] [Revised: 07/12/2024] [Accepted: 09/11/2024] [Indexed: 10/30/2024]
Abstract
This study explored the body mass (BM) management practices among competitive male and female Olympic weightlifting athletes, hypothesizing that athletes compete in lighter weight categories than their habitual training weight (i.e., making weight). Utilizing a validated, anonymous survey, data were collected from 149 Olympic weightlifting athletes (>18 years; female = 94). The survey comprised five sections: demographics, training/competition history, weight history, source of influence, and BM management practices. The prevalence, magnitude, and methods employed for BM management were analyzed with subgroup analysis using one-way analysis of variance. Post hoc testing including Spearman's rho and chi-square analysis was completed when a significant effect was found. Three quarters (76%) of athletes acknowledged using chronic weight loss and/or acute weight loss strategies to make weight. Usual BM loss (2%-3%) in the week before competition was within recommended guidelines. Gradual dieting, fluid restriction, and low food weight, high-calorie options were the most commonly used BM management strategies. Female athletes were more likely to use gradual dieting (p = .043; r = .104) and were less likely to increase their exercise (p = .046; r = -.105) and utilize fasting (p = .038; r = .05) compared with their male counterparts. Women further identified dietitians/nutritionists (p = .006; r = .022) as a highly influential source of information. This research offers new insights into the BM management practices of Olympic weightlifting athletes, identifying that the majority of athletes compete at a BM lighter than their habitual training weight, achieved using a range of chronic weight loss and acute weight loss strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amie M Cox
- School of Health, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sunshine Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Carl Langan-Evans
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - David Jenkins
- School of Health, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sunshine Coast, QLD, Australia
- Applied Sports Science Technology and Medicine Research Centre, Swansea University, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Reid Reale
- UFC Performance Institute, Shanghai, China
| | - Fiona Pelly
- School of Health, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sunshine Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Gary J Slater
- School of Health, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sunshine Coast, QLD, Australia
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Karninčić H, Žugaj N, Škugor K. Advice on Regulating Body Mass in Wrestling from the Most Cited Combat Sport Literature-A Systematic Review. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2024; 9:264. [PMID: 39728248 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk9040264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2024] [Revised: 11/28/2024] [Accepted: 11/29/2024] [Indexed: 12/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Background: Since studies on the subject of weight reduction in wrestlers vary in opinions regarding health, performance, and legal regulations, a review of the most cited literature in other combat sports was carried out. Methods: By searching the WOS and Scopus scientific databases, the top 60 cited papers were identified, and ultimately, 13 articles that met the inclusion criteria for this review were selected. Findings and conclusions: Apart from the advantages gained in strength and mass through weight reduction, a mental advantage is also obtained. The period between weigh-ins and the actual bouts is considered crucial for the preservation of performance. When the rules allow for a longer recovery period, this enables aggressive, harmful, or prohibited weight reduction methods to be employed by some wrestlers. A chronic reduction in body weight is regarded as a long-term health issue but may be ignored by wrestlers. There has been no progress in the attempt to regulate the problem of rapid weight loss (RWL) within wrestling in the past thirty-five years. If any change is to be brought about, the engagement of all federations, clubs, WADA, and all individuals involved in this issue (athletes, coaches, parents, doctors, etc.) is deemed necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hrvoje Karninčić
- Faculty of Kinsiology, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia
| | - Nenad Žugaj
- Faculty of Kinsiology, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Krešo Škugor
- Faculty of Kinsiology, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia
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Bianchi D, Sethi NK, Velasco G, Qureshi UA, deWeber K. Care of The Older Fighter: Position Statement of the Association of Ringside Physicians. PHYSICIAN SPORTSMED 2024; 52:585-591. [PMID: 38708547 DOI: 10.1080/00913847.2024.2344227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
Older Fighters are defined as combat sports athletes older than 35 years, based on heightened medical risks and historical classification. Age-related changes to the neurological, cardiopulmonary, endocrinological, thermoregulatory, osmoregulatory, and musculoskeletal systems increase these athletes' risks for injury and may prolong their recovery. These age-related risks warrant special considerations for competition, licensure, prefight medical clearance, in-fight supervision, post-fight examination, and counseling regarding training practices and retirement from combat sports. Neurological considerations include increased risk of intracranial lesions, intracranial hemorrhage, and sequelae from traumatic brain injury (TBI), warranting more comprehensive neurological evaluation and neuroimaging. Increased risk of myocardial ischemia and infarction warrant careful assessment of cardiac risk factors and scrutiny of cardiovascular fitness. Older fighters may take longer time to recover from musculoskeletal injury; post-injury clearance should be individualized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Bianchi
- Medbase Cornavin Sports Center, SwissBoxing, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Nitin K Sethi
- Associate Professor of Neurology, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, Weill Cornell Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - George Velasco
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Uneeb A Qureshi
- United States Public Health Service, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Kevin deWeber
- Program Director, SW Washington Sports Medicine Fellowship, Vancouver, WA USA
- Affiliate Associate Professor of Family Medicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
- Clinical Assistant Professor of Family Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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Reale R, Wang J, Hu Stull C, French D, Amasinger D, Wang R. Acute and Chronic Weight-Making Practice in Professional Mixed Martial Arts Athletes: An Analysis of 33 Athletes Across 80 Fights. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2024; 34:275-285. [PMID: 38871343 DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2023-0229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Mixed martial arts' popularity has increased in recent years, alongside descriptive research and evidence-based performance recommendations. Guidelines for (both chronic and acute) weight making exist; however, how these translate in real-life scenarios and detailed investigations on practices in larger groups deserve attention. The present study examined the body mass (BM) and composition of 33 professional mixed martial arts athletes preparing for 80 fights. Athletes were supported by on-site dietitians, who encouraged evidence-based practices. Fasted BM was measured throughout the last ∼10 days before all bouts (acute weight management phase). A subset of athletes had body composition assessed before and after the chronic weight loss phase for 40 fights. Most athletes engaged in chronic BM loss, and all engaged in acute weight loss. Many lost fat-free mass (FFM) during the chronic phase, with rates of BM loss <0.5% best preserving FFM. Regardless of losses, the present athletes possessed greater FFM than other combat sport athletes and engaged in greater acute weight loss. Dehydration in the 24-48 hr before the weigh-in was not reflective of weight regain after the weigh-in, rather BM 7-10 days before the weigh-in was most reflective. These findings suggest that many mixed martial arts athletes could increase FFM at the time of competition by maintaining leaner physiques outside of competition and/or allowing increased time to reduce BM chronically. Acutely, athletes can utilize evidence-based protocols, eliminating carbohydrates, fiber, sodium, and finally fluid in a staged approach, before the weigh-in, reducing the amount of sweating required, thus theoretically better protecting health and preserving performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reid Reale
- UFC Performance Institute, Shanghai, SHG, China
| | - Junzhu Wang
- UFC Performance Institute, Shanghai, SHG, China
| | | | | | | | - Ran Wang
- Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, SHG, China
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8
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dos Santos DFC, Yang WH, Franchini E. A scoping review of rapid weight loss in judo athletes: prevalence, magnitude, effects on performance, risks, and recommendations. Phys Act Nutr 2024; 28:1-12. [PMID: 39501688 PMCID: PMC11540994 DOI: 10.20463/pan.2024.0017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Revised: 06/25/2024] [Accepted: 07/14/2024] [Indexed: 11/09/2024] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Combat sports, such as judo, are weight categorized. Weight control was established to promote fair disputes among individuals. However, combat sports athletes adopt rapid weight loss (RWL) to obtain an advantage over smaller and lighter opponents. This scoping review article presents the prevalence, magnitude, and methods of RWL and its effects on physical and competitive performance, health risks, and psychological effects. Specific recommendations for attenuating the effects of RWL are also presented. METHODS Studies were retrieved from Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases. Four hundred and forty-six articles were identified, of which fifty-three were considered eligible for this review. RESULTS The results showed that the prevalence of RWL was between 40% and 92.9% and that athletes reduced their body mass by approximately 5%. Although the literature suggests that RWL impairs the performance and psychological well-being of athletes, these results were obtained when recovery time was not provided. CONCLUSION No negative effects on performance were observed when the recovery time was >4 h. However, health risks due to RWL practices should be considered, and RWL should be avoided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danilo F. C. dos Santos
- Martial Arts and Combat Sports Research Group, Sport Department, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Woo-Hwi Yang
- Graduate School of Sports Medicine, CHA University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
- Department of Medicine, General Graduate School, CHA University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Emerson Franchini
- Martial Arts and Combat Sports Research Group, Sport Department, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Dunican IC, Galpin A, Turner M, Reale R. Sleep Behaviors and Nutritional Knowledge in Amateur and Professional Combat Sport Athletes. J Strength Cond Res 2024; 38:1627-1634. [PMID: 38985931 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/12/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Dunican, IC, Galpin, A, Turner, M, and Reale, R. Sleep behaviors and nutritional knowledge in amateur and professional combat sport athletes. J Strength Cond Res 38(9): 1627-1634, 2024-Combat sports is a term applied to various competitive contact sports involving 2 competitors engaging in a bout or contest under a specific ruleset. Little is known about combat sports athletes' sleep and nutritional knowledge. This study aimed to assess (a) sleep behaviors, (b) alcohol and shiftwork disorders, and (c) the nutritional knowledge of combat sports athletes. Subjects completed various demographic questions and estimations of their weight management practices and validated surveys, including the Athlete Sleep Behavior Questionnaire, Shiftwork Disorder (SWD) Screening Questionnaire, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, and the Abridged Nutrition for Sports Knowledge Questionnaire. A total of 844 combat sports athletes completed the survey, 79% male, height of 177 ± 10 (cm), and body mass of 79 ± 15 (kg). Subjects were categorized into their specific combat sport type (e.g., boxing or Brazilian jiu-jitsu [BJJ]) and by their level (professional or amateur). Sleep quality was average for all combat sport types and risk prevalence of shiftwork disorder at 11%. Mann-Whitney U tests revealed that amateurs, compared with professional strikers ( p = 0.046, CLES = 0.80), boxers ( p = 0.01, CLES = 0.78), and BJJ ( p = 0.046, CLES = 0.61) athletes, consumed significantly more alcohol. A Friedman test showed significant ( p < 0.001, W = 0.51) differences in weight between time points, with most combat sports athletes reducing weight for competition. An overall nutritional knowledge average of 55% was reported. This study highlights a critical gap in the knowledge and practices of combat sports athletes in relation to sleep behaviors and disorders, alcohol consumption, and nutritional knowledge, emphasizing the need for targeted educational interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian C Dunican
- Center for Sleep Science, School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
- Melius Consulting, Mount Hawthorn, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Andrew Galpin
- Center for Sport Performance, California State University, Fullerton, Fullerton, California
| | - Mitchell Turner
- Melius Consulting, Mount Hawthorn, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Medical and Health Science, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; and
| | - Reid Reale
- UFC Performance Institute, Shanghai, Performance Nutrition Department, Shanghai, China
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Zhong Y, Song Y, Artioli GG, Gee TI, French DN, Zheng H, Lyu M, Li Y. The Practice of Weight Loss in Combat Sports Athletes: A Systematic Review. Nutrients 2024; 16:1050. [PMID: 38613083 PMCID: PMC11013344 DOI: 10.3390/nu16071050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The aim of this systematic review is to comprehensively assess the weight loss (WL) practices in different combat sports (CS). The review protocol was preregistered with PROSPERO [CRD42023487196]. Three databases were searched (Web of Science, EBSCOhost, and PubMed) until 8 December 2023. Eligible studies had to meet five criteria: they must have been (a) written in English, (b) published in a peer-reviewed journal, (c) used a survey design to investigate the WL practices of CS athletes, and (d) reported the WL methods used by athletes using a five-point scale. Twenty-six studies (3994 participants from 14 CS) were included. This review found that (1) WL is highly prevalent in CS athletes; (2) many CS athletes started losing weight for competition as teenagers two to three times a year; (3) CS athletes usually lose <5% body weight in 7-14 days before competition; (4) increasing exercise and gradually dieting are the most commonly used WL methods; and (5) the influence of scientific practitioners on athletes is negligible. The habitual practices of CS athletes may be relatively harmless, but in some special cases, CS athletes also perform extreme WL practices. Scientific practitioners have little influence on their WL practices, which may form a vicious cycle of non-qualified influence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuming Zhong
- School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Changhai Road 399, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200438, China; (Y.Z.); (Y.S.); (H.Z.); (M.L.)
| | - Yuou Song
- School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Changhai Road 399, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200438, China; (Y.Z.); (Y.S.); (H.Z.); (M.L.)
| | | | - Thomas I. Gee
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln LN6 7TS, UK;
| | - Duncan N. French
- Ultimate Fighting Championship Performance Institute, Las Vegas, NV 89118, USA;
| | - Hang Zheng
- School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Changhai Road 399, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200438, China; (Y.Z.); (Y.S.); (H.Z.); (M.L.)
| | - Mengde Lyu
- School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Changhai Road 399, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200438, China; (Y.Z.); (Y.S.); (H.Z.); (M.L.)
| | - Yongming Li
- School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Changhai Road 399, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200438, China; (Y.Z.); (Y.S.); (H.Z.); (M.L.)
- China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing 100061, China
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11
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Magee MK, Fields JB, Jagim AR, Jones MT. Fat-Free Mass Index in a Large Sample of National Collegiate Athletic Association Men and Women Athletes From a Variety of Sports. J Strength Cond Res 2024; 38:311-317. [PMID: 37815277 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Magee, MK, Fields, JB, Jagim, AR, and Jones, MT. Fat-free mass index in a large sample of National Collegiate Athletic Association men and women athletes from a variety of sports. J Strength Cond Res 38(2): 311-317, 2024-Fat-free mass index (FFMI) can be used to categorize fat-free mass (FFM) relative to height. Normative values have been established in a variety of sports, as has suggested lower and upper thresholds of FFMI. However, FFMI has not been reported in a large sample of athletes, representing both sexes and multiple sport types. The purpose of this study was to evaluate differences in FFMI and establish normative values across a large sample of collegiate sports. A total of 1,961 athletes (men: n = 596, 10 sports; women: n = 1,365, 8 sports) participated. Height and mass were measured using a stadiometer and calibrated digital scale, respectively. Fat-free mass was assessed with air displacement plethysmography and used to calculate FFMI. Kruskal-Wallis test and one-way analysis of variance evaluated differences in FFMI in women's and men's sports, respectively. When collapsed across sport type and stratified by sex, men had a higher FFMI (21.5 ± 1.9 kg·m -2 vs. 17.9 ± 1.8 kg·m -2 ; p < 0.001). Differences occurred in FFMI across sport. In women, basketball athletes had the highest FFMI (18.9 kg·m -2 ) and highest 99th percentile for FFMI, whereas rowers had the lowest (16.9 kg·m -2 ). In men, throwers had the highest FFMI (25.7 kg·m -2 ) and highest 99th percentile, whereas volleyball athletes had the lowest (19.9 kg·m -2 ). Differences in FFMI may be attributable to dietary habits and physiological demands of respective sports. These results can provide information relative to differences in FFMI values across sports. In addition, sport-specific normative values can be used as benchmarks and targets for training, nutrition, and goal setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan K Magee
- Patriot Performance Laboratory, Frank Pettrone Center for Sports Performance, Intercollegiate Athletics, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia
- School of Kinesiology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia
| | - Jennifer B Fields
- Patriot Performance Laboratory, Frank Pettrone Center for Sports Performance, Intercollegiate Athletics, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia
- Exercise Science and Athletic Training, Springfield College, Springfield, Massachusetts
| | - Andrew R Jagim
- Patriot Performance Laboratory, Frank Pettrone Center for Sports Performance, Intercollegiate Athletics, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia
- Sports Medicine, Mayo Clinic Health System, La Crosse, Wisconsin
| | - Margaret T Jones
- Patriot Performance Laboratory, Frank Pettrone Center for Sports Performance, Intercollegiate Athletics, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia
- Sport, Recreation, and Tourism Management, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia
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12
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Lebron MA, Stout JR, Fukuda DH. Physiological Perturbations in Combat Sports: Weight Cycling and Metabolic Function-A Narrative Review. Metabolites 2024; 14:83. [PMID: 38392975 PMCID: PMC10890020 DOI: 10.3390/metabo14020083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Combat sports athletes seeking a competitive edge often engage in weight management practices to become larger than their opponents, which ultimately includes periods of gradual weight loss, rapid weight loss, and weight regain. This pattern of weight loss and regain is known as weight cycling and often includes periods of low energy availability, making combat sports athletes susceptible to metabolic dysfunction. This narrative review represents an effort to explore the metabolic perturbations associated with weight cycling and outline the short-, medium-, and long-term effects on metabolic flexibility, function, and health. The short-term effects of rapid weight loss, such as a reduced metabolic rate and alterations to insulin and leptin levels, may prelude the more pronounced metabolic disturbances that occur during weight regain, such as insulin resistance. Although definitive support is not currently available, this cycle of weight loss and regain and associated metabolic changes may contribute to metabolic syndrome or other metabolic dysfunctions over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Modesto A Lebron
- Physiology of Work and Exercise Response Laboratory, Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
| | - Jeffrey R Stout
- Physiology of Work and Exercise Response Laboratory, Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
| | - David H Fukuda
- Physiology of Work and Exercise Response Laboratory, Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
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13
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Evans C, Stull C, Sanders G, Ricci A, French D, Antonio J, Peacock CA. Weight cutting in female UFC fighters. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2023; 20:2247384. [PMID: 37621001 PMCID: PMC10453969 DOI: 10.1080/15502783.2023.2247384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND It is common practice for fight sport athletes to use a variety of weight manipulation strategies to compete in desired weight classes. Although numerous studies have highlighted rapid weight loss (RWL) strategies and the magnitude of weight loss, few have focused specifically on weight loss in female fighters. The purpose of this study was to provide descriptive information on professional UFC female fighters engaging in RWL in all women's UFC weight divisions: strawweight (52.2 kg): flyweight (56.7 kg); bantamweight (61.2 kg); featherweight (65.8 kg). METHODS All fighter's weights were obtained at five separate time points: 72 hrs. pre-weigh-in, 48 hrs. pre-weigh-in, 24hrs. pre-weigh-in, official weigh-in, and 24 hrs. post-weigh-in (competition weight). Mixed effects models and random effects analysis were used to assess changes in weight and differences between weight divisions. All statistics were analyzed, and significance was set at p ≤0.05. Significant changes in weight between all time points were reported. RESULTS No statistical differences between weight divisions were observed. Female fighters lost 4.5-6.6% of their weight prior to the official weigh-in. CONCLUSION Females engaged in RWL practices lose weight in a similar fashion irrespective of weight class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra Evans
- Nova Southeastern University, Department of Health and Human Performance, Fight Science Lab, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
| | | | - Gabriel Sanders
- Northern Kentucky University, Department of Kinesiology and Health, Highland Heights, KY, USA
| | - Anthony Ricci
- Nova Southeastern University, Department of Health and Human Performance, Fight Science Lab, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
| | - Duncan French
- UFC Performance Institute, Las Vegas, NV, USA
- Australia Catholic University, School of Health Sciences, Melbourne, Australia
- Edith Cowan University, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Jose Antonio
- Nova Southeastern University, Department of Health and Human Performance, Fight Science Lab, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
| | - Corey A. Peacock
- Nova Southeastern University, Department of Health and Human Performance, Fight Science Lab, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
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14
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Chang CK, Kao SY, Wang CY. Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate supplementation preserves fat-free mass in collegiate boxers during acute body mass loss. CHINESE J PHYSIOL 2023; 66:485-493. [PMID: 38149561 DOI: 10.4103/cjop.cjop-d-23-00074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute body mass loss before competitions in combat sports usually leads to loss in fat-free mass. Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) has been shown to increase skeletal muscle mass and muscle strength in various muscle wasting conditions. This study investigated the effect of HMB supplementation on body composition and sport-specific performance in well-trained boxers consuming a hypocaloric diet. Twelve male college boxers were divided into the HMB and placebo (PLA) groups using a body weight-matched single-blind parallel design. The study comprised a 6-day weight loss period (days 1-6), followed by a 3-day competition period (days 7-9). The participants in both the groups consumed 16 kcal/kg/day, including 1.6-1.7 g/kg of carbohydrates, 1.2-1.3 g/kg of protein, and 0.45-0.5 g/kg of fat during the 9-day period. The HMB group consumed 3 g/day HMB. Body composition measurement, isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), and a simulated boxing match were performed at baseline and on days 7, 8, and 9. Fasting blood samples were collected on the day before day 1 and on days 7, 8, and 9. Body mass was significantly decreased after the 6-day weight loss period (HMB group: baseline: 69.4 ± 11.2 kg, day 7: 67.1 ± 11.2 kg; PLA group: baseline: 68.6 ± 12.1 kg, day 7: 65.7 ± 11.5 kg, P < 0.05) while it was unchanged on the 3-day competition period in both the groups. Fat-free mass in the HMB group was maintained throughout the 9-day period (baseline: 56.7 ± 9.3 kg, day 7: 56.3 ± 8.7 kg, day 9: 55.8 ± 9.5 kg) whereas it significantly decreased on days 7 and 9 compared to the baseline in the PLA group (baseline: 55.2 ± 6.4 kg, day 7: 54.1 ± 6.6 kg, day 9: 54.0 ± 6.6 kg, P < 0.05). In the PLA group, the average and maximal heart rates in round 1 and the average heart rate in round 2 on days 8 and 9 were significantly lower than those at baseline, while these parameters were unchanged in the HMB group. The maximal force and the rate of force development in the IMTP remained unchanged among the different timepoints in both the groups. The blood biochemical parameters were similar at any timepoint between the PLA and HMB groups. HMB supplementation during acute weight loss may preserve fat-free mass and maintain heart rate response in subsequent simulated matches in well-trained boxers. In addition, HMB supplementation had a nonsignificant effect on glucose, fat, and protein metabolism during energy restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Kang Chang
- Department of Sport Performance, National Taiwan University of Sport, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Yen Kao
- Department of Sport Performance, National Taiwan University of Sport, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Yuan Wang
- Department of Combat Sport, National Taiwan University of Sport, Taichung, Taiwan
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15
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Gee TI, Campbell P, Bargh MJ, Martin D. Rapid Weight Loss Practices Within Olympic Weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res 2023; 37:2046-2051. [PMID: 37729517 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Gee, TI, Campbell, P, Bargh, MJ, and Martin, D. Rapid weight loss practices within Olympic weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res 37(10): 2046-2051, 2023-Rapid weight loss (RWL) practices are common among athletes to "make weight" for a chosen bodyweight class. This study's purpose was to investigate RWL prevalence, magnitude, and methods within Olympic weightlifters from Great Britain. Subjects (n = 39, male = 22, female = 17) were recruited from International Weightlifting Federation lifting populations (mandatory two-hour competition weigh-in). Subjects were categorized into competitive groups based on Sinclair coefficient total (high, mid, low) and also gender (male, female). The validated Rapid Weight Loss Questionnaire was used to establish RWL magnitude and practices. Of respondents, 33 of 39 (84.6%) had purposely acutely reduced body mass to compete, a higher proportion present within females (94.1%) than males (77.3%). The cohort's mean habitual precompetition acute body mass loss was 3.8 ± 1.7% and the "rapid weight loss score" (RWLS) was 23.6 ± 9.5. Across competitive groups there were no significant differences in habitual or highest precompetition body mass loss, postcompetition body mass gain or RWLS (p > 0.05). However, females attributed a significantly greater "highest" relative precompetition body mass loss compared with males (7.4 vs 4.9%, p = 0.045). For RWL methods used, frequencies of "always" and "sometimes" were reported highest for "restricting fluid ingestion" (81.8%), "gradual dieting" (81.8%), and "water loading" (54.5%). The prevalence of RWL is high among competitive Olympic weightlifters, and especially within the sampled female athletes. Magnitude of RWL was similar across different standards of athlete; however, female lifters demonstrated a higher maximum precompetition RWL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas I Gee
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom; and
| | - Paul Campbell
- Department of Advanced and HE Sport, Lincoln College, Lincoln, United Kigdom
| | - Melissa J Bargh
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom; and
| | - Daniel Martin
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom; and
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16
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Jagim AR, Tinsley GM, Merfeld BR, Ambrosius A, Khurelbaatar C, Dodge C, Carpenter M, Luedke J, Erickson JL, Fields JB, Jones MT. Validation of skinfold equations and alternative methods for the determination of fat-free mass in young athletes. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1240252. [PMID: 37637224 PMCID: PMC10453806 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1240252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Intoduction To cross-validate skinfold (SKF) equations, impedance devices, and air-displacement plethysmography (ADP) for the determination of fat-free mass (FFM). Methods Male and female youth athletes were evaluated (n = 91[mean ± SD] age: 18.19 ± 2.37 year; height: 172.1 ± 9.8 cm; body mass: 68.9 ± 14.5 kg; BMI: 23.15 ± 3.2 kg m-2; body fat: 19.59 ± 6.9%) using underwater weighing (UWW), ADP, and SKF assessments. A 3-compartment (3C) model (i.e., UWW and total body water) served as the criterion, and alternate body density (Db) estimates from ADP and multiple SKF equations were obtained. Validity metrics were examined to establish each method's performance. Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS), and the SKF equations of Devrim-Lanpir, Durnin and Womersley, Jackson and Pollock (7-site), Katch, Loftin, Lohman, Slaughter, and Thorland differed from criterion. Results For females, Pearson's correlations between the 3C model and alternate methods ranged from 0.51 to 0.92, the Lin's concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) ranged from 0.41 to 0.89, with standard error of the estimate (SEE) ranges of 1.9-4.6 kg. For SKF, the Evans 7-site and J&P 3 Site equations performed best with CCC and SEE values of 0.82, 2.01 kg and 0.78, 2.21 kg, respectively. For males, Pearson's correlations between the 3C model and alternate methods ranged from 0.50 to 0.95, CCC ranges of 0.46-0.94, and SEE ranges of 3.3-7.6 kg. For SKF, the Evans 3-site equation performed best with a mean difference of 1.8 (3.56) kg and a CCC of 0.93. Discussion The Evans 7-site and 3-site SKF equations performed best for female and male athletes, respectively. The field 3C model can provide an alternative measure of FFM when necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R. Jagim
- Sports Medicine, Mayo Clinic Health System, Onalaska, WI, United States
- Exercise & Sport Science, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, United States
| | - Grant M. Tinsley
- Energy Balance & Body Composition Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology & Sport Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Brandon R. Merfeld
- Exercise & Sport Science, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, United States
| | - Abby Ambrosius
- Exercise & Sport Science, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, United States
| | - Chinguun Khurelbaatar
- Exercise & Sport Science, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, United States
| | - Christopher Dodge
- Exercise & Sport Science, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, United States
| | - Makenna Carpenter
- Exercise & Sport Science, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, United States
| | - Joel Luedke
- Sports Medicine, Mayo Clinic Health System, Onalaska, WI, United States
| | - Jacob L. Erickson
- Sports Medicine, Mayo Clinic Health System, Onalaska, WI, United States
| | - Jennifer B. Fields
- Department of Exercise Science and Athletic Training, Springfield College, Springfield, MA, United States
- Patriot Performance Laboratory, Frank Pettrone Center for Sports Performance, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States
| | - Margaret T. Jones
- Patriot Performance Laboratory, Frank Pettrone Center for Sports Performance, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States
- Sport, Recreation, and Tourism Management, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States
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17
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Trivic T, Roklicer R, Zenic N, Modric T, Milovancev A, Lukic-Sarkanovic M, Maksimovic N, Bianco A, Carraro A, Drid P. Rapid weight loss can increase the risk of acute kidney injury in wrestlers. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2023; 9:e001617. [PMID: 37397266 PMCID: PMC10314685 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2023-001617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Restrictive diets, forced starvation or voluntary weight loss are attracting more and more attention from scientists. Overall trends show that about 80% of combat sports athletes use specific methods of reducing body mass. Rapid weight loss could be a risk factor for kidney-related adverse outcomes. This study aimed to examine the impact of high-intensity specific training combined with rapid weight loss in the first and without rapid weight loss in the second phases on body composition and biochemical markers of kidney function. Methods The study was conducted on 12 male wrestlers. Kidney function markers were measured, including blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, uric acid and serum Cystatin-C. Alterations in analysed markers were noted in both phases of the research. Results According to the data, a significant increase was noted in blood urea nitrogen (p=0.002), uric acid (p=0.000) and serum creatinine (p=0.006) during the first phase in comparison with the second phase. The levels of serum Cystatin-C were slightly elevated after both phases compared with the initial measurement. Conclusion It is evident that high-intensity specific training combined with rapid weight loss significantly affects the increase in kidney function markers compared with identical training without rapid weight loss. The findings in this study suggest that rapid body mass reduction is associated with an increased risk of acute kidney injury in wrestlers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana Trivic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Roberto Roklicer
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
- Faculty of Education, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Bolzano, Italy
| | - Natasa Zenic
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Split, Croatia
| | - Toni Modric
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Split, Croatia
| | - Aleksandra Milovancev
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
- Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases of Vojvodina, Sremska Kamenica, Serbia
| | - Mirka Lukic-Sarkanovic
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
- Intensive Therapy and Pain Therapy, Clinical Center of Vojvodina, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Nemanja Maksimovic
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonino Bianco
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Attilio Carraro
- Faculty of Education, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Bolzano, Italy
| | - Patrik Drid
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
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18
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Pélissier L, Ennequin G, Bagot S, Pereira B, Lachèze T, Duclos M, Thivel D, Miles-Chan J, Isacco L. Lightest weight-class athletes are at higher risk of weight regain: results from the French-Rapid Weight Loss Questionnaire. PHYSICIAN SPORTSMED 2023; 51:144-152. [PMID: 34875202 DOI: 10.1080/00913847.2021.2014285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Rapid weight loss (RWL) is a common precompetitive strategy used by athletes in weight-class sports and carries with it an increased risk to future cardiometabolic health. The Rapid Weight Loss Questionnaire (RWLQ) is a self-reported tool designed to identify and characterize such weight loss practices. OBJECTIVES After developing a reliable and reproducible French version of the RWLQ (RWLQ-FR), the present study aims to analyse RWL patterns among French weight-class athletes and to point out potential relationships between such practices and risk of subsequent weight gain. METHODS A test-retest analysis was performed in 54 athletes to test the questionnaire reproducibility before applying it in a cohort of 168 weight-cycling athletes (23.78 ± 9.25 y, 67.6 ± 12.6 kg, 81 males and 87 females, n = 24 strength sports and n = 144 various combat sports). RESULTS The test-retest showed good agreement of the RWLQ-FR (Rho = 0.794, [0.696-0.893]). Athletes reported losing an average of 4.1 ± 2.9% of their initial weight in 13.1 ± 9.6 days, with the main methods used being an increase in exercise, training in rubber or plastic suits, and gradual dieting. The average weight recovery in a week was 3.5 ± 2.8% and results showed that the athletes with the lower inter-season weight (weight outside of the training and competition season) regained the more weight (p = 0.025). The average RWLQ-FR score was 31.9 ± 17.3 and athletes who began to lose weight earlier in their competitive carrier had the higher scores (p = 0.032). CONCLUSION The present study demonstrates relationships between the pattern of RWL practices and potential increased risk of subsequent weight gain in weight-cycling athletes, and the need to better understand the long-term health-related risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Léna Pélissier
- Laboratory of the Metabolic Adaptations to Exercise under Physiological and Pathological Conditions (Ame2p), Crnh Auvergne, Clermont Auvergne University, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Gaël Ennequin
- Laboratory of the Metabolic Adaptations to Exercise under Physiological and Pathological Conditions (Ame2p), Crnh Auvergne, Clermont Auvergne University, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Sarah Bagot
- Laboratory of the Metabolic Adaptations to Exercise under Physiological and Pathological Conditions (Ame2p), Crnh Auvergne, Clermont Auvergne University, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Bruno Pereira
- Unit of Biostatistics (DRCI), Clermont-Ferrand University Hospital, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Thomas Lachèze
- Laboratory of the Metabolic Adaptations to Exercise under Physiological and Pathological Conditions (Ame2p), Crnh Auvergne, Clermont Auvergne University, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Martine Duclos
- Department of Sport Medicine and Functional Explorations, University Hospital (Chu) Clermont-Ferrand, Hospital G. Montpied, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - David Thivel
- Laboratory of the Metabolic Adaptations to Exercise under Physiological and Pathological Conditions (Ame2p), Crnh Auvergne, Clermont Auvergne University, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Jennifer Miles-Chan
- Human Nutrition Unit, School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Laurie Isacco
- Laboratory of the Metabolic Adaptations to Exercise under Physiological and Pathological Conditions (Ame2p), Crnh Auvergne, Clermont Auvergne University, Clermont-Ferrand, France
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dos Santos MAF, Soto DAS, de Brito MA, Brito CJ, Aedo-Muñoz E, Slimani M, Bragazzi NL, Znazen H, Miarka B. Effects of weight divisions in time-motion of female high-level Brazilian Jiu-jitsu combat behaviors. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1048642. [PMID: 36860781 PMCID: PMC9969123 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1048642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Coaches and psychologists can use time-motion analysis to elaborate specific interventions for female BJJ athletes, increasing specific training context and reducing unnecessary psychological and physical demands and injuries. Therefore, the present study aimed to analyze high-level BJJ female athletes in the 2020 Pan-American Games by comparing the weight categories on the time-motion analysis. The time-motion analysis (i.e., approach, gripping, attack, defensive actions, transition, mounting, guard, side control, and submissions) of 422 high-level female BJJ combats was divided and compared by weight category as follows: Rooster (n = 8), Light Feather (n = 18), Feather (n = 122), Light (n = 84), Middle (n = 74), Medium Heavy (n = 44), Heavy (n = 36), Super Heavy (n = 36), using p ≤ 0.05. The main results indicated that the Super heavyweight category [3.1 (5.8;119.9) s] had a shorter gripping time than other weight categories, p ≤ 0.05. In contrast, roosters [7.2 (3.5;64.6) s] had longer gripping, transition [14.0 (4.8;29.6) s], and attack time [76.2 (27.7, 93.2)] than the light feather, middlers, and heavier weight categories, p ≤ 0.05. These findings should be considered for the psychological interventions and training prescription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Antonio Ferreira dos Santos
- Laboratory of Psychophysiology and Performance in Sports and Combats, Postgraduate Program in Physical Education, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Dany Alexis Sobarzo Soto
- Escuela de Kinesiología, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santo Tomás, Puerto Montt, Chile,*Correspondence: Dany Alexis Sobarzo Soto,
| | - Michele Andrade de Brito
- Laboratory of Psychophysiology and Performance in Sports and Combats, Postgraduate Program in Physical Education, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,Postgraduate Program in Physical Education, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Governador Valadares, Brazil
| | - Ciro José Brito
- Postgraduate Program in Physical Education, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Governador Valadares, Brazil
| | - Esteban Aedo-Muñoz
- Laboratory of Psychophysiology and Performance in Sports and Combats, Postgraduate Program in Physical Education, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,Departamento de Educación Física, Deportes y Recreación, Facultad de Artes y Educación Física, Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación,Santiago, Chile
| | - Maamer Slimani
- Department of Health Sciences (DISSAL), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Nicola L. Bragazzi
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Laboratory for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (LIAM), York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Hela Znazen
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, College of Education, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
| | - Bianca Miarka
- Laboratory of Psychophysiology and Performance in Sports and Combats, Postgraduate Program in Physical Education, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,Bianca Miarka,
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20
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Roklicer R, Rossi C, Bianco A, Stajer V, Ranisavljev M, Todorovic N, Manojlovic M, Gilic B, Trivic T, Drid P. Prevalence of rapid weight loss in Olympic style wrestlers. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2022; 19:593-602. [PMID: 36250149 PMCID: PMC9559051 DOI: 10.1080/15502783.2022.2119095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Methods Results Conclusions
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Roklicer
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Carlo Rossi
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonino Bianco
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Valdemar Stajer
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Marijana Ranisavljev
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Nikola Todorovic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Marko Manojlovic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Barbara Gilic
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Split, Croatia
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Tatjana Trivic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Patrik Drid
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
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Štangar M, Štangar A, Shtyrba V, Cigić B, Benedik E. Rapid weight loss among elite-level judo athletes: methods and nutrition in relation to competition performance. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2022; 19:380-396. [PMID: 35859622 PMCID: PMC9291696 DOI: 10.1080/15502783.2022.2099231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Methods Results Conclusions
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Affiliation(s)
- Maruša Štangar
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Sports Unit, Ministry of Defence, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Anja Štangar
- Division of Paediatrics, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Volha Shtyrba
- Slovenian Judo Federation, Slovenska Bistrica, Slovenia
| | - Blaž Cigić
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Evgen Benedik
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Division of Paediatrics, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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22
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Weight Loss and Competition Weight in Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) Athletes. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2022; 7:jfmk7040115. [PMID: 36547661 PMCID: PMC9782639 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk7040115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research has demonstrated that professional mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes employ a variety of weight manipulation strategies to compete at given weight classes. Although there is much literature demonstrating weight manipulation methods, minimal research exists analyzing how much weight MMA athletes lose prior to the official weigh-in. Moreover, there is minimal research examining how much weight professional MMA athletes gain between the official weigh-in and competition. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to analyze weight loss/regain in professional MMA athletes. Data collected from 616 professional MMA athletes (31.1 ± 4.0 yrs.; 177.1 ± 4.7 cm) competing for the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) between 2020 and 2022 were used for the study. The athlete's weight was obtained 72 h, 48 h, and 24 h prior to the official weigh-in, at the official weigh-in, and prior to competition. Random effects analysis was utilized to compare weight at a variety of time points between different weight classes. All statistics were analyzed, and significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. There is a significant (p ≤ 0.05) difference between weight classes and time points in professional MMA. MMA athletes decrease body weight significantly prior to the official weigh-in. MMA athletes increase body weight significantly between official weigh-in and competition. Based on these data, it appears that MMA athletes average a weight loss of nearly 7% within 72 h prior to the official weigh-in. The data also suggest that athletes gain nearly 10% of total weight between the official weigh-in and competition.
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Murugappan KR, Reale R, Baribeau V, O'Gara BP, Mueller A, Sarge T. Rapid weight gain following weight cutting in male professional boxers. PHYSICIAN SPORTSMED 2022; 50:494-500. [PMID: 34310264 DOI: 10.1080/00913847.2021.1960780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Weight classifications are used in boxing and other combat sports to match opponents of similar size. Professional boxers commonly engage in a potentially harmful practice known as rapid weight loss or 'weight cutting' to make weight the day prior to competition before rehydrating and refueling. This investigation describes the prevalence and magnitude of rapid weight gain in boxers following weigh-in as well as differences in practice with respect to weight class and promotion. METHODS This analysis describes official weight data from male professional boxers collected by the California State Athletic Commission between 2015 and 2018. A total of 399 athletes were included in the study. RESULTS Among included athletes, 389 (97.5%) athletes gained weight between official weigh-in and competition. Total absolute body mass gained was 4.4 ± 2.2 kg corresponding to a total relative body mass gain of 7.2 ± 3.5%. Boxers competing in international promotions gained significantly more body mass than regional competitors (8.0 ± 3.0% vs. 6.6 ± 3.7%; p < 0.001). In total, 82 (20.6%) athletes gained 10% body mass or more before competition. More international competitors reached this 10% threshold than regional competitors (25.3% vs. 17.4%; p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate high prevalence and magnitude of RWG in professional boxing, particularly in boxers competing in elite international promotions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kadhiresan R Murugappan
- Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care, and Pain Medicine at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC), Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Reid Reale
- Performance Nutrition Department, UFC Performance Institute, Shanghai, China
| | - Vincent Baribeau
- Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care, and Pain Medicine at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC), Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Brian P O'Gara
- Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care, and Pain Medicine at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC), Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ariel Mueller
- Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA USA
| | - Todd Sarge
- Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care, and Pain Medicine at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC), Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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24
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Wood T, Wilson L, Curtis C. Quantifying frequency of use of methods of body mass loss in competing UK powerlifters. PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT & HEALTH 2022; 10:100221. [DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2022.100221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2025]
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25
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Lakicevic N, Matthews JJ, Artioli GG, Paoli A, Roklicer R, Trivic T, Bianco A, Drid P. Patterns of weight cycling in youth Olympic combat sports: a systematic review. J Eat Disord 2022; 10:75. [PMID: 35614520 PMCID: PMC9131524 DOI: 10.1186/s40337-022-00595-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patterns of weight cycling in adult combat sports have been extensively studied, yet data on this matter in youth combat athletes is rather scarce. METHODS PubMed, EBSCOhost and Web of Science were used to retrieve relevant data. Eligible studies had to record the methods used to elicit rapid weight loss (RWL) and/or record the oscillations in bodyweight during the RWL phase. Only studies conducted in the context of an official competition were considered for inclusion in the present review. RESULTS RWL is highly prevalent in children and adolescent combat athletes, ranging from 25 to 94% depending on the type of combat sport, age and level of competition. These athletes regularly prompt RWL by increasing exercise frequency and intensity, decreasing fluid and food intake, training in impermeable suits and using sauna frequently. Overall, the magnitude of RWL was ranging from ~ 1% to 6.3 ± 3.7% with significant RWL variations within individual studies and individuals within those studies. CONCLUSION Acquired data indicated that RWL patterns in young combat athletes are similar to those found in their adult counterparts. Knowing that childhood and adolescence are critical periods for growth and development, RWL needs to be stringently regulated and ideally banned in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nemanja Lakicevic
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, 90133, Palermo, Italy.
| | - Joseph J Matthews
- Research Centre for Life and Sport Sciences (CLaSS), School of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Sport and Exercise, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK
| | - Guilherme G Artioli
- Department of Life Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Antonio Paoli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35122, Padua, Italy
| | - Roberto Roklicer
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Tatjana Trivic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Antonino Bianco
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, 90133, Palermo, Italy
| | - Patrik Drid
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia
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Development and test–retest reliability of the Combat Sports Post-Career Health Questionnaire (CSPCHQ). Br J Nutr 2022; 129:1827-1839. [PMID: 35610735 DOI: 10.1017/s0007114522001659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The long-term impact of weight cycling on health status, eating habits, physical activity and the lifestyle of former combat sports athletes is still insufficiently explored. Therefore, a novel questionnaire in English, Portuguese, Spanish and Croatian language was constructed. To determine the reliability and the content/face validity, a total of 110 participants filled the questionnaire on two occasions. With the majority of intra-class correlation coefficient values above 0·75, the questionnaire items were shown to be very stable. Additionally, according to κ values, the questionnaire has fair test–retest reliability, with only one coefficient being labelled as poor (Q40 in ESP). All questionnaire sub-scales showed moderate to very good internal consistency when the overall sample was observed (α ranging from 0·605 to 0·802). Poor α values were found only in Godin-Shephard Leisure-Time Physical Activity Questionnaire for CRO and ESP samples. Wilcoxon’s signed rank test showed significant differences only in the Mindful Eating Questionnaire sub-scale scores (overall: P = 0·002, effect size = −0·208 [moderate]; CRO: P = 0·005, effect size = 0·303 [moderate]). It can be concluded that the newly developed questionnaire had strong test–retest reliability. Further validity research in a larger sample of former combat sports athletes should be considered.
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27
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Uchizawa A, Kondo E, Lakicevic N, Sagayama H. Differential Risks of the Duration and Degree of Weight Control on Bone Health and Menstruation in Female Athletes. Front Nutr 2022; 9:875802. [PMID: 35571936 PMCID: PMC9094681 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.875802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Akiko Uchizawa
- Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Science, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Emi Kondo
- Research Fellow of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan.,Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Nemanja Lakicevic
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Hiroyuki Sagayama
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES The purpose of this study was to reveal the relationship of injury patterns between normal training period and weight loss period in Korea elite taekwondo athletes. METHODS Since 2021, data for elite taekwondo athletes have been collected prospectively by the Korean Training Institute, there were 102 male and 95 female. The data were classified by sex, weight class, injury location, injuries during the normal training and weight loss periods. The χ2 test was used to compare groups. The injury incidence rates were calculated as the number of injuries per 1,000 hours of training. RESULTS A total of 703 injuries were recorded during normal training, and total of 149 injuries were recorded during the weight loss period. Taekwondo athletes showed a higher incidence of during the weight loss period than during the normal training period (3.66 VS 6.88; p < 0.001). The body parts affected by injury differed significantly between the normal training period and weight loss period (p = 0.033). Injury to the lower extremities or to the head and neck was relatively higher during the normal training period, while injury to the trunk and upper extremities was relatively higher during the weight loss period. Muscle, ligament, and bone injuries were common during both the normal training and weight loss periods. Level I injuries were relatively more frequent during normal training, while level II and III injuries were relatively more frequent during weight loss (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION Rapid weight loss is related to the injury patterns in taekwondo athletes. Injury incidence rate increases during rapid weight loss periods. Moreover, the injury site and injury severity depend on during normal training and during the weight loss period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Chul Kim
- Department of Medicine and Science, Korean Sport & Olympic Committee, Chungcheongbuk-do, South Korea
| | - Ki Jun Park
- Department of Physical Therapy, Sangji University, Gangwon-do, Wonju, South Korea
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Baranauskas M, Kupčiūnaitė I, Stukas R. The Association between Rapid Weight Loss and Body Composition in Elite Combat Sports Athletes. Healthcare (Basel) 2022; 10:665. [PMID: 35455842 PMCID: PMC9031560 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare10040665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Rapid Weight Loss (RWL) is a rapid reduction in weight over a short period of time seeking to attain the norm required for a competition in a particular weight category. RWL has a negative health impact on athletes including the significant muscle damage induced by RWL. This study aimed to identify the association between RWL and body composition among competitive combat athletes (n = 43) in Lithuania. Our focus was laid on the disclosure of their RWL practice by using a previously standardized RWL Questionnaire. The body composition of the athletes was measured by means of the standing-posture 8-12-electrode multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and the electrical signals of 5, 50, 250, 550 and 1000 kHz. This non-experimental cross-sectional study resulted in preliminary findings on the prevalence and profile of RWL among combat athletes in Lithuania. 88% of the athletes surveyed in our study had lost weight in order to compete, with the average weight loss of 4.6 ± 2% of the habitual body mass. The athletes started to resort to weight cycling as early as 9 years old, with a mean age of 12.8 ± 2.1 years. The combination of practiced weight loss techniques such as skipping meals (adjusted Odd Ratio (AOR) 6.3; 95% CI: 1.3−31.8), restricting fluids (AOR 5.5; 95% CI: 1.0−31.8), increased exercise (AOR 3.6; 95% CI: 1.0−12.5), training with rubber/plastic suits (AOR 3.2; 95% CI: 0.9−11.3) predicted the risk of RWL aggressiveness. RWL magnitude potentially played an important role in maintaining the loss of muscle mass in athletes during the preparatory training phase (β −0.01 kg, p < 0.001). Therefore, an adequate regulatory programme should be integrated into the training plans of high-performance combat sports athletes to keep not only the athletes but also their coaches responsible for a proper weight control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marius Baranauskas
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Panevėžys University of Applied Sciences, 35200 Panevėžys, Lithuania;
| | - Ingrida Kupčiūnaitė
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Panevėžys University of Applied Sciences, 35200 Panevėžys, Lithuania;
| | - Rimantas Stukas
- Department of Public Health, Institute of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Vilnius University, 01513 Vilnius, Lithuania;
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Effect of Rapid Weight Loss on Hydration Status and Performance in Elite Judo Athletes. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11040500. [PMID: 35453700 PMCID: PMC9031997 DOI: 10.3390/biology11040500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background: This study aimed to investigate the effect of 5% rapid weight loss on hydration status and judo performance in highly trained judo athletes. Methods: Eighteen male judo athletes participated in the study and were divided into two groups: control and rapid weight loss (RWL). RWL athletes were given 48 h to cut 5% of their body mass while the control group followed their routines. Athletes performed three measurements, including hydration, body mass and three consecutive special judo fitness tests (SJFTs). At the 1st and 6th minutes following each SJFT and 1st, 6th and 15th minutes following the last SJFT, blood lactate and heart rate (HR) was monitored. Results: The effect of RWL on variables was tested with split-plot ANOVA. RWL significantly affected urine specific gravity with a higher value following weight loss compared to baseline and recovery (F2-32 = 13.2, p < 0.001). In addition, athletes’ SJFT total throw numbers differed among measurements (F2-32 = 7.70, p < 0.001). Athletes presented worse SJFT index after weight loss (F2-32 = 8.05, p = 0.01; F1-16 = 6.43, p = 0.02, respectively). HR changed significantly among measurements days and times (F28-448 = 143.10, p < 0.001). Conclusion: RWL induced dehydration and impaired heart rate recovery in highly trained judo athletes, and they could not rehydrate between competition simulated weigh-in and 15 h of recovery.
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A Short-Term Low-Fiber Diet Reduces Body Mass in Healthy Young Men: Implications for Weight-Sensitive Sports. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2022; 32:256-264. [PMID: 35313275 DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2021-0324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Athletes from weight-sensitive sports are reported to consume low-fiber diets (LOW) to induce acute reductions in body mass (BM). However, evidence supporting their efficacy is anecdotal. Therefore, we aimed to determine the effect of a LOW on acute changes in BM. Nineteen healthy males (32 ± 10 years, 1.79 ± 0.07 m, 77.5 ± 8.1 kg) consumed their habitual diet (∼30 g fiber/day) for 7 consecutive days followed by 4 days of a LOW (<10 g fiber/day) that was matched for energy and macronutrient content. Participants also matched their daily exercise load during LOW to that completed during habitual diet (p = .669, average 257 ± 141 arbitrary units). BM was significantly reduced in LOW versus habitual diet after 4 days (Δ = 0.40 ± 0.77 kg or 0.49% ± 0.91%, p < .05, effect size [ES] [95% confidence interval] = -0.53 [-1.17, 0.12]) and on the morning of Day 5 (Δ = 0.58 ± 0.83 kg or 0.74% ± 0.99%, p < .01, ES = -0.69 [-1.34, -0.03]). LOW resulted in moderately higher hunger (Δ = 5 ± 9 mm, p = .015, ES = 0.55 [-0.09, 1.20]), a decline in stool frequency from 2 ± 0 to 1 ± 0 bowel movements per day (p = .012, ES = 0.64 [-0.02, 1.29]) and stool softness decrease (p = .005). Nonetheless, participants reported the diet to be tolerable (n = 18/19) and were willing to repeat it (n = 16/19). Data demonstrate for the first time that consumption of a short-term LOW induces reductions in BM.
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Kwan K, Helms E. Prevalence, Magnitude, and Methods of Weight Cutting Used by World Class Powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 2022; 36:998-1002. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Lakicevic N, Reale R, D'Antona G, Kondo E, Sagayama H, Bianco A, Drid P. Disturbing Weight Cutting Behaviors in Young Combat Sports Athletes: A Cause for Concern. Front Nutr 2022; 9:842262. [PMID: 35223962 PMCID: PMC8863958 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.842262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nemanja Lakicevic
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
- *Correspondence: Nemanja Lakicevic
| | - Reid Reale
- UFC Performance Institute, Shanghai, China
| | | | - Emi Kondo
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Sagayama
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Antonino Bianco
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Patrik Drid
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
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Ceylan B, Barley OR, Balci SS. Changes in body mass and hydration status in judo athletes before and after a top-level competition: a descriptive case study. PHYSICIAN SPORTSMED 2022; 51:228-233. [PMID: 34989282 DOI: 10.1080/00913847.2022.2026200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The International Judo Federation (IJF) implemented new regulations in an attempt to regulate rapid weight loss in 2013. The body weight of the athletes cannot be more than 5% higher than the upper limits of their weight categories at the weight check for randomly selected athletes from each weight category before the competition. However, therea lack of studies demonstrating rapid weight loss and hydration status of elite judo athletes in a real match atmosphere under the current refereeing rules. Thus, this study aimed to examine the body mass and hydration changes of elite judo athletes a week before the competition, official weigh-in, and 24 hours after competition. METHODS Eight high-level male judo athletes voluntarily participated in this study. Body mass and urinary measures of hydration status were collected a week before, at the official weigh-in and 24-hour post-weigh-in. RESULTS The one-way repeated-measures ANOVA showed a significant main effect of time on body mass (p < 0.001). Body mass decreased by 5.4 ± 0.7 kg or 6.8% from a week before the competition to official weigh-in (p < 0.001) and increased by 3.0 ± 1.1 kg or 4.2% from official weigh-in to 24-h post-competition (p < 0.001). A significant effect of time was also found in both urine-specific gravity (USG) (p < 0.001) and urine color (UC) among the measurements (p = 0.001). Athletes' USG values were at the highest level (USG = 1.030 ± 0.001) at the official weigh-in, while they decreased significantly at 24-hour post-competition (USG = 1.017 ± 0.007). CONCLUSION The results showed that elite judo athletes resort to rapid weight loss and present dehydration despite established regulations by the IJF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bayram Ceylan
- Department of Coaching Education, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Kastamonu University, Kastamonu, Turkey
| | - Oliver R Barley
- School of Medical and Health Science, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia
| | - Sukru Serdar Balci
- Department of Coaching Education, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
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Lakicevic N, Mani D, Paoli A, Roklicer R, Bianco A, Drid P. Weight cycling in combat sports: revisiting 25 years of scientific evidence. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2021; 13:154. [PMID: 34906212 PMCID: PMC8670259 DOI: 10.1186/s13102-021-00381-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND As combat sports are classified by body mass, many athletes engage in rapid weight loss (RWL) prior to competition so they can gain an advantage over lighter opponents. Following the weigh-in, athletes engage in rapid weight gain (RWG), whereby some athletes have been able to compete up to three weight categories greater than the official division weighed in at. RESULTS Although the impact of weight cycling on performance remains equivocal, robust scientific evidence indicates serious acute and chronic negative consequences on physiological and health-related parameters. Still, weight cycling remains highly prevalent in combat sports, and interventions to limit or stop this cultural norm are recommended. CONCLUSIONS Weigh-ins for combat sports should be transitioned to take place closer to the start of competition. This reduced time and access to engage in RWG will cut down, if not completely prevent, weight cycling. These rule changes that aim to benefit athlete's health and promote fairness must be made at the international level, which will promote them at those levels below, as well, given qualification protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nemanja Lakicevic
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, 90133, Palermo, Italy.
| | - Diba Mani
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Antonio Paoli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35122, Padua, Italy
| | - Roberto Roklicer
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Antonino Bianco
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, 90133, Palermo, Italy
| | - Patrik Drid
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia
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Principles of Rapid Weight Loss in Female Sambo Athletes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182111356. [PMID: 34769872 PMCID: PMC8583233 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182111356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In combat sports, competitors are separated into weight divisions, to create equality between the athletes. Consequently, rapid weight loss (RWL) is a common practice in combat sports. Although the methods used to induce RWL are similar among athletes, currently, there are limited data concerning the RWL methodologies used by sambo athletes. Therefore, this study aimed at determining RWL procedures among female sambo athletes. Participants in the study were top-level athletes competing at the World Sambo Championship held in Novi Sad. A total sample of 47 female sambo athletes, of whom 24 were seniors (27.3 ± 4 year/age, 1.61 ± 0.09 m/height, 61.8 ± 8.87 kg/weight) and 23 juniors (18.7 ± 0.8 year/age, 1.66 ± 0.07 m/height, 63.7 ± 12.1 kg/weight), were examined in the study. To determine RWL methods, data were collected through a standardized questionnaire. As a result, 88.7% of the female sambo athletes declared that they intentionally cut their weight before the competition. The most commonly used methods were gradual dieting, followed by sauna, fluid restriction, and skipping meals. The most considerable influence on the RWL strategies of athletes came from coaches and personal trainers, while physicians and dietitians were far less influential. The results obtained from this representative sample highlight the most common practices concerning weight cutting prior to competition among females. Therefore, there is a need to inform and educate both athletes and coaches about the potentially harmful effects of RWL in combat sports.
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Martínez-Rodríguez A, Vicente-Salar N, Montero-Carretero C, Cervelló-Gimeno E, Roche E. Weight Loss Strategies in Male Competitors of Combat Sport Disciplines. MEDICINA-LITHUANIA 2021; 57:medicina57090897. [PMID: 34577820 PMCID: PMC8467103 DOI: 10.3390/medicina57090897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Background and objective: The use of suboptimal weight loss strategies in order to reach specific weight ranges as observed in combat sport disciplines can give rise to severe health problems. However, particular aspects regarding management of weight category comparing three sport disciplines remain to be investigated. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to obtain information regarding the weight loss strategies that competitors performed before a tournament. Materials and Methods: This article describes the most common dietary-nutritional strategies used by 140 national university male competitors of judo (n = 52), karate (n = 40) and taekwondo (n = 48) in order to achieve a specific weight, according to the rapid weight loss questionnaire (RWLQ) and the EAT-27 questionnaire. Results: Around 50% of participants were not involved in a weight loss process. Among the remaining participants, we considered three periods for weight reduction: less than 1 week (35% in judo, 8% in karate and 19% in taekwondo), less than 1 month (17% in judo, 15% in karate and 26% in taekwondo) and more than 1 month (0% in judo, 5% in karate and 21% in taekwondo). Severe fasting, focused on food/water restriction, was the most commonly used strategy, being more frequent in judo players. Light weight judo practitioners generally lost 2–5 kg before the contest. One third of participants avoided carbohydrate consumption when performing food restriction. Finally, individuals that reduced weight in the last week seemed to develop an unhealthy psychological relationship with food. Conclusion: All these aspects could be particularly relevant, providing information regarding how competitors manage basic nutritional concepts that guide dieting strategies. This information is relevant to prepare future educational interventions in the area of nutrition for competitors, coaches and technical staff.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Martínez-Rodríguez
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Alicante, San Vicente del Raspeig, 03609 Alicante, Spain;
- Alicante Institute for Health and Biomedical Research (ISABIAL), 03010 Alicante, Spain;
| | - Néstor Vicente-Salar
- Alicante Institute for Health and Biomedical Research (ISABIAL), 03010 Alicante, Spain;
- Department of Applied Biology-Nutrition, Institute of Bioengineering, University Miguel Hernández, 03202 Elche, Spain
| | - Carlos Montero-Carretero
- Sport Research Center, Department of Sport Sciences, University Miguel Hernández of Elche, 03202 Elche, Spain; (C.M.-C.); (E.C.-G.)
| | - Eduardo Cervelló-Gimeno
- Sport Research Center, Department of Sport Sciences, University Miguel Hernández of Elche, 03202 Elche, Spain; (C.M.-C.); (E.C.-G.)
| | - Enrique Roche
- Alicante Institute for Health and Biomedical Research (ISABIAL), 03010 Alicante, Spain;
- Department of Applied Biology-Nutrition, Institute of Bioengineering, University Miguel Hernández, 03202 Elche, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBEROBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence:
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Kondo E, Shiose K, Osawa T, Motonaga K, Kamei A, Nakajima K, Sagayama H, Wada T, Nishiguchi S, Takahashi H. Effects of an overnight high-carbohydrate meal on muscle glycogen after rapid weight loss in male collegiate wrestlers. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2021; 13:96. [PMID: 34416921 PMCID: PMC8379859 DOI: 10.1186/s13102-021-00325-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Severe rapid weight loss (RWL) induces a decrease in muscle glycogen (mGly). Nevertheless, adequate carbohydrate intake after RWL has not been reported to optimize muscle glycogen following a weigh-in the evening until a wrestling tournament morning. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of an overnight high-carbohydrate recovery meal of 7.1 g kg-1 following RWL on mGly concentration. METHODS Ten male elite wrestlers lost 6% of their body mass within 53 h and then subsequently ate three meals, within 5 h, containing total of 7.1 g kg-1 of carbohydrates. mGly was measured by 13C-magnetic resonance spectroscopy before (BL) and after RWL (R0) at 2 h (R2), 4 h (R4), and 13 h (R13) after initiating the meal. Body composition, muscle cross-sectional area, and blood and urine samples were collected at BL, R0, and R13. RESULTS Body mass decreased by 4.6 ± 0.6 kg (p < 0.05) and did not recover to BL levels in R13 (- 1.7 ± 0.6 kg, p < 0.05). Likewise, mGly by 36.5% ± 10.0% (p < 0.05) and then did not reach BL levels by R13 (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION A high-carbohydrate meal of 7.1 g kg-1 after 6% RWL was not sufficient to recover mGly during a 13 h recovery phase. Participating in high-intensity wrestling matches with an mGly concentration below normal levels is maybe undesirable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emi Kondo
- Sports Medical Center, Japan Institute of Sports Science, 3-15-1 Nishigaoka, Kita-ku, Tokyo, 115-0056, Japan.
| | - Keisuke Shiose
- Department of Sports Research, Japan Institute of Sports Science, 3-15-1 Nishigaoka, Kita-ku, Tokyo, 115-0056, Japan
| | - Takuya Osawa
- Department of Sports Research, Japan Institute of Sports Science, 3-15-1 Nishigaoka, Kita-ku, Tokyo, 115-0056, Japan
| | - Keiko Motonaga
- Department of Sports Research, Japan Institute of Sports Science, 3-15-1 Nishigaoka, Kita-ku, Tokyo, 115-0056, Japan
| | - Akiko Kamei
- Sports Medical Center, Japan Institute of Sports Science, 3-15-1 Nishigaoka, Kita-ku, Tokyo, 115-0056, Japan
| | - Kohei Nakajima
- Sports Medical Center, Japan Institute of Sports Science, 3-15-1 Nishigaoka, Kita-ku, Tokyo, 115-0056, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Sagayama
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8577, Japan
| | - Takahiro Wada
- Faculty of Physical Education, Kokushikan University, 7-3-1 Nagayama, Tama-shi, Tokyo, 206-8515, Japan
| | - Shigeki Nishiguchi
- Faculty of International Studies, Takushoku University, 815-1 Tatemachi, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo, 193-0985, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Takahashi
- Department of Sports Research, Japan Institute of Sports Science, 3-15-1 Nishigaoka, Kita-ku, Tokyo, 115-0056, Japan.,Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8577, Japan
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Rapid Weight Loss Practices in Elite Kickboxers. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2021; 29:583-588. [PMID: 31034256 DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this observational cross-sectional survey was to determine the prevalence of rapid weight loss (RWL) in elite kickboxers. Kickboxers (61 males; age = 24.2 ± 4.6 years, weight = 73.9 ± 12.8 kg, and height = 179.2 ± 7.9 cm) from eight European countries completed a Rapid Weight Loss Questionnaire regarding prevalence, magnitude, and methods of RWL. All athletes (100%) were practicing RWL before the competition with a Rapid Weight Loss Questionnaire score of 52.4 ±12.9. Most kickboxers 'usually lose between 2% and 5% of their body mass, whereas ∼30% lose between 6% and 8%. However, it is alarming that almost 30% reported cutting 10% of body weight or more sometime during their kickboxing career. Almost half of the athletes always practice gradual dieting (45.9%) and increased exercising (44.3%) to reduce body mass. Kickboxers usually reduce weight three to four times during a year, usually 7-15 days before a competition. More than a third (34.4%) started with RWL practice under the age of 17. There was no significant difference between weight divisions in weight management behaviors (p = .5, F = 0.6; η2 = .0) and no relation between the main characteristics of elite kickboxing athletes and the total RWL score. In conclusion, RWL practices in kickboxing athletes are somewhat specific and different when compared with other combat sports, which can be explained by greater number of weight classes and specific weigh-in protocol.
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Langan-Evans C, Reale R, Sullivan J, Martin D. Nutritional Considerations for Female Athletes in Weight Category Sports. Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 22:720-732. [PMID: 34043489 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1936655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Weight making can be described as the process of reducing body mass in events where aesthetics, propulsion or the requirement to meet a specific weight category limit, are considered to be of competitive importance. Cross sectional research specifically focussed on weight category sports, has highlighted behaviours and practices that are similar in athletes of both sexes. Regardless of this and despite parallel participation in weight category sporting events, females are drastically underrepresented in studies examining body mass loss interventions across both chronic and acute timeframes. However, it has been well characterised that these types of body mass loss strategies can be causative of low energy availability, leading to consequences of female athlete triad and relative energy deficiency in sports. Furthermore, female-specific body composition and physiological systems modulated by the anterior pituitary and ovarian hormones within the menstrual cycle or use of hormonal contraception, can lead to potential outcomes which need to be considered carefully, particularly when employing acute weight loss strategies that are often utilised by weight making athletes. Therefore, the aim of this article serves to review the aforementioned issues, whilst offering practical recommendations via initial assessment, chronic/acute interventions and refeeding/recovery plans to help support the implementation of body mass loss strategies in the context of weight making specifically with female athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl Langan-Evans
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences (RISES), Liverpool John Moores University, England, UK
| | - Reid Reale
- Ultimate Fighting Championship Performance Institute (UFCPI), Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | | | - Daniel Martin
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences (RISES), Liverpool John Moores University, England, UK
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Patterns of rapid weight loss in elite sambo athletes. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2021; 13:39. [PMID: 33853685 PMCID: PMC8045259 DOI: 10.1186/s13102-021-00267-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Background Rapid weight loss (RWL) is commonly practiced in combat sports. Both magnitude and methods used to induce RWL are largely similar among combat sports, but currently, there is no data on RWL methodology used by sambo athletes. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine RWL procedures sambo athletes apply to lose weight rapidly. Methods The sample consisted of 199 participants, of which 132 males and 67 females who participated in the World Sambo Championship 2020 held in Novi Sad, Serbia. Each participant received RWL questionnaire that was available in multiple languages, and every participant was instructed how to fill it out. Results Almost 87% of sambo participants declared to have intentionally cut their weight prior to the competition, whereby 5.27 kg (SD: ±7.57) was lost. Gradual dieting, sauna use and skipping meals were the most dominant methods used to reduce weight prior to competition while more extreme methods of RWL such as the use of laxatives, diuretics, diet pills and vomiting were also implemented but by much smaller fragment of the participants involved. Conclusions Findings from our study largely match with previously conducted RWL studies in terms of prevalence, magnitude and methods used by combat sport athletes, especially in judo and wrestling. Knowing the hazardous consequences of RWL, alternative methods of sustainable weight loss should be considered.
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Castor-Praga C, Lopez-Walle JM, Sanchez-Lopez J. Multilevel Evaluation of Rapid Weight Loss in Wrestling and Taekwondo. FRONTIERS IN SOCIOLOGY 2021; 6:637671. [PMID: 33898554 PMCID: PMC8062768 DOI: 10.3389/fsoc.2021.637671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The practice of strategies for rapid weight loss (RWL) involve diverse factors, such as individual expectations, social interactions, structural elements, etc., conforming to a "culture" of RWL, which must be evaluated and understood in a broad sense. Based on the need of a comprehensive evaluation of the use of RWL in practitioners of combat sports, an ad hoc questionnaire designed for this study, which includes the types and detailed descriptions of RWL strategies, that athletes currently use, the prevalence and frequency of use, the physiological and psychological consequences, the perception of the effect of RWL on their own performance and finally, the individuals who influence the adoption of this practice. One hundred and sixty combat athletes from wrestling and taekwondo disciplines, from Mexico, filled out this questionnaire. Data collected for their statistical analyses. Results revealed a RWL strategies prevalence of 96% across the participants. Our results revealed that 57% of those athletes using RWL lose more than 5% of their body mass. Across the athletes, the most commonly used RWL strategies and with higher intensity were increased exercise and training with plastic or thick clothes. The greater the relative weight loss, the greater the presence of physiological symptoms in athletes, such as rapid breathing and blood pressure. Athletes also mentioned mood states such as tiredness, sadness, confusion, fatigue and vigor, these last two positive and negative mood states are associated with the relative weight loss, respectively. Finally, the people who most influenced the adoption of RWL strategies were the coaches, parents and nutritionists. In conclusion, the questionnaire prepared for this study allowed us to obtain valuable information about the several factors, and their interactions, involved in the practice of RWL in combat athletes. This type of practice could increase health risks and decrease their performance. Therefore, here we state the importance of a comprehensive evaluation of RWL strategies that allows the development of psycho-educational and social-based interventions and programs for the promotion of proper weight maintenance, and prevention against RWL strategies, involving the individuals who influence the adoption of these practices and supporting it with the help of communication technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Castor-Praga
- Facultad de Organización Deportiva, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Mexico
| | - Jeanette M. Lopez-Walle
- Facultad de Organización Deportiva, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Mexico
| | - Javier Sanchez-Lopez
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias Cognitivas, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Mexico
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Burke LM, Slater GJ, Matthews JJ, Langan-Evans C, Horswill CA. ACSM Expert Consensus Statement on Weight Loss in Weight-Category Sports. Curr Sports Med Rep 2021; 20:199-217. [PMID: 33790193 DOI: 10.1249/jsr.0000000000000831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Weight-category sports are defined by the requirement of a weigh-in before competition to provide performance equity and reduced injury risks by eliminating size discrepancies. Athletes in these sports try to gain a theoretical advantage by competing in weight divisions that are lower than their day-to-day body mass (BM), using a combination of chronic strategies (body-fat losses) and acute manipulations over a period of hours to days before weigh-in ("making weight"). Strategies to support safer practices include minimal competition weight classification based on preseason body composition, reductions in the period between weigh-in and competition, and prohibition of unhealthy weight loss techniques. At an individual level, expert guidance by a sports nutrition professional can help an athlete to establish a pragmatic and long-term approach to BM management, recognizing the nuances of their sport, to achieve favorable outcomes for both health and performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise M Burke
- Exercise and Nutrition Research Program, Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Vic, AUSTRALIA
| | - Gary J Slater
- School of Health and Sport Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, AUSTRALIA
| | | | - Carl Langan-Evans
- Applied Sport Physiology and Nutrition Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group (EMARG), Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences (RISES), Liverpool, Merseyside, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Craig A Horswill
- Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL
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Figlioli F, Bianco A, Thomas E, Stajer V, Korovljev D, Trivic T, Maksimovic N, Drid P. Rapid Weight Loss Habits before a Competition in Sambo Athletes. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13041063. [PMID: 33805862 PMCID: PMC8064378 DOI: 10.3390/nu13041063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Like other combat sports, sambo has competition rules that divide athletes into categories based on gender, age and weight. Athletes in combat sports often resort to rapid weight loss (RWL) methods to be more competitive in lower weight categories and gain an advantage against lighter, smaller and weaker competitors. The aim of this study was to examine the methodology implemented by two different sambo age categories, junior and senior athletes, in order to attain RWL. METHODS The sample consisted of 103 male sambo elite athletes (seniors/juniors: age 28.5 ± 4.3/18.9 ± 0.8; height (m): 1.7 ± 0.1/1.8 ± 0.1; weight (kg): 76.3 ± 17.8/74.4 ± 16.3; BMI (kg/m2): 25.0 ± 3.8/23.7 ± 3.9) who completed a survey on RWL. RESULTS Athletes reported losing a mean of 5 kg starting approximately 12 days before a competition. The most common methodology reported by senior and junior sambo athletes was gradually increasing dieting, followed by sauna and plastic suit training. Less common methods adopted were laxatives, diuretics, the use of diet pills and vomiting. There were significant group differences for sauna and diet pill ingestion. Coaches and parents are influential people in the lives of athletes concerning the weight loss strategy to be adopted. CONCLUSIONS This study's results unequivocally confirm the prevalent practice of RWL in both senior and junior sambo athletes. Although athletes prevalently chose "less harmful" methods, there is a need to inform parents and coaches of the risks and benefits of RWL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Figlioli
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, 90144 Palermo, Italy; (F.F.); (A.B.); (E.T.)
| | - Antonino Bianco
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, 90144 Palermo, Italy; (F.F.); (A.B.); (E.T.)
| | - Ewan Thomas
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, 90144 Palermo, Italy; (F.F.); (A.B.); (E.T.)
| | - Valdemar Stajer
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (V.S.); (D.K.); (T.T.); (N.M.)
| | - Darinka Korovljev
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (V.S.); (D.K.); (T.T.); (N.M.)
| | - Tatjana Trivic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (V.S.); (D.K.); (T.T.); (N.M.)
| | - Nebojsa Maksimovic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (V.S.); (D.K.); (T.T.); (N.M.)
| | - Patrik Drid
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (V.S.); (D.K.); (T.T.); (N.M.)
- Correspondence:
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Factors Influencing Weight Loss Practices in Italian Boxers: A Cluster Analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17238727. [PMID: 33255390 PMCID: PMC7727866 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17238727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
It is common practice in combat sports that athletes rapidly lose body weight before a match, by applying different practices-some safer and others possibly dangerous. The factors behind the choice of practices utilised have not been fully studied. This study aimed to investigate the weight loss strategies used by Italian boxers and to look at the difference between higher and lower risk practice adaptors. A modified version of a validated questionnaire has been sent to 164 amateur (88%) and professional (12%) boxers by email. A heatmap with hierarchical clustering was used to explore the presence of subgroups. Weight loss strategies were used by 88% of the athletes. Two clusters were found, defined by the severity of weight loss behaviours. Professional fighters, high-level athletes and females were more represented in Cluster 2, the one with more severe weight-loss practices. These athletes were characterised by a higher weight loss magnitude and frequency throughout the season and reported being more influenced by physicians and nutritionists, compared with the boxers in Cluster 1. Not all the weight loss practices are used with the same frequency by all boxers. The level of the athlete and the boxing style have an influence on the weight-cutting practices.
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LÓpez-Laval I, Mielgo-Ayuso J, Terrados N, Calleja-GonzÁlez J. Evidence-based post exercise recovery in combat sports: a narrative review. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2020; 61:386-400. [PMID: 33092328 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.20.11341-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Some methods such as ergo nutritional aids, cooling or massage among others could improve recovery in combat sports (CS). The effects, doses, duration, and timing of these methods remains unknown. Nowadays, there is no clear consensus regarding the recovery strategies and it is necessary to understand the type of fatigue induced in CS and its underlying mechanisms. The main aim of this article is to review the update literature related to recovery strategies in CS. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION A literature search was conducted following preferred reporting items for review statement on the topic of: "combat sports," "recovery," "nutrition," "fatigue," "ergogenic aids," "weight cutting" and "hydration." EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS The initial search of the literature detected 369 articles about CS. Later, 307 were excluded after being determined unrelated to recovery or after failure to fulfill the inclusion criteria. Of the 80 included articles, 19 satisfied the final inclusion criteria. CONCLUSIONS To optimize CS performance, adequate recovery is required during training and competition processes. Traditional ergo nutritional supplementation of carbohydrates and proteins combined. Besides, the consumption of evidence supported supplementation (green tea, beetroot gels, creatine or alkaline water) improve recovery processes. Further methods of recovery including physical (cold water immersion, massage or photobiomodulation) and physiological (types of active recovery, sleep and rest) therapies have also been shown useful. This narrative review elucidates the important role of recovery techniques in CS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac LÓpez-Laval
- Department of Physiatry and Nursing, Faculty of Health and Sport Science, University of Zaragoza, Huesca, Spain -
| | - Juan Mielgo-Ayuso
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Physical Therapy, University of Valladolid, Soria, Spain
| | - Nicolás Terrados
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Burgos, Burgos, Spain
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Roklicer R, Lakicevic N, Stajer V, Trivic T, Bianco A, Mani D, Milosevic Z, Maksimovic N, Paoli A, Drid P. The effects of rapid weight loss on skeletal muscle in judo athletes. J Transl Med 2020; 18:142. [PMID: 32228627 PMCID: PMC7106841 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-020-02315-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To observe the effect of rapid weight loss (RWL) methods over 3 days on muscle damage in judokas. METHODS Eighteen judokas participated in this crossover study, meaning that judo athletes were subjected to exercise-only phase (4 days) and RWL phase (3 days). Subjects were tested for myoglobin, creatine kinase, aldolase, hemoglobin, and hematocrit values on seven consecutive days. These biomarkers served as indicators of acute muscle damage. RESULTS During the exercise-only phase, no significant changes were observed. Myoglobin (Mb) (p < 0.001), creatine kinase (CK) (p < 0.001) and aldolase (ALD) (p < 0.001) significantly increased only during the RWL phase, as well as hemoglobin (Hb) (p < 0.001) and hematocrit (Hct) (p < 0.005) values. It was detected that peak values for muscle damage biomarkers were reached on the sixth day, while Hct and Hb values were the highest on the seventh day of the study. CONCLUSION Our study showed significant muscle damage induced by RWL. The prevalence of RWL use by judokas is high but firm scientific evidence is lacking in the evaluation of the current practice of it. Therefore, further knowledge must be gained to evaluate the effectiveness of RWL on performance and its impact on judokas' wellbeing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Roklicer
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Nemanja Lakicevic
- PhD Program in Health Promotion and Cognitive Sciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Valdemar Stajer
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Tatjana Trivic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Antonino Bianco
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Diba Mani
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Zoran Milosevic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Nebojsa Maksimovic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Antonio Paoli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Patrik Drid
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia.
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The Influence of Heat Acclimation and Hypohydration on Post-Weight-Loss Exercise Performance. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2020; 15:213-221. [PMID: 31094260 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To examine the influence of fluid intake on heat acclimation and the subsequent effects on exercise performance following acute hypohydration. METHODS Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups, either able to consume water ad libitum (n = 10; age 23 [3] y, height 1.81 [0.09] m, body mass 87 [13] kg; HAW) or not allowed fluid (n = 10; age 26 [5] y, height 1.76 [0.05] m, body mass 79 [10] kg; HANW) throughout 12 × 1.5-h passive heat-acclimation sessions. Experimental trials were completed on 2 occasions before (2 baseline trials) and 1 following the heat-acclimation sessions. These sessions involved 3 h of passive heating (45°C, 38% relative humidity) to induce hypohydration followed by 3 h of ad libitum food and fluid intake after which participants performed a repeat sled-push test to assess physical performance. Urine and blood samples were collected before, immediately, and 3 h following hypohydration to assess hydration status. Mood was also assessed at the same time points. RESULTS No meaningful differences in physiological or performance variables were observed between HANW and HAW at any time point. Using pooled data, mean sprint speed was significantly (P < .001) faster following heat acclimation (4.6 [0.7] s compared with 5.1 [0.8] s). Furthermore, heat acclimation appeared to improve mood following hypohydration. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that passive heat-acclimation protocols may be effective at improving short-duration repeat-effort performance following acute hypohydration.
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Bio-Banding in Judo: The Mediation Role of Anthropometric Variables on the Maturation Effect. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17010361. [PMID: 31948074 PMCID: PMC6981667 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17010361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 12/29/2019] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Young judo athletes are bio-banding based on age and body mass and compete in weight classes. The purposes of this study were to investigate the influences of maturation on physical performance in young judokas through controlling the chronological age and body mass, and to examine the mediating role of anthropometric variables. Sixty-seven judokas, aged 11.0–14.7, were measured for 11 anthropometric and seven physical performance variables. Pearson partial correlations were conducted to verify the relationship between the maturational indicator and the dependent variables. Mediation analyses were performed to identify the extent to which anthropometric variables mediate the relationship. The maturation effect remained on the aerobic capacity and handgrip strength (p < 0.05). Fat mass (b = 80.335, 95%CI 11.580–204.270) and fat-free mass (b = 108.256, 95%CI 39.508–207.606) totally mediated the effect on aerobic capacity. Fat mass (b = 0.023, 95%CI 0.004–0.057), fat-free mass (b = 0.029, 95%CI 0.011–0.058), stature (b = 0.031, 95%CI 0.008–0.061), arm span (b = 0.021, 95%CI 0.003–0.044), and inferior members length (b = 0.022, 95%CI 0.005–0.049) totally mediated the effect on handgrip strength. The effect of biological maturation is noticeable even after age and body mass control, being mediated by anthropometric variables related to body composition and size.
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Nolan D, Lynch AE, Egan B. Self-Reported Prevalence, Magnitude, and Methods of Rapid Weight Loss in Male and Female Competitive Powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 2020; 36:405-410. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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